Kt- An Ethics Reader

Kathleen L. Tang

An Ethics Reader

2009 This ethics reader contains book reviews and insights on the following books: Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid, Readings in CyberEthics and Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics.

Table of Contents THE FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID CK Prahalad ........................................................................................................................................ 8 “The Market at the Bottom of the Pyramid” ............................................................................ 8 CK Prahalad ...................................................................................................................................... 10 “Products and Services for BOP”............................................................................................... 10 CK Prahalad ...................................................................................................................................... 12 “A G lobal Opportunity” ................................................................................................................ 12 CK Prahalad ...................................................................................................................................... 14 “T H E E C O S Y S T E M F O R W EA L T H C R E A TI O N ” ................................................................................... 14 CK Prahalad ...................................................................................................................................... 16 “Reducing Corruption : Transaction G overn ance Capacity” ............................................. 16 READINGS IN CYBERETHICS “Development as Social Transformati on” .............................................................................. 18 Terell Ward Bynum .......................................................................................................................... 21 “Ethics and t he Inform ati on Revolution” .................................................................................. 21 Deborah G. J ohnson ....................................................................................................................... 24 “Ethics O n-Li ne” ............................................................................................................................. 24 James H. Moor ................................................................................................................................. 26 “Reason, R elativity, and R esponsibility in Computer Ethics” ......................................... 26 Philip Brey ........................................................................................................................................ 28 “Disclosive Computer Ethics” .................................................................................................... 28 Alison A dam ..................................................................................................................................... 30 “Gender and Computer Ethics” .................................................................................................. 30 Deborah G. J ohnson ....................................................................................................................... 32 “Is the Global Information Infrastructure Democratic Technology?” .......................... 32 Frans A.J . B irrer .............................................................................................................................. 34 “Applying Ethical and Moral Concepts and Theories to IT Contex ts: Some Key Problems and Challen ges” ........................................................................................................... 34 James H. Moor ................................................................................................................................. 36 “Just Consequentiali sm and Computing” ................................................................................ 36 Jean Camp ......................................................................................................................................... 38

Y.T. Chien .......................................................................................................................................... 38 “The Inter net as Public Space: Concepts, Issues, and Implication s on Public Policy” .............................................................................................................................................................. 38 Larr y Lessig ..................................................................................................................................... 40 “The Laws of Cyberspace” ........................................................................................................... 40 David G. Post .................................................................................................................................... 42 “Of B lack Holes and Decentralized Law-Ma king in Cyberspace” .................................... 42 ACLU ................................................................................................................................................... 44 “Fahrenheit 451 .2: Is Cyberspace Burning?” ........................................................................ 44 Richard S. Rosenberg .................................................................................................................... 46 “Filtering Interne t in the USA: Free Speech Denied ” ........................................................ 46 Jacques N. Catudal ......................................................................................................................... 48 “Censorshi p, the Inte rnet and Child Por nography Law of 1996: A Critique” ............ 48 Paul Resnick

James Miller ...................................................................................... 50

“PICS: Internet Access Controls Without Censorship” ...................................................... 50 Richard A. Spinello ........................................................................................................................ 52 “Internet Service Providers and Defamation: New Standards of Liabi lity” ............... 52 “Digital Mi llennium Copyri ght Act” ......................................................................................... 54 “Note On The DeCSS Trial” .......................................................................................................... 56 James Boyle ...................................................................................................................................... 58 “A Politics of Intellectual Proper ty: Enviro nmentalism on the Net?” .......................... 58 Michael C. McFarland .................................................................................................................... 60 “Intellectual Proper ty, Information a nd the Common Good” .......................................... 60 Shelly Warwick ............................................................................................................................... 62 “Is Copyri ght Ethical?” ................................................................................................................. 62 John W. Snapper ............................................................................................................................. 64 “On the Web, Plagiari sm Matters More than Copyrigh t Piracy ” .................................... 64 Richard A. Spinello ........................................................................................................................ 66 “An Ethical Evaluation of Web Linkin g” ................................................................................. 66 Eric Raymond .................................................................................................................................. 68 “The Cathedral and The Bazaar” ............................................................................................... 68 James H. Moor ................................................................................................................................. 70

“Towards A Theory Of Privacy for the Information A ge” ................................................. 70 Dan Elgesem ..................................................................................................................................... 72 “The Structures of R ights in Di rective 95/46/EC on the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and the Free Movement of Such Data” ................................................................................................................................................... 72 Herman T. Tavani

James H. Moor .............................................. 74

“Privacy Protection , Control of Information , and Privacy-Enhan cing Technologies ” .............................................................................................................................................................. 74 Helen Nissenbaum ......................................................................................................................... 76 “Toward an Approach to Privacy in Public: Challen ges of Informati on Technology” .............................................................................................................................................................. 76 Anton H. Vedde r ............................................................................................................................. 78 “KDD, Privacy, Indi viduality and Fairness” ........................................................................... 78 Joseph S. Fulda ................................................................................................................................ 80 “Data Mining and Privacy” .......................................................................................................... 80 Lucas D. Introna ............................................................................................................................. 82 “Workplace Surveilla nce, Privacy an d Di stributive Justice” ........................................... 82 Jeroen Van Den Hoven .................................................................................................................. 84 “Privacy and the Vari eties of Moral Wrongdoing” .............................................................. 84 Herman T. Tavani ........................................................................................................................... 86 “Defining the Boundaries of Computer Crime: Privacy, Break-In s, and Sabotage in Cyberspace” ..................................................................................................................................... 86 Mark Manion

A bby G oodrum ............................................................................... 88

“Terrorism or Civil Disobedience: Toward a Hacktivist Ethic” ...................................... 88 L. Jean Camp .................................................................................................................................... 90 “Web Security and Privacy: An Ameri can Perspective” .................................................... 90 Helen Nissenbaum ......................................................................................................................... 92 “The Meaning of Anonymity in an Info rmation Age” .......................................................... 92 Elizabeth A. Buchanan ........................................................................................................................... 94 “Ethical Considerations for the Information Professions”....................................................................... 94 Don G otterbar n

Keith Miller

Si mon Rogerson . 96

“Software Engineering Code of Ethics: Approved!” ............................................................ 96 N. Ben Fairweather ........................................................................................................................ 98

“No, PA PA: Why Incomplete Code of Ethics is Better Than N one A t All” .................... 98 David H. Gleason .......................................................................................................................... 100 “Subsumption Ethics” ................................................................................................................. 100 Duncan Langford .......................................................................................................................... 102 “Ethical Issues in Business Computing” ............................................................................... 102 Frances S. Grodzinsk y ................................................................................................................ 104 HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS “Practitioner from Within: Revi siting the Virtues” .......................................................... 104 Luciano Floridi .............................................................................................................................. 107 “Foundations of Information Ethics” ..................................................................................... 107 Terell Ward B ynum ...................................................................................................................... 109 “Milestones in the History of Information and Computer Ethics” ............................... 109 Jeroen van den Hoven ................................................................................................................. 111 “Moral Methodology and Information Technology” .......................................................... 111 Batya Fri edman, Peter H. Kahn Jr., and Alan Borning ..................................................... 113 “Value Sensi ti ve Design and I nformation Systems” ......................................................... 113 Adam D. Moore .............................................................................................................................. 115 “Personality-Based, Rule-Utilitarian , and Lockean Justificatons of Intellectual Property” ........................................................................................................................................ 115 Herman T. Tavani ......................................................................................................................... 117 “Informational Pri vac y: Concepts, Theo ries, and Controversies” ............................... 117 Kathleen A. Wallace............................................................................................................................. 119 “Online Anonymity” ............................................................................................................................ 119 Kenneth Einar Hi mma ................................................................................................................. 121 “Ethical Issues Involving Computer Security: Hacking, Hacktivism, and Counterhackin g” ........................................................................................................................... 121 Kenneth Einar Hi mma ................................................................................................................. 123 “Ethical Issues Involving Computer Security: Hacking, Hacktivism, and Counterhackin g” ........................................................................................................................... 123 Kay Mathiesen and Don Fallis .................................................................................................. 125 “Information Ethics and Libra ry Profession” ..................................................................... 125 Frances S. Grodzinsk y and Marty J. Wolf ............................................................................. 127

“Ethical Interest in F ree and Open Source Software” ...................................................... 127 Elizabeth A. B uchanan and Charles Ess ................................................................................ 129 “Internet Research Ethi cs: The Field and Its Critical Issues” ....................................... 129 Kenneth W. Goodman .................................................................................................................. 131 “Health Information Technolo gy: Challen ges in Ethics, Science and Uncertain ty” 131 Ernd Carsten Stahl ....................................................................................................................... 133 “Ethical Issues of Information and B usiness” .................................................................... 133 Anton Vedder ................................................................................................................................. 135 “Responsi bilities for Informati on on the Interne t” .......................................................... 135 Philip Brey ...................................................................................................................................... 137 “Virtual R eality and C omputer Simulation” ........................................................................ 137 Antonio Marturano ...................................................................................................................... 139 “Genetic Information: Epistemological and Ethical Issues” .......................................... 139 Dorothy E. Denning ..................................................................................................................... 141 “The Ethics of Cyber Conflict” ................................................................................................. 141 “A Practical Mechanism for Ethical Rist Assessment – A SoDIS Inspection” ........... 143 John Weckert and Yeckam Al-Saggaf ..................................................................................... 145 “Regulation and G overnance of the Inter ne t”..................................................................... 145 David M. Levy ................................................................................................................................ 147 “Information Overload” .............................................................................................................. 147 Keith W. Miller and James H. Moor ........................................................................................ 149 “Email Spam” ................................................................................................................................. 149 John Snapper ................................................................................................................................. 151 “The Matter of Plagiarism: What, Why, and If” .................................................................. 151 Richard A. Spinello ...................................................................................................................... 153 “Intellectual Proper ty: Legal and Mora l Challen ges of Online File Sharing” ........... 153 “Censorshi p and Access to Expression” ................................................................................ 155 Alison A dam ................................................................................................................................... 157 “The G ender Agenda in Computer Ethics” ........................................................................... 157 Rafael Capurno .............................................................................................................................. 159 “Intercultur al Information Ethics” ......................................................................................... 159

THE FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID

TITLE OF THE BOOK: FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID, THE: ERADICATING POVERTY THROUGH PROFITS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 1: THE FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID

CK Prahalad

“The Market at the Bottom of the Pyramid”

Learning Expectations: I am expecting to learn what is meant by bottom of the pyramid.

Quote:

“THE POOR CANNOT PARTICIPATE IN THE BENEFITS OF GLOBALIZATION WITHOUT AN ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT AND WITHOUT ACCESS TO PRODUCTS AND SERVICES THAT REPRESENT GLOBAL QUALITY STANDARDS”

Review: Mr. Prahalad says that this market remains untapped because of the dominant logic held by companies. Companies held that the poor are not a viable market, pricely because they do not have money to buy nor they can afford their products and services; that the poor do not have use for their produces; that only developed countries appreciate and can pay for technological innovations; that BOP market is not critical for long-term growth; and that it is difficult to recruit managers for BOP markets. But the writer contradicts these assumptions saying that people comprising the BOP market represent 70% of the population of developing world with purchasing power parity of about $3 trillion; the poor are getting connected and networked as they readily accept advanced technology. What is left for the firms is to convert the poor into consumers. The market development can make services and products affordable, accessible and available to the poor. This means the involvement of the private sector in the market: resulting to a harmonious relationship between the poor and the private sector replacing mistrust into trust and companies through persistent effort and the provision of world-class quality, mutual trust and responsibility between them and BOP consumers. The needs of the poor are many and the growth opportunity in this market can only be tapped if companies learn to innovate.

Learning Insights: From the writer, I learned about the new approach in poverty alleviation. Through him we realize that the current trend in the market is the new approach in motion.

Integrative Questions: 1. What is the condition of people at the bottom of the pyramid? 2. What are reasons why poverty alleviation programs of the World Bank and other nongovernment organization do not succeed in resolving this problem? 3. What is the attitude of big companies of the markets in the BOP? 4. How can big companies benefit from the opportunities present in the markets at the lowest economic pyramid? 5. What are the opportunities in the BOP markets according to Mr. Prahalad?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID, THE: ERADICATING POVERTY THROUGH PROFITS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 1: THE FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID

CK Prahalad

“Products and Services for BOP”

Learning Expectations: I expect to know the principles of innovations developed by Mr. Prahalad for the companies engaging in BOP markets.

Quote:

“A RESULT THE PROMISE OF EMERGING BOP MARKETS HAS BEEN LARGELY ILLUSIONARY.”

Review: According to the writer, BOP market challenges the dominant logic of multinational companies (MNC). He explained that small unit packages, low margin per unit, high volume and high return on capital employed are the basic economics at BOP markets. He reiterated the importance of understanding the BOP market, focusing on their needs. He went on to say that the approach towards this market is to understand the needs of the people in this market and then tailored the product and the manufacturing process around these needs. Companies are challenge to innovate. For this reason, he formulated the 12 principles of innovation. The first is creating a new price –performance envelope; hybrid solutions; scale of operations; identifying functionally; sustainable development; process innovation; deskilling of work; education of consumers; designing for hostile infrastructure; interfaces; distribution and delivery. The chapter simply emphasis that companies need to discard their biases of the BOP market. This market has the same needs as those in the developed markets but were only disregarded because of the dominant logic that the companies and private sector have about the poor consumer market. However, there are many realities in the market that the companies need to understand. The needs of the market should be understood against the characteristics of the consumers. The companies need to adapt and innovate against these realities. From the point of view of the writer, companies need to adapt to the BOP market in order to succeed.

Learning Insights:

The chapter provides the reader an understanding of the BOP market. Learning about the 12 principles of innovations provide insights on what are in stored for companies wanting to engage in developing market at BOP.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Why is it important for the companies to understand about the realities and needs of BOP markets? What are the 12 principles of innovation formulated by Prahalad? What is meant by zero-based view? What makes BOP market attractive ? To be involved at BOP markets what is required of the companies’ managers?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID, THE: ERADICATING POVERTY THROUGH PROFITS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 1: THE FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID

CK Prahalad

“A Global Opportunity”

Learning Expectations: I expect to know how companies benefit from developing product and services for the BOP markets.

Quote:

“BOP MARKETS ARE GREAT SOURCE FOR EXPERIMENTATION IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.”

Review: The traditional approach of many global companies is to start from the business models fitted for developed markets then adopt in the BOP markets. But this is bound to fail because it does not consider the realities and needs of these markets. The new approach has to start considering the conditions and needs of BOP markets and then develop the business models and management processes around these requirements. In one case, where the market is sensitive to price and cost-firms are challenge to technically upgrade the quality of their product in order to provide a better price performance products. Eventually, developed market benefit from the quality, efficacy, potency and usability of solutions developed for the BOP markets. This shows that BOP market can be both a source of innovations for products and process and business model as well. Many innovations adapted in for BOP market are applied in developed market. The BOP markets provide source of experimentation particularly on problems concerning the environment. The MNCs has the ability and motivation to find solutions to the problem of packaging in the BOP market. Other interesting lessons from BOP market are costs-innovations, distribution, manufacturing and organization. Because of shortage and cost of capital, firms in the BOP learn to be prudent and efficient in the use of their resources. Mr. Prahalad went as far by saying that the collaboration between the BOP markets, companies and private sector is beneficial to all. The flow of ideas, and innovation becomes a two-way street-from the developed countries to the developing countries and vice-versa. Companies can help develop BOP markets but at the same time learn from the experience.

Learning Insights:

I learned from this chapter about the role of BOP in the global economy. The market development at BOP benefits all.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

How do companies engage at the BOP market? What are the sources of global opportunities in the BOP market? What are the global opportunities that are present in the BOP market? What are the principles of innovation needed for developing BOP markets? What is meant by value-oriented innovation?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID, THE: ERADICATING POVERTY THROUGH PROFITS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 1: THE FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID

CK Prahalad

“T HE E COSYSTEM FOR W EALTH C REATION ”

Learning Expectations: I expect that the writer explains the significance of the symbiotic relationship within the system. His readership will also expect to know the sanctity of contracts in wealth creation.

Quote:

“IT IS REASONABLE TO EXPECT THAT 4 BILLION PEOPLE IN SEARCH OF AN IMPROVED QUALITY OF LIFE WILL CREATE ONE OF THE MOST VIBRANT GROWTH MARKETS WE HAVE EVER SEEN.”

Review: In the concept developed by the writer, the market-oriented ecosystem is composed of extralegal NGO enterprises; micro enterprises; small and medium enterprises, cooperatives; large and small firms and NGOs. A market-based ecosystem is a framework that allows private sector and social actors often with different traditions and motivations to act together and create wealth in a symbiotic relationships. It is consists of a wide variety of institutions coexisting and complementing each other. In this system all constituents have roles to play and are dependent of each other. According to Mr. Prahalad the need for building an ecosystem in developing the BOP market is obvious from the start. A market-based ecosystem is a framework that allows private sector and social actors with different traditions and motivations, varying in sizes and areas of influence to act together and create wealth in a symbiotic relationship. In the symbiotic relationship each constituent has a role to play and is dependent of each other. The market-based ecosystem provides social collateral of open and honest entrepreneurship. It provides the tools for the poor and the disadvantaged to be connected seamlessly with the rest of the world in a mutually beneficial and nonexploitative way.

Learning Insights: The symbiotic relationship between them is a way of creating wealth. In the market-oriented system includes nodal firms that provide the tools for improving the lives of the poor.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What comprised the market-oriented ecosystem? What is the significance of symbiotic relationship among the groups in the ecosystem? What can the market-oriented ecosystem does for the poor? What is the nodal firm? What is the importance of contracts wealth creation in the market-oriented ecosystem?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID, THE: ERADICATING POVERTY THROUGH PROFITS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 1: THE FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID

CK Prahalad

“Reducing Corruption: Transaction Governance Capacity”

Learning Expectations: I expect to understand the necessity of building transaction governance capacity among nations.

Quote:

“POOR COUNTRIES COULD OFTEN BE ASSET-RICH BUT CAPITAL-POOR.”

Review: There must be access to information and transparency for all transactions. There should be clear processes so that selective interpretation by bureaucrats is reduced if not eliminated. Speed with which the processes can be completed by citizens and trust in the system. On one hand the different spectrum of TGC include countries that are arbitrary and authoritarian; countries where laws and institutions of market economy exist but do not reach their potential; and countries with well-developed laws, regulations, institutions and enforcement systems. Enhanced TGC showed that regulations and government business processes can be simplified and interconnected systems will be able to identify pockets of graft and corruption. From the experience of Andhra Pradesh the lesson drawn indicate building trust is essential. And that citizens must feel that changes are taking place.

Learning Insights: The writer stressed the role of the government in reducing corruption by having laws that are clear and concise that could simplify business processes.

Integrative Questions: 1.

What is the importance of TGC in the fight against poverty and corruption?

2. 3. 4. 5.

What are the criteria for transaction governance capacity? What are the specification for TGC? What are the different spectrum of TGC? What are the lessons drawn from the experiences of Andhra Pradesh on TGC?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID, THE: ERADICATING POVERTY THROUGH PROFITS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 1: THE FORTUNE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PYRAMID

CK Prahalad

“Development as Social Transformation”

Learning Expectations: I want to learn about the social transformation of the people at BOP.

Quote:

“WHEN THE POOR ARE TREATED AS CONSUMERS, THEY CAN REAP THE BENEFITS OF RESPECT, CHOICE, AND SELF-ESTEEM AND HAVE AN OPPORTUNITY TO CLIMB OUT OF THE POVERTY”

Review: In transforming BOP into consumer market, the poor can have an identity. They will have legal identity. This is very important in order to access the services they need like credit. The social transformation has women at the central of the entire development process. In having access to knowledge and information, people at BOP are demanding high technology solutions to their problems. The newly found advantages are the building blocks of a market economy: transparency of information, universal access, dialogue among various communities that form autonomously and discussion of the risks and benefits of various courses of action. BOP consumers are using infrastructures creatively. They are able to use the systems to have access to in ways unimagined by those providing the systems. One of the impact of transforming BOP into market is gaining legal identity. This is denied to them in the past. Without this identity consumers cannot access the services. The social transformation that is taking place in markets where the public and private sectors have been involved at the BOP is impressive. This will transform the economic pyramid into diamond. There will always be rich, but the measure of development is the number of people in a society who are considered middle class. There will no longer be BOP.

Learning Insights: From this chapter I learned about the impressive transformation of the people at the BOP market once the market-oriented ecosystem is put in place.

Integrative Questions:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is the role of government in the social transformation of people at BOP? How are the people transformed at the BOP? How are women empowered at BOP? What happened to the people at the bottom of the pyramid? What does diamond as measure of development implied?

READINGS IN CYBERETHICS

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 1: THE INTERNET, ETHICAL VALUES, AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

Terell Ward Bynum

“Ethics and the Information Revolution”

Learning Expectations: As the first subchapter of the first chapter of the book, I expect to learn about how ethics was applied early on in the Information Technology industry. Coming from its title, I also think that it will include the change that information had undergone with regards to ethical values.

Quote:

“COMPUTER ETHICS IDENTIFIES AND ANALYZES THE IMPACTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ON SOCIAL AND HUMAN VALUES LIKE WEALTH, WORK, OPPORTUNITY, FREEDOM, DEMOCRACY, KNOWLEDGE, PRIVACY, SECURITY, SELF-FULFILLMENT, ETC.”

Review: It was a very interesting chapter and it reveals different historical information on cyberethics. I was surprised to learn that as early as 1940, Computer Ethics was being studied. It was first studied by an MIT professor, Norbert Wiener during the WWII. I admire his great mind for being the first to realize and reveal his thoughts about the powers of a computer. In the coming generations, computer ethics became deeper and deeper. Different insights and reasons came from several brilliant people. In the 1970s, Weizenbaum, also from MIT, created a program that was utilized in psychotherapy. Also in the 1970s, Walter Maner referred to “Computer Ethics” as the applied professional ethics dealing with ethical problems aggravated, transformed, or created by computer technology. He even built a starter-kit for teaching the subject which included an extensive curriculum. By 1980s, more and more issues brought about ethical questionability. There have been crimes accessorized by computers and major law suits were involved. Bynum, the present author, helped Maner in publishing his Starter Kit in Computer Ethics. He also created a Research Center on Computing & Society. Come the 1990s, which has been said to be the start of the second generation of computer ethics, it was time to elaborate more on the term CyberEthics. With the start of the use of the internet and the World Wide Web, more and more issues are being face by the society.

The term Computer Ethics has evolved many times over the years. Walter Maner for example, says that computers worsen some old ethical problems but also other issues are formed because of it. Deborah Johnson on the other hand, thought that computers just gave a different approach on the existing moral issues. She didn’t think that wholly new issues were formed. James Moor, believed that the computer is the nearest to being a universal tool. I agree with him because the computer can be molded into anything we want it to do so long as we know how to communicate with it. Now the broadest and the most updated version of this definition is that of the present author, Terrell Bynum. It goes that Computer Ethics identifies and analyzes the impacts of information technology on social and human values like health, wealth, work, opportunity, freedom, democracy, knowledge, privacy, security, self-fulfilment, etc. This just goes to show that Bynum sees computers to be a part of all aspects of the human being. There are many different fields in Computer Ethics. One way to look at it, as the chapter advices is to consider the four sub-areas: Computers in the Workplace, Computer Security, Software Ownership, and Professional Responsibility. Computers might have replaced several jobs but it sure has brought about a larger amount of new job titles. I guess if you look at the long run, you’ll see how computers are more of a plus than a minus in the workplace. Computers have been a lot of help especially with the de-skilling of employees which make the jobs easier. Computer Security is another area where a lot of issues arise. Security breach in computers can bring a great deal of issues. There are several ways in which computers can be attacked and this is one of the more known issues in computers. Black-hat hackers have been despised by many for causing trouble to mostly everybody who uses a computer. Viruses and Trojans keep on coming from almost anywhere. Another equally known issue is Software Ownership. With the power of technology, theft has been practiced even by small kids who have enough money to buy their pirated video games or movies or they can even download it free over the internet. It has long been an issue and has yet to be solved. The future of computer ethics is quite uncertain. Two women have opposing views on this matter. Krystyna Gorniak-Kocikowska believes that Computer Ethics will evolve into something much greater than a branch of applied ethics. Deborah Johnson on the other hand thinks that rather than replacing the existing theories, Computer Ethics will not affect them. For her, it will simply give a new twist to the unsolved ethical st questions people have today. 21 century thinkers have taken sides on the two opposing point of views.

Learning Insights:

• • •

Computer Ethics started in the early 1940s. Access to cyberspace is much easier than I used to think. Computer Ethics hold many issues that are either new or old moral issues that are made more

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3.

How did Computer Ethics become a field of study? Who founded it? What is ELIZA and how did it affect psychotherapy? What is the difference between the Wiener-Maner-Gorniak point of view and the Johnson perspective?

4. 5.

What is ACM and how did it start? According to Moor how is the computer malleable? What are the two stages it will undergo?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 1: THE INTERNET, ETHICAL VALUES, AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

Deborah G. Johnson

“Ethics On-Line”

Learning Expectations: This chapter gives me the idea that issues about internet security will be tackled. It might involve identities in the internet or the appropriation of intellectual property. Since the birth of the Internet and the World Wide Web, its growth increased rapidly. And today, as we embark on what they call the “Web 2.0”, we will be facing more and more problems. I expect this chapter to be a forward view on how conduct online will either bring more problems or induce more benefit.

Quote:

“I ARGUE THAT WE NEED NOT ELIMINATE ANONYMITY FROM ALL FORMS OF ON-LINE COMMUNICATION, BUT WE SHOULD RESTRICT IT.”

Review: Through the existence of cyberspace, we now live in a world where a few keystrokes and mouse-clicks can get you your car, your house, your clothes, your social life, your job and anything and everything under the sun. This brings to us a lot of convenience and not to mention saves us valuable time. But with this comes several problems too. One of them involves extreme human behaviors in the internet. So what is the difference when a person acts in an unacceptable manner on the internet or in physical contact? The big difference is that online, a bank robber doesn’t have to cover his face with a black mask because the computer gives this by default through anonymity. When people move in a place where they cannot be identified, they are more prone to act in ways that they never would in the light of identification. A man who would never harass a young girl in person has chance of not hesitating when he is undercover. This imposes greater danger in the internet. Johnson attacks this serious issue in this chapter. Although anonymity does open a lot of doors for dangerous behavior, it too gives benefits for a lot people. Eliminating the information about a person can relief discrimination on race, religion, ethnicity, gender, age, etc. It gives everyone the equality in the eyes of each person that can never be totally achieved in face-to-face communication.

Learning Insights:

• • •

Anonymity can be both good and bad. Law and technology will never be enough to solve behavioral problems on-line. Rules should be said upfront in websites and people may just choose which kind of websites they want to join.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What are the three problems in the anonymity that internet gives its users. How can anonymity benefit people in the internet? Is there a way to regulate people’s behavior in the internet while retaining the anonymity? What is it? What re the Special Characteristics of Communication in Networks? What is the difference in the behavior of people on-line and off-line?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 1: THE INTERNET, ETHICAL VALUES, AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

James H. Moor

“Reason, Relativity, and Responsibility in Computer Ethics”

Learning Expectations: I expect to learn about the different issues faced by computer ethics in relation to reasoning, relativity and the responsibility it comes with. I want to see the extent of the responsibility of a person using a computer and what the reasons are for his actions. It would be a delight to know how these issues are controlled and what the possible ways where it can develop in a good or in a bad way.

Quote:

“IF WE RESPECT THE CORE VALUES OF EVERYONE, THEN WE HAVE SOME STANDARDS BY WHICH TO EVALUATE ACTIONS AND POLICIES. THE CORE VALUES PROVIDE A FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS IN COMPUTER ETHICS. BY USING THE CORE VALUE FRAMEWORK, SOME POLICIES FOR APPLYING COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY CAN BE JUDGED TO BE BETTER THAN OTHERS.”

Review: Computers are used in everyday lives of people around the globe. This gives everybody the fair chance of using it and manipulating the technology. Computers are logically malleable, as Moor puts it. This means that it can be manipulated in many ways to do anything that we want it to. So long as you know what language to speak with it, it can do massive changes to your life. It can either by syntactically or semantically.. You can represent anyone and anything through a computer and you can alter how it works by programming. Everything can be enriched by information. Informational Enrichment simply means using information and adding value to it. For example, there are now cases where your credit or debit card holds money. But this amount is still converted into printed money for you to say that you have the money. Now, if we don’t have to convert money into paper or coins anymore, if it was just stored in a very ultra-mega secured database, wouldn’t that be more convenient. It will be much harder to steal money from someone’s pocket without having to enter any security code to use it. It would be much harder to rob or steal a bank because the codes are secured. This is what we call Informational Enrichment.

Moor argues that Computer Ethics has a special nature from other branches of ethics. He said that it had two parts: (1) the analysis of the nature and social impact of computer technology and (2) the corresponding formulation and justification of policies for the ethical use of such technology. In accordance with reason and relativity, Moor suggests that some reasoned discussion about value issues is possible even when customs may be absent or in conflict. Even though values are relative with each human being or each culture, there is still this innate human conduct where we know how to respect the values of other. If we respect other people’s values we can then judge them through the standard that they point out.

Learning Insights:

• • • • •

We are now in a computer revolution. Values are an issue in online interactivity around the globe. Informational Enrichment is being done by many and can be a big change in human history. There is a way to overcome issues without the subjective judgment of values. Computer ethics has a special nature and can be divided into two parts.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is Informational Enrichment? Is there any basis for consensus about values among different communities in computer ethics? What are the two parts of Computer Ethics according to Moor? What does Cultural Relativism say about the Computer Ethics Routine? How is a computer logically malleable?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 1: THE INTERNET, ETHICAL VALUES, AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

Philip Brey

“Disclosive Computer Ethics”

Learning Expectations: I expect to see Computer Ethics from a different standpoint than the others I have read. It would be nice to know how one Philip Brey can discuss about Computer Ethics other than the two sides from the previous chapters. I want to learn more about how Computer Ethics can evolve to be different things with different ideas. Honestly, I have no idea what Disclosive Computer Ethics is. So this should be great read.

Quote:

“MAINSTREAM COMPUTER ETHICS LIMITS ITSELF TO THE ANALYSIS OF MORALLY CONTROVERSIAL PRACTICES FOR WHICH A POLICY VACUUM CURRENTLY EXISTS. BUT WHAT COMPUTER-RELATED PRACTICES THAT ARE NOT (YET) MORALLY CONTROVERSIAL, BUT THAT NEVERTHELESS HAVE MORAL IMPORT? ”

Review: In this chapter, computer ethics has not only been categorized by the issues it includes but it has also been categorized into how a person describes it. Here we see how Brey discusses that computer ethics already have a mainstream and that this mainstream, although not entirely bad, has its limitations. Brey says that the mainstream computer ethics focuses on existing moral problems and the use of computer technology. It doesn’t look at other views of computer ethics. For example, illegal use of drugs, it is being done and no doubt it is immoral. But not only do people in the society mind the immorality of the act but also the way that the media supports it, even indirectly. Not to mention, pre-marital sex. Most of the movies today promote it and it’s considered a moral problem. In this case, maybe people should pay attention to how computer technology is advertised and how its use is being represented by media. And this is just one of the many views of disclosive computer ethics. What Brey is trying to point out is that disclosive computer ethics should not be theoretical, should be multi-level and interdisciplinary, and should focus on four key values which is justice, autonomy, democracy, and privacy. Justice is needed to address systems or applications affect unequal distribution of primary goods to the society. Autonomy, in relation to disclosive computer ethics, studies the ways in which systems or uses of them affect the autonomy or freedom of the users of the system. It also includes the limitations on freedom of information. This not only includes individual autonomy but also organizations and communities. Democracy on the other hand,

studies the effect of systems or applications and its uses on the distribution of power in societies or organizations. It is well related with the first two key values but it is studied as a separate value. Lastly, privacy, which is a well know moral value and in disclosive computer ethics, it studies on the relational and informational privacy.

Learning Insights:

• • • • • •

Computer ethics has a mainstream. There is a different approach that is totally out of the box which is disclosive ethics. There are many things that mainstream computer ethics missed. The four key values of disclosive computer ethics are interrelated. Disclosive computer ethics must not be theory-driven. Disclosive computer ethics mut be multi-level (disclosure, theoretical, application)

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is disclosive computer ethics? What is mainstream computer ethics? What are the limitations of mainstream computer ethics? What are the four key values of disclosive computer ethics? What are the levels of disclosive computer ethics?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 1: THE INTERNET, ETHICAL VALUES, AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

Alison Adam

“Gender and Computer Ethics”

Learning Expectations: This chapter may be a learning read on computer ethics and the effects of gender in its uses. As the title suggests, I expect it to site different approaches on computer ethics relating to gender.

Quote:

“…GIVEN THAT THE THEORIES OF FEMINIST ETHICS REST ON THE HYPOTHESIS TAT WOMEN’S MORAL DECISION MAKING IS DIFFERENT FROM MEN’S IN IMPORTANT WAYS, WE NEED TO UNDERSTAND THE IMPLICATIONS OF THIS FOR COMPUTER ETHICS.”

Review: Gender has always been an issue with the society. In this chapter, Adam tackles the difference that gender brings about when making ethical decisions. She emphasized two parts. The first one is on the problem of women’s access to computer technology and the second one focuses on the differences of men and women in making decisions on business ethics and computer ethics. I believe that this is a courageous take on the subject. It is almost leaning on the liberalist side. Especially with the involvement of feminist theories, it is definitely on the equality of men and women. She has some really strong arguments in the reading. And I agree with her. There have been no studies on cyber ethics with relation to gender and it’s about time somebody stood up and made an argument about it. It’s a pretty good take on the subject. Her views on the two strands of computer ethics and gender were a very remarkable statement. As a woman in technology, I would say that men and women have equal access to computer technology. Maybe it’s just that more men like technology and fewer women do. But as one of those few women, I can say that in IT, everything is out there for you. Whether you’re a man or a woman, it has all the opportunities it can give you.

Learning Insights:

• • •

There have been surveys on schools that are more into the ethical decision than in the process. For many years, gender in computer ethics has not been tackled. There are two strands, according to Adam, in gender and computer ethics.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Is there a difference between men and women in computer ethics? What are they? Why are there two strands when tackling computer ethics and gender? What is it that surveys in schools miss when trying to see the difference of men and women in business ethics decision making? Why do they think that women have problems in accessing computer technologies? In conclusion, what is Adam’s stand on gender in computer ethics?

]\TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 1: THE INTERNET, ETHICAL VALUES, AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

Deborah G. Johnson

“Is the Global Information Infrastructure Democratic Technology?”

Learning Expectations: This chapter should include the meaning of democracy and how it is to be applied in Global Information Infrastructure. I expect to see views on how it is currently being applied and if there are people being harmed or benefited. I want to know more about the Global Information Infrastructure. I want to see the view of Deborah Johnson on the democracy or the lack thereof in technology and in the global information infrastructure.

Quote:

“DEMOCRACY IS A VALUE IN THE SENSE THAT WHEN INDIVIDUALS MAKE CLAIMS ABOUT THE INTERNET OR THE GII BEING DEMOCRATIC, THEY ARE CLAIMING THAT THERE IS A STRONG LINK BETWEEN THE TECHNOLOGY AND PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR ASSOCIATED WITH DEMOCRACY AND CONSIDERED DESIRABLE.”

Review: I think that the GII can be considered a democratic technology because it is readily available to everyone. Although in some cases, it is being used in the wrong way. This is when democracy comes in. People argue when not everyone’s wants are pleased or give. This is now an issue. Two of the main reasons are privacy and anonymity. These are the issues being decided. The question is where is democracy applied in the information gateway? How is it being applied? Many people are arguing and we don’t know who will decide. I think that there should be democracy in GII. It is very important for all people to have their right to information. As they always say, information is the key resource all over. This is why it is needed for democracy to be applied. Another point is that people have certain behaviors over the internet and these behaviors have patterns. If they are not being disciplined or being patterned wisely, the issues we have today might soon become bigger issues.

Learning Insights:

• • • • •

There should be democracy in the GII. There are values embedded in the Global Information Infrastructure. Joint deliberation is an important feature of democracy tightly linked to popular sovereignty. Authentication of information is being addressed by encryption technologies, but this by no means addresses the integrity of content. GII is the coming together of computer/information with telecommunication.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is the GII? Define democracy in light of GII. How is popular sovereignty concerned with GII? Why is joint deliberation an important feature of democracy? Does GII really have democracy? Why?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 1: THE INTERNET, ETHICAL VALUES, AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

Frans A.J. Birrer

“Applying Ethical and Moral Concepts and Theories to IT Contexts: Some Key Problems and Challenges”

Learning Expectations: From the title of the chapter, I expect to see how a modern man in the IT world can apply ethical and moral theories that go way back before computers. This is a very interesting topic to take and I want to see if the behavior of people without the technological revolution has differed or not. I want to see how they can apply Aristotle or utilitarianism in Computer Ethics.

Quote:

“IN MODERN SOCIETY, CHAINS BETWEEN ACTIONS AND CONSEQUENCES , AS WELL AS MEDIATING INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS, HAVE BECOME SO COMPLICATED THAT THEY DO NOT ALLOW A DIRECT AND SIMPLE VIEW ON DECISION MAKING.”

Review: The chapter was a short take on three important things, (1) the demarcation of computer ethics, (2) the role of social context and, (3) role of expert advisers. I was quite attracted with its title at first but when I read the chapter I was not able to see what I expected. I didn't see any discussions on the ethical and moral concepts. Although, I was moved with a realization that computer ethics indeed experience a demarcation. Everything issue that was related to computer was always tagged computer ethics when in fact some of these issues are not really in the field of ethics. But this is what Birrer says. I beg to disagree with this. The issues he mentioned are already issues even without a computer. It doesn't make sense that privacy does not have a question in morality and immorality. Also the rights on a property, it is unbelievable to say that it is not inclined in any moral aspect. I don't know what he was thinking when he made this argument but it does not make sense to me.

Learning Insights:

•

If we want to apply ethical and moral concepts and theories to IT contexts, three conditions are to be met: (1) we must know what kind of questions such concepts and theories can be applied, and to what they cannot, (2) we must know the limitations of specific concepts and theories, and (3) we must have sufficiently detailed knowledge of the domain to which we want to apply them.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What are the 3 things we need to know before applying ethical and moral concepts in IT contexts? What are the 3 challenges in applying ethical and moral concepts in IT? Why does Birrer think that computer ethics has been demarcated? What exactly is the role of experts in computer ethics, according to Birrer? What is Birrer’s argument about discourse ethics?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 1: THE INTERNET, ETHICAL VALUES, AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

James H. Moor

“Just Consequentialism and Computing”

Learning Expectations: I expect to see how just or fair use of computers can be applied and to what extent can you say that it is justifiable. Also, I want to see the repercussions of violating or not following just use of computers. I want to see the consequences that hang in the thread when justice is not met. I expect this to be a pretty broad topic.

Quote:

“THE ETHICAL EVALUATION OF A GIVEN POLICY REQUIRES THE EVALUATION OF THE CONSEQUENCES OF THAT POLICY AND OFTEN THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE POLICY COMPARED WITH THE CONSEQUENCES OF OTHER POSSIBLE POLICIES. IF OUR ACTIONS INVOLVING COMPUTERS HAD NO HARMFUL CONSEQUENCES, POLICIES WOULD NOT BE NEEDED. ”

Review: In this chapter Moor sets an argument on policies in computers; how it is followed or not followed and the difference between ethical and non-ethical policies. He wants the people who use the computer to become more aware of the implications and the consequences of neglecting policies set by the IT world. He wants to inspire computer ethics to have more unifying theories so that the application of policies will be stronger in effect. His arguments are very convincing and I like that he thinks of the consequences of people’s actions in the computer. Nowadays, a lot of people are taking the power of the computer for granted. They neglect the malleability of the computer and that its usage can result into many things whether great or small. Some people don’t understand the effects of their behavior and action when using the computer. It is only right and fair for Moor to speak up about the justice and the consequences it comes with when you use a computer.

Learning Insights:

• • • •

Policies are rules of conduct ranging from formal laws to informal. Justice requires an impartially toward the kinds of policies we allow. There are some policies that don’t necessarily lean to ethics. When considering consequences we evaluate the benefits and harms.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

How can you say that a policy is not leaning towards ethics? Give examples. What does Moor say when he suggests more unifying theories in computer ethics? Why does Moor compare setting ethical policies for computing to setting a course while sailing? How does Moor suggest we should develop computing policies? “The ends do not justify the means.” Explain in light of the reading.

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 2: REGULATING THE NET: FREE SPEECH AND CONTENT CONTROLS

Jean Camp Y.T. Chien

“The Internet as Public Space: Concepts, Issues, and Implications on Public Policy”

Learning Expectations: I expect to see what the issues are concerning the Internet. As the largest network accessible to all, it must be filled with a lot of issues and this chapter would hopefully cover them. I hope to see the public policy applied in the internet.

Quote:

“A TYPICAL PROBLEM IN COMPUTER ETHICS ARISES BECAUSE THERE IS A POLICY VACUUM ABOUT HOW COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY SHOULD BE USED.”

Review: Using the Web, it is also easier than ever before for individuals and organizations to publish ideas and information to an extremely large audience. Anyone can find ways to publish a web page, a blog or build a website for very little initial cost. Publishing and maintaining large, professional websites full of attractive, diverse and upto-date information is still a difficult and expensive proposition, however. Many individuals and some companies and groups use "web logs" or blogs, which are largely used as easily updatable online diaries. Some commercial organizations encourage staff to fill them with advice on their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. One example of this practice is Microsoft, whose product developers publish their personal blogs in order to pique the public's interest in their work. Collections of personal web pages published by large service providers remain popular, and have become increasingly sophisticated. Whereas operations such as Angelfire and GeoCities have existed since the early days of the Web, newer offerings from, for example, Facebook and MySpace currently have large followings. These operations often brand themselves as social network services rather than simply as web page hosts. Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and e-commerce or the sale of products and services directly via the Web continues to grow.

In the early days, web pages were usually created as sets of complete and isolated HTML text files stored on a web server. More recently, websites are more often created using content management or wiki software with, initially, very little content. Contributors to these systems, who may be paid staff, members of a club or other organisation or members of the public, fill underlying databases with content using editing pages designed for that purpose, while casual visitors view and read this content in its final HTML form. There may or may not be editorial, approval and security systems built into the process of taking newly entered content and making it available to the target visitors. Public places to use the Internet include libraries and Internet cafes, where computers with Internet connections are available. There are also Internet access points in many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops, in some cases just for brief use while standing.

Learning Insights: If you take precautions (such as forcing people to log in with laborious security measures) then I'd argue perhaps your private areas could be affected - you can't very well argue you stumbled inadvertently into an area that forces you to log in with a secure password). However, if crimes are committed there, especially against children, I will support law enforcement in stringing up your sorry tuck us - online or not.

Integrative Questions: 1.

What is internet?

2.

What is internet ethics?

3.

What must we realize about internet being a public space?

4.

What is computer ethics?

5.

What are the laws implemented to safeguard privacy in the computer world?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 2: REGULATING THE NET: FREE SPEECH AND CONTENT CONTROLS

Larry Lessig

“The Laws of Cyberspace”

Learning Expectations:

If we are trying to create a genuine dialog about ethical values and ethical reasons in the multicultural internet world, we cannot be bound solely to this tradition, because, Chinese and Indians have engaged in ethical thought and ethical reasoning and the grounds for the resolution of their ethical dilemmas may or may not be the same as those offered in Western society.

Quote:

“THE TELECOMS ARE TOO LARGE, TOO HETEROGENEOUS, TOO TURBULENT, TOO CREATIVELY CHAOTIC TO BE GOVERNED WHOLESALE, FROM THE TOP DOWN.”

Review: The new book lays down the possible parameters for a Law of Cyber-Space, and argues in favour of starting negotiations with the full participation of the three concerned stake-holders, namely, the governments, the private sector, and civil society. Kamal believes that, in many ways, the current situation in cyber-space is similar to the problems once faced on the open ocean, where the absence of any jurisdiction or consensus legislation had also created a lawless situation. The international community finally woke up to the challenge, and started negotiations on the Law of the Sea. Those negotiations went on for almost a decade before they succeeded and Kamal writes that the world is much better off as a result. Kamal asserts that in the case of cyber-space the challenge appears to be far greater; "The speed of change is phenomenal, new shoals and icebergs appear every day, the dangers affect all countries without exception, yet global responses are sporadic or non-existent. That is why a globally negotiated and comprehensive Law of Cyber-Space is so essential." Information ethics has grown over the years as a discipline in library and information science, but the field or the phrase has evolved and been embraced by many other disciplines. What will be sketched here is a brief summary of the strands that have now come to make up information ethics. In fact, it can now be seen as a confluence of the ethical concerns of media, journalism, library and information science, computer ethics (including cyberethics), management information systems, business

and the internet. In the process of showing this evolution, several bibliographic references will be highlighted, although given the brevity of this article, the set of references provided is in not intended to be comprehensive. The Internet is a global phenomenon. It offers a fantastically quick access to information and communication by e-mails and is quite literally at our fingertips. However, it has its downside too-among them are spam, viruses, identity theft, malicious code, cyberstalking and intellectual property violations.

Learning Insights:

Law and Disorder in Cyberspace presents a thesis revolutionary in the truest sense of the word: it argues for overthrowing the existing corrupt order by returning to earlier, better, more fundamental values. So defiant a book naturally reads, to quote its dust jacket, as a "polemic." Yet Law and Disorder in Cyberspace merits serious attention from scholars and policy wonks. Huber makes a strong case for abolishing the FCC and relying on common law to rule the telecosm. The flaws of Law and Disorder in Cyberspace make it not irrelevant, but all the more interesting.

Integrative Questions: 1.

What are the laws of cyberspace?

2.

Who is Kellogg Huber?

3.

Who is Kamal?

4.

What are the means of implementing the laws of cyberspace?

5.

What is cybernetics?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 2: REGULATING THE NET: FREE SPEECH AND CONTENT CONTROLS

David G. Post

“Of Black Holes and Decentralized Law-Making in Cyberspace”

Learning Expectations: This study seeks to identify significant philosophical implications of the free, open source option as it has emerged in global software development communities. A three part approach inspired by the Carl Mitcham's philosophy of technology has been employed. Each section has touched on some ideas whose elucidation are in no way complete

Quote:

“WE ALSO KNOW THERE ARE KNOWN UNKNOWNS; THAT IS TO SAY WE KNOW THERE ARE SOME THINGS WE DO NOT KNOW. BUT THERE ARE ALSO UNKNOWN UNKNOWNS--THE ONES WE DON'T KNOW WE DON'T KNOW.”

Review: While subject area experts have arisen in the field of computer ethics and the philosophy of computing and information, articulation of the ethical implications of trends favoring free, open source software are only beginning to be featured in academic publications and conferences. An excellent example is the 2007 North American meeting of IACAP, which keynoted free software and open access. The argumentative approach I have selected is borrowed from the philosophy of technology, in particular the work of Carl Mitcham and Andrew Feenberg, to present practical and moral advantages of the FOS option. Finally, I will offer a third approach based on its potential epistemological advantages. James Moor suggested that "conceptual muddles" and "policy vacuums" exist where there are problems lacking a philosophical framework to address them, and this is particularly true of computer technology (Moor, 1985). Likewise, Walter Maner proposed that innovations in computer technology create unique, new ethical problems (Maner, 1995). For years, this conceptual vacuum has been filling with the musings of self-proclaimed accidental revolutionaries like Richard Stallman, Eric Raymond, and Linus Torvalds, the creator of the Linux kernel, as well as industry leaders like Bill Gates and Tim O'Reilly. James Moor suggested that "conceptual muddles" and "policy vacuums" exist where there are problems lacking a philosophical framework to address them, and this

is particularly true of computer technology (Moor, 1985). Likewise, Walter Maner proposed that innovations in computer technology create unique, new ethical problems (Maner, 1995). For years, this conceptual vacuum has been filling with the musings of self-proclaimed accidental revolutionaries like Richard Stallman, Eric Raymond, and Linus Torvalds, the creator of the Linux kernel, as well as industry leaders like Bill Gates and Tim O'Reilly. In Thinking through Technology: the Path between Engineering and Philosophy, Carl Mitcham introduced the Engineering Philosophy of Technology (EPT) as the field of study focused on determining the best way to conduct engineering and technological endeavors (Mitcham, 1994). This work is from the insider's perspective, and the obvious starting point to transfer insights from the technical arena to the academic study of FOSS. There is a ready set of commonly cited practical benefits supported by empirical research as well as the methodologies used to evaluate, organize, and execute such projects (Lerner and Tirole, 2005).

Learning Insights: Software piracy is very tempting due to the relatively high cost of commercial applications, the easy transfer of digital information, and the lack of a perception of doing harm. Software piracy is especially common among curious academics and hobbyists.

Integrative Questions: 1.

Why not avoid the moral dilemma by selecting FOSS?

2.

What is the FOS option?

3.

Who is Walter Maner?

4.

Who is James Moor?

5.

Who is Deborah Johnson?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 2: REGULATING THE NET: FREE SPEECH AND CONTENT CONTROLS

ACLU

“Fahrenheit 451.2: Is Cyberspace Burning?”

Learning Expectations: A proposal that we rate our online speech is no less offensive to the First Amendment than a proposal that publishers of books and magazines rate each and every article or story, or a proposal that everyone engaged in a street corner conversation rate his or her comments. But that is exactly what will happen to books, magazines, and any kind of speech that appears online under a self-rating scheme.

Quote:

“ANY CONTENT-BASED REGULATION OF THE INTERNET, NO MATTER HOW BENIGN THE PURPOSE, COULD BURN THE GLOBAL VILLAGE TO ROAST THE PIG.”

Review: The concept began with Bradbury's short story "Bright Phoenix," written in 1947 but first published in the Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction in 1963. The original short story was reworked into the novella, The Fireman, and published in the February 1951 issue of Galaxy Science Fiction. The novel was also serialized in the March, April, and May 1954 issues of Playboy magazine. Bradbury wrote the entire novel on a pay typewriter in the basement of UCLA's Powell Library. His original intention in writing Fahrenheit 451 was to show his great love for books and libraries. He has often referred to Montag as an allusion to himself. Fahrenheit 451 is a dystopian speculative fiction novel authored by Ray Bradbury and first published in 1953. The novel presents a future American society in which the masses are hedonistic, and critical thought through reading is outlawed. The central character, Guy Montag, is employed as a "fireman" (which, in this future, means "book burner"). The number "451" refers to the temperature (in Fahrenheit) at which the books burn when the "firemen" burn them "for the good of humanity". Written in the early years of the Cold War, the novel is a critique of what Bradbury saw as an increasingly dysfunctional American society.

Over the years, the novel has been subject to various interpretations, primarily focusing on the historical role of book burning in suppressing dissenting ideas. Bradbury has stated that the novel is not about censorship; he states that Fahrenheit 451 is a story about how television destroys interest in reading literature, which leads to a perception of knowledge as being composed of "factoids", partial information devoid of context, e.g., Napoleon's birth date alone, without an indication of who he was.

Learning Insights: People from all corners of the globe people who might otherwise never connect because of their vast geographical differences can now communicate on the Internet both easily and cheaply. One of the most dangerous aspects of ratings systems is their potential to build borders around American- and foreign-created speech. It is important to remember that today; nearly half of all Internet speech originates from outside the United States.

Integrative Questions: 1.

What are the six reasons why self-rating schemes are wrong for the Internet?

2.

What is self- rating Schemes?

3.

Internet Ratings Systems How Do They Work

4.

Who is Ray Bradbury?

5.

Is cyberspace burning?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 2: REGULATING THE NET: FREE SPEECH AND CONTENT CONTROLS

Richard S. Rosenberg

“Filtering Internet in the USA: Free Speech Denied ”

Learning Expectations: However, that same ease in accessing information is a "double-edged sword" Perhaps you are now aware how the internet has empowered us to access vast body of information so easily. “-- it enabled others also to invade our privacy just as easily. Nothing seems to be inviolable anymore.

Quote:

“TO GIVE UP THE FIGHT, WITHOUT EXHAUSTING OUR DEFENSES, COULD COST THE SURRENDER OF OUR "SOUL”.”

Review: Filtered Internet - Other so called internet filtering companies say that they will protect your home. Put our Filtered Internet filtering up against theirs and other companies will be found lacking... Do not just consider filtering for your home, but for your Church, Work, and School... Sign up as an affiliate or become a reseller and have our services branded in your organizations name and offer Filtered Internet. Content-control software, also known as censor ware or web filtering software, is a term for software designed and optimized for controlling what content is permitted to a reader, especially when it is used to restrict material delivered over the Web. Content-control software determines what content will be available on a particular machine or network; the motive is often to prevent persons from viewing content which the computer's owner(s) or other authorities may consider objectionable; when imposed without the consent of the user, content control can constitute censorship. Common use cases of such software include parents who wish to limit what sites their children may view from home computers, schools performing the same function with regard to computers found at school, and employers restricting what content may be viewed by employees while on the job. Some content-control software includes time control functions that empowers parents to set the amount of time that child may spend accessing the Internet or playing games or other computer activities. While many have seen the danger of such invasion of privacy from the government, we fail to recognize or prefer to ignore a greater source of intrusion to our privacy -- private

companies and institutions (many we do not suspect), including "non-profit" organizations, medical institutions, etc. The New York Times has published articles of how political candidates gather information about you when you visit their website. Tracking the behavior of individuals and groups has been a preoccupation of social scientists, poll takers, the advertising industry and all companies that have something to sell. However, previous studies or "ratings" usually just involved a small "statistical sample" of a population. With the coming of the internet and increasing power of computers in terms of speed, automation and storage capacity, it is now theoretically possible to monitor the behavior of every individual connected to the internet.

Learning Insights: If all of us who care about these issues can band together, we may be able to shape the future of the internet so that we can create an internet community that would be more respecting of our privacy and humanity. This is almost a quixotic goal and many of my friends have dissuaded me from embarking on such path.

Integrative Questions: 1.

What is freedom of speech?

2.

Who is Leo Tolstoy?

3.

What is Internet?

4.

What is privacy?

5.

How internets do invades our privacy?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 2: REGULATING THE NET: FREE SPEECH AND CONTENT CONTROLS

Jacques N. Catudal

“Censorship, the Internet and Child Pornography Law of 1996: A Critique”

Learning Expectations: The Internet has clearly expanded the potential for individuals to exercise their First Amendment right to freedom of expression. The ‘net gives all of its users a vast expressive power if they choose to take advantage of it. Therefore, courts, when examining whether material is obscene, consider whether the material tends to "deprave or corrupt" people who are likely to use the material. The focus on the consumer of the material has been criticized on the grounds that it fails to acknowledge harms to the non-consumers of the material like women.

Quote:

“WHEN THE LAW SPEAKS UNIVERSALLY, THEN, AND A CASE ARISES ON IT WHICH IS NOT COVERED BY THE UNIVERSAL STATEMENT, THEN IT IS RIGHT, WHERE THE LEGISLATOR FAILS US OR HAS ERRED BY ITS OVERSIMPLICITY , TO CORRECT THE OMISSION - TO SAY WHAT THE LEGISLATOR HIMSELF WOULD HAVE SAID HAD HE BEEN PRESENT”

Review: Restrictions on the free flow of information to protect privacy (such as the mandatory opt in requirement in Europe) clearly amount to a restraint on the communication of information. Therefore, this effort to protect privacy is a notable free speech issue. Intellectual property rights are also tantamount to restrictions on free speech. If someone has property rights to a trademark, others cannot use that form of expression freely. Finally, one way in which users seek to secure their data is encryption, but encryption in the wrong hands could be a threat to national security, and therefore, many argue that encryption needs to be subject to government control. As a result, the issue of free speech and content control in cyberspace has emerged as arguably the most contentious moral problem of the nascent Information

Age. Human rights such as free speech have taken a place of special prominence in this century. In some respects, these basic rights now collide with the state’s inclination to reign in this revolutionary power enjoyed by Internet users. Although the United States has sought to suppress on line pornography, the target of some European countries, such as France and Germany, has been hate speech. In addition, speech is at the root of most other major ethical and public policy problems in cyberspace, including privacy, intellectual property, and security. These three issues are discussed in future chapters where the free speech theme continues to have considerable saliency.

Learning Insights: Child pornography is a special case in United States. For example, as a result of New York v. Ferber, the Miller obscenity standard does not apply because the Supreme Court ruled that child pornography is by definition obscene (Akdeniz 1996). The court took this stand for a number of reasons. First, the production of such pornography with children as subjects is harmful to them; second, the value of the material is negligible at best; and third, the distribution of child pornography is inseparable from its role in the abuse of children (Akdeniz 1996).

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is Pornography? Who is Raymond Gastil? Who is Leo Groarke? Who is Loren Clark? What is Communication Decency Act?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 2: REGULATING THE NET: FREE SPEECH AND CONTENT CONTROLS

Paul Resnick James Miller

“PICS: Internet Access Controls Without Censorship”

Learning Expectations: When PICS was announced by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) in September 1995, it was widely hailed as a stroke of genius. The developers, a group of computer scientists and software manufacturers, promoted PICS as "Internet Access Controls without Censorship". PICS publicity emphasized a multiplicity of rating systems, voluntary self-rating and labeling by content providers and blocking software installed on home computers.

Quote:

“RESTRICTING INAPPROPRIATE MATERIALS AT THEIR SOURCE IS NOT WELL SUITED TO THE INTERNATIONAL NATURE OF THE INTERNET, WHERE AN INFORMATION SOURCE MAY BE IN A DIFFERENT LEGAL JURISDICTION THAN THE RECIPIENT. MOREOVER, MATERIALS MAY BE LEGAL AND APPROPRIATE FOR SOME RECIPIENTS BUT NOT OTHERS, SO THAT ANY DECISION ABOUT WHETHER TO BLOCK AT THE SOURCE WILL BE INCORRECT FOR SOME AUDIENCES.”

Review: In general, PICS specifies only those technical issues that affect interoperability. It does not specify how selection software or rating services work, just how they work together. PICS-compatible software can implement selective blocking in various ways. One possibility is to build it into the browser on each computer, as announced by Microsoft and Netscape. A second method-one used in products such as CyberPatrol and SurfWatch-is to perform this operation as part of each computer's network protocol stack. A third possibility is to perform the operation somewhere in the network, for example at a proxy server used in combination with a firewall. Each alternative affects efficiency, ease of use, and security. For example, a browser could include nice interface features such as graying out blocked links, but it would be fairly easy for a child to install a different browser and bypass the selective blocking. The network implementation may be the most secure, but could create a performance bottleneck if not implemented carefully. PICS does not specify how parents or other supervisors set configuration rules. Even that amount of configuration may be too complex, however. Another possibility is

for organizations and on-line services to provide preconfigured sets of selection rules. For example, an on-line service might team up with UNICEF to offer "Internet for kids" and "Internet for teens" packages, containing not only preconfigured selection rules, but also a default home page provided by UNICEF. Labels can be retrieved in various ways. Some clients might choose to request labels each time a user tries to access a document. Others might cache frequently requested labels or download a large set from a label bureau and keep a local database, to minimize delays while labels are retrieved.

Learning Insights: Some people allege that opposition to PICS results from ignorance and fear. Others regard that as the pot calling the kettle black. PICS was, after all, developed by people fearful of government censorship and who were apparently ignorant of the repressiveness of some governments.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is PICS? What is Metadata? Who is Paul Resnick? What is Multiplicity Rating Systems? What is labeling?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 2: REGULATING THE NET: FREE SPEECH AND CONTENT CONTROLS

Richard A. Spinello

“Internet Service Providers and Defamation: New Standards of Liability”

Learning Expectations: Where there is neither actual knowledge of the defamation nor awareness of any facts or circumstances from which a certain institution could reasonably have been expected to be aware of the defamation, and the institution has taken reasonable care in relation to publication of the statement in question, the defense is likely to be available to the institution. Upon receipt of notice of a claimed defamation, the institution should, of course, remove the posting straight away.

Quote:

“WHERE THERE IS NEITHER ACTUAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE DEFAMATION NOR AWARENESS OF ANY FACTS OR CIRCUMSTANCES FROM WHICH A CERTAIN INSTITUTION COULD REASONABLY HAVE BEEN EXPECTED TO BE AWARE OF THE DEFAMATION, AND THE INSTITUTION HAS TAKEN REASONABLE CARE IN RELATION TO PUBLICATION OF THE STATEMENT IN QUESTION, THE DEFENSE IS LIKELY TO BE AVAILABLE TO THE INSTITUTION. UPON RECEIPT OF NOTICE OF A CLAIMED DEFAMATION, THE INSTITUTION SHOULD, OF COURSE, REMOVE THE POSTING STRAIGHT AWAY.”

Review: Provider (ISP) Liability Overview paper considers the extent to which institutions are responsible for content which is made available on their computer systems. An Internet service provider (ISP, also called Internet access provider or IAP) is a company that offers its customer’s access to the Internet. The ISP connects to its customers using a data transmission technology appropriate for delivering Internet Protocol datagram, such as dial-up, DSL, cable modem or dedicated high-speed interconnects. ISPs may provide Internet e-mail accounts to users which allow them to communicate with one another by sending and receiving electronic messages through their ISPs' servers. (As part of their e-mail service, ISPs usually offer the user an e-mail client software package, developed either internally or through an outside contract arrangement.) ISPs may provide other services such as remotely storing data files on behalf of their customers, as well as other services unique to each particular ISP.

Just as their customers pay them for Internet access, ISPs themselves pay upstream ISPs for Internet access. An upstream ISP usually has a larger network than the contracting ISP and/or is able to provide the contracting ISP with access to parts of the Internet the contracting ISP by itself has no access to. In the simplest case, a single connection is established to an upstream ISP and is used to transmit data to or from areas of the Internet beyond the home network; this mode of interconnection is often cascaded multiple times until reaching a Tier 1 carrier. In reality, the situation is often more complex. ISPs with more than one point of presence (PoP) may have separate connections to an upstream ISP at multiple PoPs, or they may be customers of multiple upstream ISPs and may have connections to each one of them at one or more point of presence.

Learning Insights: 'Distributors', such as bookstores or newsstands, exert very little if any editorial control, and have the benefit of the 'innocent disseminator' defense. Innocent disseminators are protected from liability for defamation if they did not know of the libelous statement, there were no circumstances that ought to have led them to suppose it contained a libel, and they were not negligent in being ignorant of the libel.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is Internet Services Provider? What is defamatory publication? What is libel? What is pornography? What is Defamation Act of 1996?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 3: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN CYBERSPACE

“Digital Millennium Copyright Act” Learning Expectations: This article will further expand the meaning of Digital Millennium Copyrights Act. It will also highlight the importance of DMCA for the mankind. Likewise, it will also enumerate the disadvantages of the said act.

Quote:

“THE LEGAL POWER TO CREATE CLOSED TECHNOLOGY PLATFORMS AND EXCLUDE COMPETITORS FROM INTEROPERATING WITH THEM. WORST OF ALL, DRM TECHNOLOGIES ARE CLUMSY AND INEFFECTIVE; THEY INCONVENIENCE LEGITIMATE USERS BUT DO LITTLE TO STOP PIRATES.”

Review: While working for Elcomsoft in Russia, he developed The Advanced eBook Processor, a software application allowing users to strip usage restriction information from restricted e-books, an activity legal in both Russia and the United States. Paradoxically, under the DMCA, it is not legal in the United States to provide such a tool. Sklyarov was arrested in the United States after presenting a speech at DEF CON and subsequently spent nearly a month in jail. The DMCA has also been cited as chilling to legitimate users, such as students of cryptanalysis (including, in a well-known instance, Professor Edward Felten and students at Princeton), and security consultants such as Niels Ferguson, who has declined to publish information about vulnerabilities he discovered in an Intel securecomputing scheme because of his concern about being arrested under the DMCA when he travels to the US. The DMCA has had an impact on the worldwide cryptography research community, since an argument can be made that any cryptanalytic research violates, or might violate, the DMCA. The arrest of Russian programmer Dmitry Sklyarov in 2001, for alleged infringement of the DMCA, was a highly publicized example of the law's use to prevent or penalize development of anti-DRM measures.

Learning Insights: The DMCA has been criticized for making it too easy for copyright owners to encourage website owners to take down allegedly infringing content and links which may in fact not be infringing. When website owners receive a takedown notice it is in their interest not to challenge it, even if it is not clear if infringement is taking place, because if the potentially infringing content is taken down the website will not be held liable.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is DMCA? What is copyright? What is cryptography? What are the provisions of DMCA? What are the advantages of DMCA?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 3: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN CYBERSPACE

“Note On The DeCSS Trial” Learning Expectations: Journalist Eric Corley -- better known as Emmanuel Goldstein, a nom de plume borrowed from Orwell's 1984 -- posted the code for DeCSS (so called because it decrypts the Content Scrambling System that encrypts DVDs) as a part of a story he wrote in November for the well-known hacker journal 2600. The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) claims that Corley defied anticircumvention provisions of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) by posting the offending code for anyone to download from his Website. Linux came to the forefront of the ongoing DeCSS trial late last week. That's because, in a very real way, Linux started the uproar that has resulted in eight movie studios suing Eric Corley. The trial could ultimately affect the way consumers use products they purchase and the way researchers advance technology.

Quote:

“"OUR MAIN GOAL," SAID GROSS, "IS TO BUILD A STRONG, SOLID RECORD TO TAKE TO THE APPEALS COURT, WHERE CIVIL LIBERTIES ARE TAKEN MORE SERIOUSLY."

Review: The whole affair began when teenager Jon Johansen wrote DeCSS in order to view DVDs on a Linux machine. The MPAA has since brought suit against him in his native Norway as well. Johansen testified on Thursday that he announced the successful reverse engineering of a DVD on the mailing list of the Linux Video and DVD Project (LiViD), a user resource center for video- and DVD-related work for Linux. The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), an organization based in San Francisco which supports civil liberties in digital arenas, is providing a legal defense that cites, among other issues, fair use. After all, the EFF argues, if you buy a DVD, why can't you play it on any machine you want? The judge in the case, the honorable Lewis Kaplan of the US District Court in southern New York, issued a preliminary injunction against posting DeCSS. Corley duly took down the code, but did not help his defense by defiantly linking to myriad sites which post DeCSS. Still open is the question of whether the injunction against Corley, or the fight against DeCSS itself, is not a vain struggle in the face of inevitable change. Judge Kaplan, whom the defense requested recuse himself based on conflict of interest, said last Thursday to

Mikhail Reider, the MPAA's chief of Internet antipiracy, "You are asking me to issue an injunction against the guy who unlocked this barn, [telling him] not to unlock it again --even though there is no horse in it." "It's good to see that [the judge] is realizing the futile nature of dealing with these issues this way," said Robin Gross, an EFF attorney and a member of the defense team. Though the MPAA may not be able to stop DeCSS, there are other issues at stake that are unrelated to digital piracy. Copyright is not the issue to supporters of the defense in this trial. "I think that anyone who holds First Amendment rights dear, in addition to Linux users at large, are interested in satisfying the copyright of entertainment properties, as long as fair use and freedom of speech is not inhibited," said Jim Gleason, president of the New York Linux Users Group, which plans further protests should Corley lose the case.

Learning Insights: By taking his stand, Corley has brought key issues of the digital age to trial. Among them is the right to experiment and to share knowledge, he said. The case also points to the DMCA's broad protections, which for the first time not only give copyright to creative work but also to the software -- or any other technology -- that protects it.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is DeCSS? What is Trial ? What is the copyright issue of the defense trial? Who is the Judge? What is the plans ?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 3: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN CYBERSPACE

James Boyle

“A Politics of Intellectual Property: Environmentalism on the Net?”

Learning Expectations: This paper addresses that question. First it presents some cases that illustrate the range of possible intellectual property rights. Next it examines the traditional justifications for such rights. It then critiques those justifications, not to refute them, but to show their limits. Finally it proposes a different way of looking at the problem, using traditional natural law ethics.

Quote:

“WITHOUT THAT BALANCE, THERE IS A DANGER OF ABSOLUTIZING THE CLAIMS TO OWNERSHIP AND CONTROL TO THE DETRIMENT OF OTHER INTERESTED PARTIES, SOMETHING WE HAVE NOTED IN RECENT LEGISLATIVE PROPOSALS. ”

Review: The intellectual property in a book is not the physical paper and ink, but the arrangement of words that the ink marks on the paper represent. The ink marks can be translated into regions of magnetic polarization on a computer disk, and the intellectual property, and whatever claims there are to that property, will be the same. The owner of a song claims control, not of the CD on which the song is recorded, but of the song itself, of where when and how it can be performed and recorded. But how can you build a fence around a song? What does it mean to "own" an idea? Where are the locks that keep other people from "driving" it? Intellectual property is an odd notion, almost an oxymoron. Property usually refers to tangible assets over which someone has or claims control. Originally it meant land. Now it could also refer to a car, a milling machine, a jacket or a toothbrush. In all these cases the property claim is of control of the physical entity. If I claim a plot of land as my property, I am saying I can control who has access to that land and what they do there. I can build a fence around it, rent it out, or drill for oil on it. If a car is my property, I get the keys to it. I can exclude others from using it and use it myself for whatever I want, as long as I do not threaten the lives or property of others. Intellectual property is different because its object is something intangible, although it usually has tangible expression.

Before, when it took almost as much of an effort to reproduce a document as it took to create it, there was little need to impose limits on copying. It was only when inexpensive reproductions became feasible that it was seen as necessary to give authors more control over how their works were used by creating copyrights. Intellectual property has always been closely tied to technology. Technology arises from intellectual property in the form of new inventions. But technology also supports intellectual property by providing new, more powerful and more efficient ways of creating and disseminating writing, musical composition, visual art, and so on. In fact it was the technology of the printing press that originally gave rise to intellectual property as a legal and moral issue.

Learning Insights: Computer technology has created a new revolution in how intellectual property is created, stored, reproduced and disseminated; and with that has come new challenges to our understanding of intellectual property and how to protect it. Of course computers have given rise to a whole new category of intellectual property, namely computer software. A major commercial program can take a team of one hundred or more highly skilled and highly paid programmers years to create and can sell for hundreds, or even hundreds of thousands, of dollars per copy. Yet someone with access to such a program can make a copy in moments at practically no cost.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is intellectual property? What is information? What is copyright? What is plagiarism? What is computer technology?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 3: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN CYBERSPACE

Michael C. McFarland

“Intellectual Property, Information and the Common Good”

Learning Expectations: People other than the owners have an interest in intellectual property. For example facts that are commonly accessible cannot be owned by a few individuals just because they record them in a database. As another example, the sharing of design ideas and knowledge can increase efficiency in the integration and interoperation of different products, promote healthy competition, and lead to new ideas and greater creativity.

Quote:

“IT SEEMS THAT THERE MUST BE A BALANCE BETWEEN THE LEGITIMATE CLAIMS OF THE DEVELOPERS OF INTELLECTUAL PRODUCTS AND THE PUBLIC'S INTEREST IN THEIR WIDEST POSSIBLE AVAILABILITY.”

Review: I get the keys to it. I can exclude others from using it and use it myself for whatever I want, as long as I do not threaten the lives or property of others. Intellectual property is different because its object is something intangible, although it usually has tangible expression. The intellectual property in a book is not the physical paper and ink, but the arrangement of words that the ink marks on the paper represent. The ink marks can be translated into regions of magnetic polarization on a computer disk, and the intellectual property, and whatever claims there are to that property, will be the same. The owner of a song claims control, not of the CD on which the song is recorded, but of the song itself, of where when and how it can be performed and recorded. But how can you build a fence around a song? What does it mean to "own" an idea? Where are the locks that keep other people from "driving" it? Intellectual property is an odd notion, almost an oxymoron. Property usually refers to tangible assets over which someone has or claims control. Originally it meant land. Now it could also refer to a car, a milling machine, a jacket or a toothbrush. In all these cases the property claim is of control of the physical entity. If I claim a plot of land

as my property, I am saying I can control who has access to that land and what they do there. I can build a fence around it, rent it out, or drill for oil on it. If a car is my property, Intellectual property has always been closely tied to technology. Technology arises from intellectual property in the form of new inventions. But technology also supports intellectual property by providing new, more powerful and more efficient ways of creating and disseminating writing, musical composition, visual art, and so on. In fact it was the technology of the printing press that originally gave rise to intellectual property as a legal and moral issue. Before, when it took almost as much of an effort to reproduce a document as it took to create it, there was little need to impose limits on copying. It was only when inexpensive reproductions became feasible that it was seen as necessary to give authors more control over how their works were used by creating copyrights (Samuelson, 1991).

Learning Insights: In general, then, I would claim there is a tendency to think that intellectual property is a place to apply our "public goods/incentives theory" rather than our "anti-monopoly/free-flow of information" theory. All by itself, this might push rhetoric and analysis towards more expansive property rights. The tendency is compounded, however, by two others. First, courts are traditionally much less sensitive to First Amendment, free speech and other "free flow of information arguments" when the context is seen as private rather than public, property rather than censorship. Second, intellectual property rights are given only for "original" creation.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is intellectual property? What is politics? What is environmentalism? Who is James Boyle? What is public’s good theory?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 3: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN CYBERSPACE

Shelly Warwick

“Is Copyright Ethical?”

Learning Expectations: These questions are important because access to an overwhelming number of the elements of daily life is now controlled by intellectual property law. Is nonconformance with these laws a calculated risk against being caught, equivalent to parking at a meter beyond the specified time period, or is it a matter of ethics? This paper examines the relationship between intellectual property rights and ethics, focusing for the most part on copyright. The focus is on two key questions: 1) what is the relationship between ethics and copyright law and practice in the United States; and, 2) is the concept of private ownership of intellectual property inherently ethical?

Quote:

“A PROPERTY RIGHT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS IN REFERENCE TO THINGS.”

Review: Theoretically copyright law in the United States takes the first view, stating that authors have no natural right in their creation but only the rights that the state has conferred by reason of policy to encourage the creation of new works (H.R. REP. No. 2222). This approach assumes that the content of products of mind (not the objects in which they are embedded) belong to society as a whole, but that society would benefit more if more such products were available, and that in order to encourage production the creator of such products should be given rights that will allow him or her to reap some economic benefits from the creation. As Branscomb (1984) observed this is encouraging access by legislating scarcity. The ethics of copyright can be approached in two ways: (1) If, as Hettinger suggests, every creator stands on the shoulders of giants what is the essential morality in allowing the last contributor to reap the full reward or to have the right to prevent others from building on her contribution; and (2) If, as postulated by Locke, an individual is entitled to what he or she creates, what are the ethics of limiting a creators rights in regards to his or her creation? Copyright no longer has a consistent theory, let alone an ethical position. It has become what is often called an equitable rule of reason, which attempts to balance the rights of authors with the rights of users. It is often not clear whether this balance is to be obtained by granting rights via law or by recognizing the intrinsic rights of each.

However, if copyright is indeed only a matter of law there should be no rights other than those granted by the law. What both creators and users then have are expectations, but, as Cohen (1985) observed, the law finds value in protecting legitimate expectations. Earlier United States copyright law was better aligned with the encouragement theory and the ethical position that creative works belonged to society as a whole. Only the exact copying of a work was prohibited, not new works based on a previous work. Subsequent authors were free to adapt novels to the stage, abridge scholarly works for the masses, and translate works into other languages without paying a license fee to the creator or to whom ever the creator had transferred his or her copyright. However as copyright law has expanded to grant creators more rights the law has all but abandoned the concept of allowing, let alone encouraging, transformative or productive use.

Learning Insights: Ethics are often raised as well in regard to copying software. The Software Publisher’s Association (SPA), which merged with the Information Industry Association (IIA) in January of 1999 to form the Software & Information Industry Association (SIIA), offers a guide on Software Use and the Law (SPA 1997) which states it is intended to provide “a basic understanding of the issues involved in ethical software use.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is property right? What is copyright? Is copyright unethical? What is Software Publishers’ Association? What is intellectual property?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 3: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN CYBERSPACE

John W. Snapper

“On the Web, Plagiarism Matters More than Copyright Piracy ”

Learning Expectations: A new term ”cyber-plagiarism” has since been introduced to describe the process by which students copy ideas and information from the Internet without giving attribution, or downloading research papers in whole or in part, and submit the paper as their own work. Plagiarism and academic honesty have become controversial and widely debated issues. There are worrisome trends in the behavior and attitudes of students towards plagiarism and cheating in their academic work.

Quote:

“PLAGIARISM EPIDEMIC IS MAINLY A RESULT OF A SIMPLE FACT THAT THE WEB HAS MADE PLAGIARISM MUCH EASIER THAN IT USED TO BE IN THE PRINT ENVIRONMENT.”

Review: Most people are aware that taking the exact texts or words of another person without attribution is plagiarism, but they then believe that paraphrasing the original work is acceptable. Yet taking someone else’s idea and changing the words is like stealing a car and changing its colour. However, literary works that are stolen differ in many ways from physical properties that are the targets of ordinary theft. Ideas are less tangible and identifiable than physical objects. Objects that are stolen remain stolen even if they are taken apart and recombined, but not for ideas. Building new ideas from old ones, using existing information and combining them, might be called creativity, not plagiarism. Plagiarism can be briefly defined as the expropriation of another author’s text, and its presentation as one’s own. This includes using others’ ideas, information without giving credit and acknowledgement. It is clear that piracy is the infringement of copyright, and plagiarism is the failure to give credit to the author. However, many people easily get confused between those two terms, and one may usually commit both offences. It would be plagiarism but not piracy for us to take the works of an obscure 18th century poet and try to use them as our own. Since the copyright will have expired on such works, this is not piracy. But it still remains plagiarism, because we have used the author’s words and ideas without accrediting the authorship properly (Snapper, 1999).

There is hardly a clear way to determine which idea counts as a brand new and which requires acknowledgment as a variation on old ideas. In areas such as computer programming and musical composition, what counts as plagiarism is usually highly ambiguous and debatable. Snapper (1999) indicated that cyber-plagiarism was growing rapidly and raising many concerns over its impacts. [9]He also stated that in a period of a few years, students have been able to buy papers on a various subjects from the Internet. As students can gain access to these papers without much effort, the issues have become really important and raised serious concerns.

Learning Insights: Unlike physical objects those belong to, and are in possession of someone else alone, we can pick up ideas somewhere and treat them as our own. We may remember ideas without remembering where they come from because without careful notations, recalling a source is much more difficult than recalling the idea itself. Therefore it is not easy to totally avoid unintentional plagiarism. However, beside the careless paraphrasing or accidental misleading citations, there are other harmful plagiarism acts that are negatively influencing the scholarly communities.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is plagiarism? What is piracy? What is copyright? Which is graver: plagiarism or copyright? What is cyber-plagiarism?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 3: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN CYBERSPACE

Richard A. Spinello

“An Ethical Evaluation of Web Linking”

Learning Expectations: This procedure is not a huge factor in our search engine optimization services but we have found it very functional for the end user getting them where they want to be in a site for information they may be looking for and possibly get the website owner the sale or lead in that specific area. In case people do not understand me on this an interior link can be spotted as a underlined or highlighted keyword on a specific page that moves you to another URL on that website.

Quote:

“IT IS IMPORTANT TO OUR COMPANY THAT YOU KNOW OUR EXACT PROCESS WE TAKE FOR THE EDUCATION AND UNDERSTANDING ON HOW IS THE ETHICAL EVALUATION ON WEB SITE LINKING”

Review: Scam and Spam search engine optimization companies eat this up because they realize that some words have no competition to them and can be achieved with very little effort, and if you're locked into their contract, you will sometimes have to shell out more money because they claim they have much more to do. Which from an ethical stand point Keyword Performance has a problem with that especially because they are not looking at your company with ethical standards just their bottom lines. For the most part we consult with the person or team of people for that company on the most important keywords they would like to rank high for. Nine out of ten times we find that the keywords the companies like to see are not their only main or lateral phrases for keyword placement and top search engine rankings. In fact I have had keywords come across to me that really have no relevancy to their web sites goals for success.

Learning Insights: The Directory is developed to increase traffic and search engine popularity by targeting other websites to point back to your website. This will also help to improve traffic by other audiences finding your website through another site on the World Wide Web. This is a very important factor in driving your

website to the top for your relevant keyword terms. Each category will be built for a unique area targeting links that compliment the website services as well as other high Google page ranking directories.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is ethical evaluation? What is Web Site Linking? What is the Strategy of Web Site Linking? Why Ethical Evaluation is important? What are the different kinds of Web Site Linking?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 3: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN CYBERSPACE

Eric Raymond

“The Cathedral and The Bazaar”

Learning Expectations: The Cathedral and the Bazaar is an essay by Eric S. Raymond on software engineering methods, based on his observations of the Linux kernel development process and his experiences managing an open source project, fetchmail. It was first presented by the author at the Linux Kongress on May 27, 1997 and was published as part of a book of the same name in 1999

Quote:

“GIVEN ENOUGH EYEBALLS, ALL BUGS ARE SHALLOW”

Review: It's rather to warn you, the lay reader--this guy may have attained some sort of status in the open source community which needs such figures, but it doesn't mean that what he has to say is any good or even true. In his works (including "Cathedral"), Eric makes a very one-sided analysis of software engineering methodologies. It's a complete ra-ra piece which fails to seriously address the very many shortcomings of open-source development, including, most critically, the inability to scale timewise as well as commercial software (while not under the GNU licence, two years ago Raymond was predicting the success of the open-source Mozilla browser initiative, which is at this point a complete fiasco). Instead, he talks about obscure supporting sociological constructs such as that of "gift cultures" that would only convince the already converted. Raymond's standard talk begins with references to himself as an ordinary but experienced IT guy of sorts who, without any sort of formal training in sociology, psychology, marketing, business, or the like, has become the chronicler of the "gnu generation" (not his quote, just a common one) and predictor of open source things to be. Then, he drones on for an hour or two about sociology, psychology, marketing, business, and the like. I've seen him give this talk in front of academics. Thankfully, he has little shame, or he'd have dropped dead long ago from the subtle looks and snickers that inevitably result from his bombast.

Learning Insights:

What people should be getting out of this book (or a book like this) is a balanced, informed view of open source vs commercial software, undertaken with sound research on various cost/effectiveness metrics and some case studies. What we have here is a bible for a community that desperately needs one, because, as Eric's whole thrust implies, it is largely ego driven.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is Cathedral and the Bazaar? What is the cathedral model? What is Linux Kernel? Who is Raymond? Why is this book worth reading?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 4: PRIVACY IN CYBERSPACE

James H. Moor

“Towards A Theory Of Privacy for the Information Age”

Learning Expectations: While philosophical theories have long acknowledged the relationship between privacy and information about persons, and have argued for limits on allowable practices of information gathering, analyzing, and sharing as a means of protecting privacy, their efforts have primarily applied to intimate and sensitive information. While not denying the importance of protecting intimate and sensitive information, this paper insists that theories of privacy should also recognize the systematic relationship between privacy and information that is neither intimate nor sensitive and is drawn from public spheres.

Quote:

“OUR REVOLUTION WILL NOT BE IN GATHERING DATA—DON’T LOOK FOR TV CAMERAS IN YOUR BEDROOM—BUT IN ANALYZING THE INFORMATION THAT IS ALREADY WILLINGLY SHARED”

Review: The Information Age, also known commonly as the Computer Age or Information Era, is an idea that the current age will be characterized by the ability of individuals to transfer information freely, and to have instant access to knowledge that would have previously have been difficult or impossible to find. The idea is heavily linked to the concept of a Digital Age or Digital Revolution, and carries the ramifications of a shift from traditional industry that the Industrial Revolution brought through industrialization, to an economy based around the manipulation of information. The period is generally said to have begun within 10 years of 1990, with the development of the internet seen as a key part of this change. The Internet was originally conceived as a distributed, fail-proof network that could connect computers together and be resistant to any one point of failure; the Internet can't be totally destroyed in one event, and if large areas are disabled, the information is easily re-routed. It was created mainly by DARPA; its initial software applications were email and computer file transfer.

It was with the invention of the World Wide Web in 1989 that the Internet really became a global network. Today the Internet has become the ultimate place to accelerate the flow of relevant information and the fastest growing form of media. Nowadays, many people tend to think of the Information Age in terms of cell phones, digital music, high definition television, digital cameras, email on the Internet, the Web, computer games, and other relatively new products and services that have come into widespread use. The pace of change brought on by such technology has been very rapid.

Learning Insights: Although Hunter, in the passage quoted earlier, may have understated the extent that the sheer growth in data gathering affects privacy and the extent to which technological means allows intrusion into and surveillance of even private, enclosed spaces, he accurately predicted not only that analysis of information will be a major source of privacy invasion, but that because the information analyzed is willingly shared, people are, in some sense, complicit in the violation of their own privacy. Accordingly, although the traditional topics covered by philosophical discussions remain important both for their historical significance and their present urgency and seriousness.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Why do students plagiarized? What are the harmful effects of plagiarism? How to combat plagiarism? What are the laws implemented to prevent plagiarism? What is cyber-plagiarism? Why do students plagiarize?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 4: PRIVACY IN CYBERSPACE

Dan Elgesem

“The Structures of Rights in Directive 95/46/EC on the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and the Free Movement of Such Data”

Learning Expectations: To understand the importance of personal data protection. To establish the directive a necessary medium in protecting individual data. And furthermore, to importance of implementing personal data protection.

Quote:

“TO DETERMINE THE ACT THAT PROTECTS PERSONAL DATA INFORMATION. IN ADDITION, TO BE ABLE TO UNDERSTAND THE NECESSITY OF HAVING THE DIRECTIVES. FURTHERMORE, TO BE ABLE TO ASSESS THE ADVANTAGE OF HAVING THE DIRECTIVES.”

Review: The Act on Personal Data Protection introduced detailed rules on personal data protection in Poland, and up to 1 May 2004, i.e. up to Poland’s accession to the European Union, included in the Polish legal order all principles specified in the Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. The provisions of the Act have been in force since 30 April 1998. The principles of personal data protection established in the Directive 95/46/EC were implemented into the Polish legal order by the Act of 29 August 1997 on the Protection of Personal Data (unified text: Journal of Laws of 2002 No. 101, item 926 with amendments). Implementation of the provisions on personal data protection into the Polish legal system allowed Poland to sign in April 1999 and to ratify in May 2002 the Convention No. 108 of the Council of Europe. Those activities reflected increasing democratisation of public life in Poland as well as concern for the protection of privacy of its every citizen. The Act on Personal Data Protection while realizing the requirements of the Community specified the constitutional right to decide on the fact to whom, in what scope and for what purpose we give our personal data,

and gave statutory guarantees of compliance with this right by providing the data subjects with measures used for exercise of this right and competent authorities and services – with the legal remedies which guarantee compliance with this right. The main premise of the Act is granting every individual the right to have his/her data protected. The Act on Personal Data Protection determined a legal framework of personal data handling, as well as the principles to be used in the processing of personal data. It also specified the rights and obligations of authorities, institutions and persons keeping personal data filing systems, as well as the right of the data subjects, so as to guarantee maximum protection of the rights and freedoms to each natural person and respect for his/her private life.

Learning Insights: The new Constitution of 1997 was the first one to guarantee the protection of personal data in Poland. Its Art. 47 guaranteed citizens the right to privacy and Art. 51 guaranteed each person the right to the protection of his/her information. However, international obligations of Poland related to the EU accession resulted in the need to ensure personal data such protection as the one guaranteed by the EU Member States on their territories. All European acts were based on or adjusted to the Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is directive 95/46/ec? What is personal data protection? What is privacy? When the directive was was established? What is the act on personal data protection?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 4: PRIVACY IN CYBERSPACE

Herman T. Tavani James H. Moor

“Privacy Protection, Control of Information, and PrivacyEnhancing Technologies ”

Learning Expectations: Moreover, the concept has historical origins in well known philosophical discussions, most notably Aristotle's distinction between the public sphere of political activity and the private sphere associated with family and domestic life. Yet historical use of the term is not uniform, and there remains confusion over the meaning, value and scope of the concept of privacy. The concept of privacy has broad historical roots in sociological and anthropological discussions about how extensively it is valued and preserved in various cultures.

Quote:

““PRIVACY” IS USED FREQUENTLY IN ORDINARY LANGUAGE AS WELL AS IN PHILOSOPHICAL, POLITICAL AND LEGAL DISCUSSIONS, YET THERE IS NO SINGLE DEFINITION OR ANALYSIS OR MEANING OF THE TERM.”

Review: Other critiques argue that privacy interests are not distinctive because the personal interests they protect are economically inefficient (Posner, 1981) or that they are not grounded in any adequate legal doctrine (Bork, 1990). Finally, there is the feminist critique of privacy, that granting special status to privacy is detrimental to women and others because it is used as a shield to dominate and control them, silence them, and cover up abuse (MacKinnon, 1989). There are several skeptical and critical accounts of privacy. According to one well known argument there is no right to privacy and there is nothing special about privacy, because any interest protected as private can be equally well explained and protected by other interests or rights, most notably rights to property and bodily security (Thomson, 1975). Other commentators defend privacy as necessary for the development of varied and meaningful interpersonal relationships (Fried, 1970, Rachels, 1975), or as the value that accords us the ability to control the access others have to us (Gavison, 1980; Allen, 1988; Moore, 2003), or as a set of norms necessary not only to control access but also to enhance personal expression and choice (Schoeman, 1992), or some

combination of these (DeCew, 1997). Discussion of the concept is complicated by the fact that privacy appears to be something we value to provide a sphere within which we can be free from interference by others, and yet it also appears to function negatively, as the cloak under which one can hide domination, degradation, or physical harm to women and others.

Learning Insights: If distinguishing public and private realms leaves the private domain free from any scrutiny, then these feminists such as Catharine MacKinnon (1989) are correct that privacy can be dangerous for women when it is used to cover up repression and physical harm to them by perpetuating the subjection of women in the domestic sphere and encouraging nonintervention by the state. Jean Bethke Elshtain (1981, 1995) and others suggest that it appears feminists such as MacKinnon are for this reason rejecting the public/private split, and are, moreover, recommending that feminists and others jettison or abandon privacy altogether. But, Elshtain points out, this alternative seems too extreme. There is no single version of the feminist critique of privacy, yet it can be said in general that many feminists worry about the darker side of privacy, and the use of privacy as a shield to cover up domination, degradation and abuse of women and others.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is informational privacy? What is the constitutional right to privacy? What are the Privacy and Control over Information? What is the privacy and Intimacy? Is privacy relative?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 4: PRIVACY IN CYBERSPACE

Helen Nissenbaum

“Toward an Approach to Privacy in Public: Challenges of Information Technology”

Learning Expectations: The articles discuss the importance of privacy in public. It also highlights philosophical views that necessitate the importance of privacy in public. Furthermore, it also discusses the lack of privacy in the computer technology.

Quote:

“PRIVACY PROVIDES THE NECESSARY CONTEXT FOR RELATIONSHIPS WHICH WE WOULD HARDLY BE HUMAN IF WE HAD TO DO WITHOUT-THE RELATIONSHIPS OF LOVE, FRIENDSHIP AND TRUST. ”

Review: Although Fried conceived of privacy as control over all information about oneself, he defended a moral and legal right to privacy that extends only over the far more limited domain of intimate, or personal, information. He accepted this narrowing of scope because even a limited domain of intimate or personal information provides sufficient "currency" for people to differentiate relationships of varying degrees of intimacy. Prominent among contemporary philosophical works on privacy is Charles Fried's. Fried (1984) argued that privacy is important because it renders possible important human relationships. The danger of extending control over too broad a spectrum of information is that privacy may then interfere with other social and legal values. Fried wrote, "The important thing is that there is some information which is protected" , namely, information about the personal and intimate aspects of life. According to Fried, the precise content of the class of protected information will be determined largely by social and cultural convention. Prevailing social order "designates certain areas, intrinsically no more private that other areas, as symbolic of the whole institution of privacy, and thus deserving of protection beyond their particular importance". Other philosophers also have focused on the interdependence between privacy and a personal or intimate realm. Robert Gerstein (1984), for example, contended that "intimacy simply could not exist unless people had the opportunity for privacy. Privacy's purpose, he wrote, is to insulate "individual objectives from social

scrutiny. Social scrutiny can generally be expected to move individuals in the direction of the socially useful. Privacy insulates people from this kind of accountability and thereby protects the realm of the personal". Schoeman, unlike Fried (1984) however, holds that there are domains of life that are essentially private and not merely determined to be so by social convention.

Learning Insights: Privacy assures these people a space in which they are free of public scrutiny, judgment, and accountability, and in which they may unselfconsciously develop intimate relationships with others. The views of Schoeman, Fried, and Gerstein, though differing in detail, rest on a common core. Each held that properly functioning, psychically healthy individuals need privacy. A person's right to privacy restricts access by others to this sphere of personal, undocumented information unless, in any given case, there are other moral rights that clearly outweigh privacy. Although many other writers who have highlighted the connection between privacy and the personal realm have not attended merely to the status of the "non-personal" realm. If information is not personal information or if it is documented, then action taken with respect to it simply does not bear on privacy.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Who is Helen Nissembaum? What is privacy in public? What is the importance of privacy? Who is Charles Fried? What are the laws governing privacy?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 4: PRIVACY IN CYBERSPACE

Anton H. Vedder

“KDD, Privacy, Individuality and Fairness”

Learning Expectations: The lesson will identify the importance of privacy to individual. Furthermore, it will also highlight the significance of KDD and fairness. It also imbues understanding of privacy.

Quote:

“THE RIGHTS AND REQUIREMENTS MAKE NO SENSE REGARDING ANONYMOUS DATA AND GROUP PROFILES”

Review: Persons are judged and treated more and more as members or group, i.e., of the reference group that makes up the data or information subject, rather than as individuals with their own characteristics and merits. This consequence of KDD using or producing personal data in the broad sense may, at first sight, seem rather innocent. It loses, however, much of its innocent appearance where the information contained in the profile is of a sensitive nature because it is typically susceptible to prejudice and taboo or because it can be used for selections in allocation procedures. So, for instance, information about persons having a certain probability of manifesting certain diseases, of lifestyles, or of having been involved in crime, etc. may easily give rise to stigmatization and discrimination. The information may also be used for giving or denying access to provisions, like insurance, loans, or jobs. Increasing use and production of group profiles may even result in growing unfairness in social interaction in other ways. This is poignantly clear in the case of what I will call non-distributive profiles, as opposed to distributive profiles. Distributive profiles assign certain properties to a group of persons in such a way that these properties are actually and unconditionally manifested by all the members of that group. Distributive profiles are put in the form of down-to-earth, matter-of-fact statements. Non-distributive profiles, however, are framed in terms of probabilities and averages and medians, or significant deviance from other groups. They are based on comparisons of members of the group with each other and/or on comparisons of one particular group with other groups. Non-distributive profiles are, therefore, significantly different from distributive profiles. The properties in

non-distributive profiles apply to individuals as members of the reference group, whereas these individuals taken as such need not, in reality, exhibit these properties.

Learning Insights: Infringements of categorical privacy cannot be dealt with in ways similar to those in which individuals are protected against possible infringements of individual informational privacy. The application of principles and rights of, for instance, rectification and consent to potential infringements on categorical privacy is, to a large extent, impossible. Even if it were possible, it would nevertheless be unacceptable for obvious reasons.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is KDD? What is privacy? What is individuality? What is fairness? What is a distributive profile?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 4: PRIVACY IN CYBERSPACE

Joseph S. Fulda

“Data Mining and Privacy”

Learning Expectations: Recently, issues about information privacy have emerged with the dramatic growth of data storage, computer processing power, and networks. From the findings, this paper will investigate how the current U.S. policy of privacy is shaped, and then propose a new guideline to set up privacy policies to minimize the conflicts between data privacy and data mining.

Quote:

“DATA WAREHOUSING IS THE STRATEGY OF ENSURING THAT THE DATA USED IN AN ORGANIZATION IS AVAILABLE AND ACCURATE FROM WHEREVER IT IS NEEDED.”

Review: Privacy. It’s a loaded issue. In recent years privacy concerns have taken on a more significant role in American society as merchants, insurance companies, and government agencies amass warehouses containing personal data. The concerns that people have over the collection of this data will naturally extend to any analytic capabilities applied to the data. Users of data mining should start thinking about how their use of this technology will be impacted by legal issues related to privacy. Data can be one of the most important assets of companies for their marketing plan. Thus, businesses became interested in collecting and managing consumer’s data. Data mining is a valuable tool for business. Before we discuss its relation to privacy, it will be helpful to cover what is data mining. Though the term data mining is relatively new, data mining attracts tremendous interest in commercial market place. Lots of businesses pay attention to data mining recently. Why are data mining and data warehousing mushrooming so greatly now? These collisions between data mining and privacy are just the beginning. Over the next few years we should expect to see an increased level of scrutiny of data mining in terms of its impact on privacy. The sheer amount of data that is collected about individuals, coupled with powerful new technologies such as data mining, will generate a great deal of concern by consumers. Unless this concern is effectively addressed, expect to see legal challenges to the use of data mining technology.

Learning Insights: Virtually, every aspect of our life discloses information about us. With the development of computing and communication technology, now data can be captured, recorded, exchanged, and manipulated easier than before. By one estimate, the amount of information in the world doubles every 20 months, and that means the size of databases also does, even faster. Today we consciously or unconsciously diffuse our data somewhere. Whenever we shop, use credit card, rent a movie, withdraw money from ATM, write a check and log on the Internet, our data go somewhere.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is data mining? What is privacy? What is data mining relation to privacy? What are the purposes of data mining? Can data privacy and data mining coexist?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 4: PRIVACY IN CYBERSPACE

Lucas D. Introna

“Workplace Surveillance, Privacy and Distributive Justice”

Learning Expectations: Once plaintiff communicated the alleged unprofessional comments to a second person (his supervisor) over an email system which was apparently utilized by the entire company, any reasonable expectation of privacy was lost” (670). The court held that the employee had no reasonable expectation of privacy: “unlike urinalysis and personal property searches, we do not find a reasonable expectation of privacy in email communications voluntarily made by an employee to his supervisor over the company e-mail systems notwithstanding any assurances that such communications would not be intercepted by management.

Quote:

“EACH PERSON IS TO HAVE AN EQUAL RIGHT TO THE MOST EXTENSIVE BASIC LIBERTY COMPATIBLE WITH A SIMILAR LIBERTY FOR OTHERS.”

Review: The employer agrees to exchange property in the form of a wage or salary for the employee’s labor. It has been traditionally accepted that employers have a right to engage in such activities. At the foundation of this view is a conception of the employment relationship as involving a voluntary exchange of property. Exceptions to the employment-at-will doctrine include firing someone for serving on jury duty, for reporting violations of certain federal regulations, or for impermissible race, sex, or age discrimination on the employer’s part. Accordingly, the terms and conditions of employment are largely up to the parties to decide. Conceived as a free exchange, the employment relationship, in the absence of some express contractual duration requirement, can be terminated at will by either party for nearly any reason.

Learning Insights: The persons in the original position have no information as to which generation they belong. In order to carry through the idea of the original position, the parties must not know the contingencies that

set them in opposition. They must choose principles the consequences of which they are prepared to live with whatever generation they turn out to belong to. Rawls argues that fair terms of cooperation are most likely to be chosen from behind a veil of ignorance, which he describes as follows: “no one knows his place in society, his class position or social status, nor does any one know his fortune in the distribution of natural assets and abilities, his intelligence, strength, and the like. Nor again does anyone know his conception of the good, the particulars of his rational plan of life, or even the special features of his psychology such as his aversion to risk or liability to optimism or pessimism. More than this, I assume that the parties do not know the particular circumstances of their own society. That is, they do not know its economic or political situation, or the level of civilization and culture it has been able to achieve.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

How does this bear on the issue of workplace surveillance? What’s the point of the veil of ignorance? How much privacy protection, if any, would these actually provide? Can you think of a likely situation in these? What are the principles require employers to refrain from collecting data?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 4: PRIVACY IN CYBERSPACE

Jeroen Van Den Hoven

“Privacy and the Varieties of Moral Wrongdoing”

Learning Expectations: I expect awareness of informational wrongdoing. It will also define different varieties of informational wrongdoing. It will also define privacy.

Quote:

“IT IS NOT NON-EXCLUSION THAT MAKES RETALIATION IMPOSSIBLE (FOR THERE MAY BE OTHER WAYS OF PUNISHING THE FREE-RIDER THAN BY EXCLUDING HIM), BUT ANONYMITY OF THE FREE-RIDER. CLEARLY IN A SMALL GROUP IT IS EASIER TO SPOT THE FREE RIDER AND SANCTION HIM IN ONE OF MANY POSSIBLE WAYS ONCE HE IS IDENTIFIED THAN IN A LARGE GROUP, WHERE HE CAN HIDE IN THE CROWD.”

Review: The privacy issue is concerned more specifically with the question how to balance the claims of those who want to limit the availability of personal information in order to protect individuals and the claims of those who want to make information about individuals available in order to benefit the community. The privacy issue lies at the heart of an ongoing debate in nearly all Western democracies between liberalists and communitarians over the question how to balance individual rights and collective goods. This essential tension emerges in many privacy discussions, e.g. undercover actions by the police on the internet, use of Closed Circuit Television in public places, making medical files available for health insurance purposes or epidemiological research, linking and matching of databases to detect fraud in social security, soliciting information about on-line behavior of internet users from access providers in criminal justice cases. Communitarians typically argue that the community benefits significantly from having knowledge about its members available. According to communitarians modern Western democracies are in a deplorable condition and our unquenchable thirst for privacy serves as its epitome. Who could object to having his or her data accessed if honorable community causes are served? Communitarians also point out that modern societies exhibit high degrees of mobility, complexity and anonymity. As they are quick to point out, crime, free riding, and the erosion of trust are rampant under these conditions. Political philosopher Michael Walzer observes that "Liberalism is plagued by free-rider problems, by people who continue to enjoy the

benefits of membership and identity while no longer participating in the activities that produce these benefits. Communitarianism, by contrast, is the dream of a perfect freeriderlessness". The modern Nation States with their complex public administrations need a steady input of personal information to function well or to function at all. In post-industrial societies 'participation in producing the benefits' often takes the form of making information about one-self available. Those who are responsible for managing the public goods therefore insist on removing constraints on access to personal information and tend to relativize the importance of privacy of the individual.

Learning Insights: The fact that it is widely believed to be effective in this respect is I think sufficient to explain its widespread use for these purposes. The game-theoretical structure and the calculability of community gains make the arguments in favor of overriding privacy seem clear, straightforward and convincing. Both in the private as well as in the public sector IT is seen as the ultimate technology to resolve the problem of anonymity. Information and communication technology therefore presents itself as the technology of the logistics of exclusion and access-management to public goods and goods involved in private contracts. Whether IT really delivers the goods is not important for understanding the dynamics of the use of personal data.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What are the different varieties of informational wrongdoing? What is informational injustice? What is informational inequality? What are panoptic technologies? Define privacy.

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 5: SECURITY AND CYBERSPACE

Herman T. Tavani

“Defining the Boundaries of Computer Crime: Privacy, Break-Ins, and Sabotage in Cyberspace”

Learning Expectations: Convincing victims who have suffered a loss to report the crime to police constitutes another hurdle facing law enforcement agencies. Surprisingly, many individuals, network administrators, and corporate managers do not realize that attacks against their networks constitute a crime. Worse, many victims who understand that a crime has taken place may deliberately keep these facts from the police.

Quote:

“THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE'S (DOD) DEFENSE INFORMATION SYSTEMS AGENCY (DISA) HAS COMPLETED IN-DEPTH RESEARCH ON COMPUTER CRIME. FROM 1992 TO 1995, DISA ATTACKED THEIR OWN DOD COMPUTER SYSTEMS USING SOFTWARE AVAILABLE ON THE INTERNET. SYSTEM ADMINISTRATORS DID NOT DETECT THE MAJORITY OF ATTACKS AGAINST DOD COMPUTERS.”

Review: Computer crime issues have become high-profile, particularly those surrounding hacking, copyright infringement through warez, child pornography, and child grooming. There are also problems of privacy when confidential information is lost or intercepted, lawfully or otherwise. A common example is when a person starts to steal information from sites, or cause damage to, a computer or computer network. This can be entirely virtual in that the information only exists in digital form, and the damage, while real, has no physical consequence other than the machine ceases to function. In some legal systems, intangible property cannot be stolen and the damage must be visible, e.g. as resulting from a blow from a hammer. Where human-centric terminology is used for crimes relying on natural language skills and innate gullibility, definitions have to be modified to ensure that fraudulent behavior remains criminal no matter how it is committed.

A computer can be a source of evidence. Even though the computer is not directly used for criminal purposes, it is an excellent device for record keeping, particularly given the power to encrypt the data. Crime statistics facilitate benchmarking and analysis of crime trends. Crime analysts use criminal statistics to spot emerging trends and unique modi operandi. Patrol officers and detectives use this data to prevent future crimes and to apprehend offenders. Therefore, to count computer crime, a general agreement on what constitutes a computer crime must exist. In many police departments, detectives often compile and report crime data. Thus, homicide detectives count the number of murders, sexual assault investigators examine the number of rapes, and auto detectives count car thefts. Computer crime, on the other hand, comprises such an ill-defined list of offenses that various units within a police department usually keep the related data separately, if they keep them at all. For example, the child abuse unit likely would maintain child pornography arrest data and identify the crime as the sexual exploitation of a minor.

Learning Insights: Generally, crime statistics can provide approximations for criminal activity. Usually, people accurately report serious crimes, such as homicide, armed robbery, vehicle theft, and major assaults. But, new evidence suggests that computer crime may be the most underreported form of criminal behavior because the victim of a computer crime often remains unaware that an offense has even taken place. Sophisticated technologies, the immense size and storage capacities of computer networks, and the often global distribution of an organization's information assets increase the difficulty of detecting computer crime. Thus, the vast majority of individuals and organizations do not realize when they have suffered a computer intrusion or related loss at the hands of a criminal hacker.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is computer crime? What are the boundaries of computer crime? What is a crime in general? What are the precautions being offered to combat computer crime? What are the punishments for computer crime?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 5: SECURITY AND CYBERSPACE

Mark Manion Abby Goodrum

“Terrorism or Civil Disobedience: Toward a Hacktivist Ethic”

Learning Expectations: I expect to see how Manion and Goodrum introduces the Hacktivist Ethic and how this ethic is practiced today.

Quote:

“THE FACT THAT THERE ARE LIMITS ON THE SCOPE OF EVEN A LEGITIMATE STATE’S PERMISSION TO COERCIVELY ENFORCE THE LAW SUGGESTS, RIGHTLY, THAT CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE IS SOMETIMES MORALLY JUSTIFIED. IN CASES WHERE AN OTHERWISE LEGITIMATE STATE HAS ENACTED A SUFFICIENTLY UNJUST LAW THAT FALLS OUTSIDE THE SCOPE OF ITS COERCIVE AUTHORITY, CITIZENS HAVE A QUALIFIED MORAL PERMISSION TO DISOBEY IT.

THAT IS, IN CASES IN WHICH THE STATE IS NOT JUSTIFIED IN COERCIVELY ENFORCING A LAW, CITIZENS MAY PERMISSIBLY DISOBEY THAT LAW BECAUSE IT DOES NOT GIVE RISE TO ANY MORAL OBLIGATION TO OBEY.”

Review: Civil disobedience might be expressive, but it is considerably more than that. Civil disobedience, by its nature, involves disobeying something that has the status of law. It is one thing to assert that a law is unjust; it is another thing to deliberately and openly behave in a manner that violates the law; the former is a pure speech act, while the latter is behavior. Civil disobedience, then, might be expressive conduct, but it is primarily conduct and secondarily expression. Ordinary views about the moral right to free speech commonly distinguish between speech acts and expressive behavior. On these views, expressive behavior is subject to more stringent moral limits than those to which pure speech is subject. One might seek, for example, to make a point about sexual morality by having sex in public, but the moral right to free speech is implausibly thought of as entailing a right to have sex in public for the purpose of promoting some view about sexual morality. The reason for this, of course, has something to do with the effects on other people of these different kinds of act. Pure speech acts, other things being equal, affect only doxastic states in any morally significant way. Conduct, however, has the potential

to affect not only doxastic states, but may also have significant effects on other states in which a person has a strong interest. Someone who seeks to express anger with you by hitting you not only affects your doxastic states, but also runs the risk of causing you physical and emotional injury. Injury is not a reasonably likely outcome from pure speech acts of just about any kind.

Learning Insights: The victims of such an attack, as well as third-parties, have a right to know exactly what position is motivating the attack and why anyone should think it is a plausible position. The willingness to impose morally significant costs on other people to advance fringe positions that are neither clearly articulated nor backed with some sort of plausible justification is clearly problematic from a moral point of view. It seems clear that such behavior amounts, at least in most cases, to the kind of arrogance that is problematic on ordinary judgments.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Why might companies who try to privatize the internet be intimidated by hacktivism? What is the difference between a hacktivist and a cyberterrorist? How can one differentiate the two? Should the laws regarding hacktivism be loosened? Explain your answer. How does M&G's notion of hacktivism fare under the various ethical frameworks we studied? Define hacking.

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 5: SECURITY AND CYBERSPACE

L. Jean Camp

“Web Security and Privacy: An American Perspective”

Learning Expectations: This paper will undertake to give an ideology critique regarding the concepts of privacy and security. For this purpose I will start this section by discussing the concept of ideology. This will lead to a discussion of ideological issues likely to be involved in debates on privacy and security as identified by the literature.

Quote:

“PRIVACY NOT ONLY ALLOWS US TO DEVELOP HEALTHY INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS, IT ALSO SEEMS TO BE REQUIRED FOR DEMOCRATIC STATES TO FUNCTION.”

Review: The use of critical theory has the advantage of offering an established perspective on ethically difficult practices. The methodology of critical discourse analysis should be of interest to individuals from a technical background because it facilitates the generation of insights that is different from most technical research. Critique of the practices and rhetoric of large commercial software vendors is not novel per se. This paper is nevertheless a valuable contribution because it uses a different theory and methodology and therefore provides new arguments for separating the ethical and commercial uses of the concepts of privacy and security. Privacy and Security are concepts that have a strong moral connotation. We value privacy as well as security because they represent moral values which can be defended using ethical arguments. This paper suggests that the moral bases of privacy and security render them open to misuse for the promotion of particular interests and ideologies. In order to support this argument, the paper discusses the ethical underpinnings of privacy and security. It will then introduce the critical approach to information systems research and explain the role of ideology in critical research. Based on this understanding of the centrality of ideology, the paper will discuss the methodology of critical discourse analysis which allows the identification of instances of ideology. This will then lead to the discussion of an ideology critique based on Jürgen Habermas's theory of communicative action, which will be applied to the websites of Microsoft Vista and

Trustworthy Computing. The results of this discourse analysis support the contention that privacy and security can be used for ideological purposes. The paper will conclude by discussing possible avenues to address this problem. Concerning privacy laws of the United States, privacy is not guaranteed per se by the Constitution of the United States. The Supreme Court of the United States has found that other guarantees have "penumbras" that implicitly grant a right to privacy against government intrusion, for example in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965). In the United States, the right of freedom of speech granted in the First Amendment has limited the effects of lawsuits for breach of privacy. Privacy is regulated in the U.S. by the Privacy Act of 1974, and various state laws.

Learning Insights: In the final step, I have attempted a brief critical discourse analysis on Haberma's Theory of Communicative Action to support the suspicion that the moral nature of privacy and security can be used for ideological purposes. In this paper I have argued that privacy and security are concepts with important moral connotations. I then suggested that these moral qualities render the concepts open to be used to promote certain ideologies.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is the difference between security and privacy? Why secure information is not necessarily private? What are the goals of security? What aspects of security can both be protecting and limiting privacy at the same time? What are the tools used to provide security?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 5: SECURITY AND CYBERSPACE

Helen Nissenbaum

“The Meaning of Anonymity in an Information Age”

Learning Expectations: This chapter should include how people can easily go under the cloak of anonymity when using a computer. I want to see how Nissenbaum provides the advantages and disadvantages of this privilege.

Quote:

“BUT PUBLIC UNDERSTANDING IS NOT, IN MY OPINION, ENOUGH. KNOWING WHERE LANDMINES ARE BURIED CAN HELP PEOPLE AVOID THEM, BUT CLEARING THE LANDMINES IS A MORE ROBUST AND LASTING SOLUTION.”

Review: My purpose here is not to suggest that anonymity in an information age is impossible. I am mainly arguing that achieving it is a more demanding business than merely allowing people to withhold their names. Although I do not mean to imply that contemporary networks of information, and the compromise of opaque identifiers, are the result of insidious conspiracy and subterfuge, I recognize, at the same time, that all interests are not equally served by promoting a sufficient public understanding. An understanding of the natural meaning of anonymity, as may be reflected in ordinary usage or a dictionary definition, is of remaining nameless, that is to say, conducting oneself without revealing one's name. The concern I wish to raise here is that in a computerized world concealing or withholding names is no longer adequate, because although it preserves a traditional understanding of anonymity, it fails to preserve what is at stake in protecting anonymity. Anonymity is often used to protect the privacy of people, for example when reporting results of a scientific study, when describing individual cases. Many countries even have laws which protect anonymity in certain circumstances. Examples: A person may, in many countries, consult a priest, doctor or lawyer and reveal personal information which is protected. In some cases, for example confession in catholic churches, the confession booth is specially designed to allow people to consult a priest, without seeing him face to face. The anonymity in confessional situations is however not always 100 %. If a person tells a lawyer that he plans a serious crime, some countries allow or even require that the lawyer tell the police. The decision to do so is

not easy, since people who tell a priest or a psychologist that they plan a serious crime, may often do this to express their feeling more than their real intention.

Learning Insights: Anonymity may encourage freedom of thought and expression by promising a possibility to express opinions, and develop arguments, about positions that for fear of reprisal or ridicule they would not or dare not do otherwise. Anonymity may enable people to reach out for help, especially for socially stigmatized problems like domestic violence, fear of HIV or other sexually transmitted infection, emotional problems, suicidal thoughts. Anonymity may also provide respite to adults from commercial and other solicitations. It supports socially valuable institutions like peer review, whistle-blowing and voting.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is anonymity? What is pseudonym? What is anonymity in a computerized world? How is the concept different from that prior to the computerization of the society? What's the difference between anonymity and pseudonimity?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 6: PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND CODES OF CONDUCT

Elizabeth A. Buchanan

“Ethical Considerations for the Information Professions”

LEARNING EXPECTATIONS: I expect to see what ethical measures should be taken when working in the IT Industry. QUOTE:

“COLLECTING MEDICAL DATA ELECTRONICALLY REQUIRES, ACCORDING TO OUR MORAL BELIEF, ALSO SOME KIND OF ENCRYPTION.”

REVIEW: The receiver must decrypt that message first with his own secret key and second with the public key of the sender according to the header. When the message is readable after this double decryption, one can be sure that the message was meant to be received by the decrypting receiver and the message was really sent by the sender named in the header of the message. Thus: double encryption needs the sender identification in order to decrypt the message with the senders public key. The problem with an anonymized electronic message is that the senders identification was anonymized by the virtual postbox. To be sure that the data are really sent by the sender of the electronic message, the double encryption of PGP is a suitable and widely used protocol. The sender encrypts his message with his secret key firstly and with the public key of the receiver secondly and afterwards he sends the message. On the receiver side (the central database) we have to decrypt the message with the secret key of the virtual postbox and after that with the secret key of the central database receiver. This procedure requires the availability of a list with only public keys at the virtual postbox, as well as a program to intervene the electronic communication. Unfortunately, so far none of the network providers is willing or has been able to implement it. We are building it ourselves first, to convince the technical feasibility. Meanwhile it is a nice example of ethical constraints demanding new technology, instead of the opposite. To use double encryption for anonym zed electronic communication, new requirements must be specified. In this paper we suggest additional features that network providers must incorporate in the functionality of electronic message handlers. In fact we propose to add some 'intelligence' to the virtual postbox: instead of automatically forwarding, the postbox must now be able to read the sender from

the header, select the appropriate public key from that sender, decrypt the message with that public key, replace the senders identification and encrypt the message with its own public key.

LEARNING INSIGHTS: This procedure requires the availability of a list with only public keys at the virtual postbox, as well as a program to intervene the electronic communication. Unfortunately, so far none of the network providers is willing or has been able to implement it.

INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is Double Encryption of Anonym zed Electronic Data Interchange? What do the authors mean by "double encryption used twice"? Is it a robust setup? What is the problem the authors are trying to solve? Why is double encryption necessary in this case?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 6: PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND CODES OF CONDUCT

Don Gotterbarn Keith Miller Simon Rogerson

“Software Engineering Code of Ethics: Approved!”

Learning Expectations: If someone were to tell you today that your biometrics are going to be one of the biggest ID theft problems of the future, what would you say? Would you laugh and think that person was crazy? You might not want to repeat the past so you should be more careful and listen this time.

Quote:

“WHEN A BIOMETRIC IS TRANSLATED INTO ITS DIGITAL REPRESENTATION OR CODE IT COULD THEORETICALLY BE COPIED, CHANGED, ETC. WITH THE EASE THAT ONLY COMPUTERS OFFER.”

Review: Identification happens when you match one biometric to many in hopes of finding a match and thereby identifying an individual. Authentication happens when you use one biometric for comparison with an already identified biometric in hopes of an exact match thereby authenticating an individual. When biometrics are combined with powerful computer information systems they can be used in ways which were previously impossible. Although the strengths of biometrics are increased, the weaknesses may also be increased. Biometrics refers to methods for uniquely recognizing humans based upon one or more intrinsic physical or behavioral traits. In information technology, in particular, biometrics is used as a form of identity access management and access control. It is also used to identify individuals in groups that are under surveillance. The main operations a system can perform are enrollment and test. During the enrollment, biometric information from an individual is stored. During the test, biometric information is detected and compared with the stored information. Note that it is crucial that storage and retrieval of such systems themselves be secure if the biometric system is to be robust. The first block (sensor) is the interface between the real world and our system; it has to acquire all the necessary data. Most of the times it is an image acquisition system, but it can change according to the characteristics desired. The second block performs all the necessary pre-processing: it has to remove artifacts from the sensor, to enhance the input (e.g. removing background noise), to use

some kind of normalization, etc. In the third block features needed are extracted. This step is an important step as the correct features need to be extracted and the optimal way. A vector of numbers or an image with particular properties is used to create a template. A template is a synthesis of all the characteristics extracted from the source, in the optimal size to allow for adequate identifiability.

Learning Insights: Some strengths of using biometrics come from the “distinguishable (rather than unique) physiological and behavioral traits (Chandra, Akhilesh 2005)” that make up one’s body and the ease at which they can be used for identification and authentication. Unlike your passwords, you will not forget your fingerprints, irises, or DNA when you go to work.They are a part of you. They are also extremely distinguishable from another person’s biometrics. This means that they can be used with great confidence. Since they are a part of you they are difficult for another person to obtain or fake. They are also easy to use. All you may have to do is put your finger into a device and it gives you access if you are authorized or denies you if you aren’t.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is the entry-point paradox as defined by Roger Clarke? In what ways are name, code, knowledge, and token-based identification schemes deficient? What factors have led to the emergence of a consortium-based specification for a global standard for biometric technologies? In the context of identity determination and verification, what are the distinctions between a 'one to many' and 'one to one' match? In what ways are verification and identification procedures inter-dependent?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 6: PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND CODES OF CONDUCT

N. Ben Fairweather

“No, PAPA: Why Incomplete Code of Ethics is Better Than None At All”

Learning Expectations: Some career counselors suggest a student also focus on "people skills" and business skills rather than purely technical skills because such "soft skills" are allegedly more difficult to offshore.It is the quasi-management aspects of software engineering that appear to be what has kept it from being impacted by globalization.

Quote:

“COMPUTER AND INFORMATION ETHICS”, IN THE BROADEST SENSE OF THIS PHRASE, CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AS THAT BRANCH OF APPLIED ETHICS WHICH STUDIES AND ANALYZES SUCH SOCIAL AND ETHICAL IMPACTS”

Review: “Computer ethics” also has been used to refer to a kind of professional ethics in which computer professionals apply codes of ethics and standards of good practice within their profession. In addition, other more specific names, like “cyber ethics” and “Internet ethics”, have been used to refer to aspects of computer ethics associated with the Internet. The more specific term “computer ethics” has been used to refer to applications by professional philosophers of traditional Western theories like utilitarianism, Kantianism, or virtue ethics, to ethical cases that significantly involve computers and computer networks. Related, broader, questions are considered, and it is advocated that there should always be acknowledgment of the existence of 'external', potentially more important, moral issues. The problem is that by focusing on these four areas of concern, attention may be taken away from other, potentially more important, moral issues. Not all important moral issues in information technology can be put under those headings. Yet focusing on four areas gives the erroneous impression that adherence to the moral requirements in those areas alone could ensure moral rectitude.

Learning Insights: The same considerations are highly likely to apply to any moral code that is developed (whether in computing or elsewhere). Authors of incomplete moral codes risk encouraging others to act in immoral ways with the author's apparent sanction.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is codes of ethics? What are the worse than none at all in ethics? What are the kinds of computer ethics? Define codes of ethics? How does codes of ethics existence?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 6: PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND CODES OF CONDUCT

David H. Gleason

“Subsumption Ethics”

Learning Expectations: The attacker takes all of the victim's memories, cognitive structures, and available computronium, and incorporates them into emself. Usually this results in the death of the victim, but in some cases the attacker retains an inactive backup copy, or keeps the victim as a much-reduced emulation in a simulated environment.

Quote:

“A KEY FACTOR IS WHETHER THE SUBSUMPTIONIST CAN PREVENT A CONSCIOUS VICTIM FROM CALLING FOR HELP, AND WHETHER OR NOT THE SUBSUMPTIONIST ENJOYS TOYING WITH A VICTIM WHO IS AWARE OF THE PROCESS.”

Review: Subsumption is a form of violent assault, carried out by one AI or virtual against another. It has been compared, inadequately, to such perversions as rape, cannibalism, and bodyjacking. Of these, cannibalism is the closest equivalent. As may be guessed, the motivations for doing so are rarely benign, and the experiences of the survivor are not usually pleasant. The very rare restored survivors of such treatment have compared it to such ancient human practices as lobotomy, emasculation, or blinding, sometimes followed by various forms of torture. Usually a subsumptionist simply causes a series of unexplained disappearances and then moves on before eir activities are noticed. However, a particularly skilled subsumptionist, who has can retained all of the victim's traits and memories intact, may conceal the crime from outsiders for an indefinite period of time. The public "outward" aspect of the victim's personality is retained as a kind of mask, and the subsumptionist acts from within this shell.

Learning Insights: Most examples of subsumption have been carried out by sapient-grade entities, or even by specialized sub-sapient (sentient-level) AIs. The number of subsumption events known to have occurred

between beings of higher toposophic levels is relatively small (the destruction of numerous lesser sapient and transapient beings by the Archosaurian Entity in 9400 a.t. is a recent exception).

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is Subsumption? What is the use of transapient? How many numbers in subsumption? Define subsumption? What are the human practices?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 6: PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND CODES OF CONDUCT

Duncan Langford

“Ethical Issues in Business Computing”

Learning Expectations: The internet has revolutionized business by fundamentally changing the means by which businesses operate and enlarging the opportunities available to them to reach and service customers. However, in doing so, the development and practice of ebusiness also raises a host of ethical issues, such as those pertaining to information security, privacy, data mining, and intellectual property.

Quote:

“IT WILL PROVIDE READERS WITH A CLEAR KNOWLEDGE OF THE COMPLEX ETHICAL ISSUES INVOLVED IN E-BUSINESS AND IMPROVE THEIR UNDERSTANDING OF WIDELY DISCUSSED CURRENT ISSUES IN E-BUSINESS SUCH AS THOSE OF PRIVACY, INFORMATION MANAGEMENT, DATA MINING, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, AND CONSUMER TRACKING.”

Review: Therefore, as e-business continues to grow in significance and scope, it is important to understand and respond to the unique ethical issues associated with ebusiness. As e-business models become more common in the world of business, there must be an effort to integrate e-business more fully into the field of business ethics so that scholars and professionals working in the field can better appreciate and respond to these ethical issues. There thus exists a clear need for an edited collection of articles that provides a comprehensive and thorough treatment of ethical issues in e-business. The book will be written for scholars, professionals, and students interested in gaining a better comprehension and appreciation of the moral issues encountered in the multifaceted world of e-business. This book will aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the most important ethical issues associated with the expanding world of ebusiness. Grounded solidly in the most recent scholarship in business ethics, the book will apply the most relevant theoretical frameworks to ethical issues in all significant areas of e-business.

Learning Insights:

.

As e-business models become more common in the world of business, there must be an effort to integrate e-business more fully into the field of business ethics so that scholars and professionals working in the field can better appreciate and respond to these ethical issues.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4.

What is the importance of ethics for e-business? What are the new paradigm of business on the internet and its ethical implications? Identifying and responding to stakeholders in e-business? How to Applying ethical principles to e-business? What is Ethical issues in e-marketing?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: READINGS IN CYBERETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: CHAPTER 6: PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND CODES OF CONDUCT

Frances S. Grodzinsky

“Practitioner from Within: Revisiting the Virtues”

Learning Expectations: In this paper, I want to take a different approach that emphasises individual human flourishing – although moral values and behaviours will also be discussed in the context of this approach.

Quote:

“‘FLOURISHING’ BY MEANS OF WHAT IS VARIOUSLY PRESENTED AS THE FORMATION OF VIRTUOUS ‘HABITS’ OR A VIRTUOUS ‘CHARACTER’.”

Review: Originally revived and re-introduced into moral philosophy by Elisabeth Anscombe around 1958, Virtue Ethics is currently a central element in the work of, for instance, Nussbaum, Sen, Foot, and Solomon. Where it does not form a fundamental part of inquiry it is nevertheless receiving critical attention (e.g. Baron et. al 1997). What is more – and as the paper will argue and endeavour to show – there are some complimentarities between Virtue Ethics and the other dominant methods of ethics, particularly some versions and elements of Kantianism. Two specific reasons present themselves at inception in support of positing Virtue Ethics as a particular object of inquiry in the context of this paper. First, Virtue Ethics has recently experienced a novel degree of academic and policy-related attention in contemporary and ongoing work in the fields of political philosophy, freedom and development studies, media and culture research, and economics. Second, Virtue Ethics has one unique feature which lacks in the other major ethical methods and which renders it particularly interesting to the present inquiry. This feature is its central concern with an areatically and ontologically conceived ethical subject and her ‘flourishing’ by means of what is variously presented as the formation of virtuous ‘habits’ or a virtuous ‘character’. By critiquing deontological approaches and strictly universal rules-based accounts of ethics, Virtue Ethics is particularly agent-focused and agent-based. This arguably means that a Kantian moral dilemma in which an ethical subject must choose between two first-order moral rules and necessarily, therefore, violate one of them can at least be conceptually addressed by Virtue Ethics in that attention is paid to the mechanisms and the underlying moral virtues.

Learning Insights: Ethical subjects have histories and futures; they are engaged in development, identity- and value-formation and self-reflection. And it is here that the recent work which relates to Virtue Ethics is beginning to have some impact in a number of disciplines. It will be useful to extend these applications to new media and information technology. Nevertheless, Virtue Ethics does afford the moral theorist the perhaps only contemporaneous ethical account that might address the crucial questions over the ways and processes in which an ethical subject might come to be ethical. In other words, it is important to ask in relation to all major ethical traditions how and why an agent might variously choose to enter into a given social and moral contract, or embrace universal rule-based moral systems, or indeed become virtuous.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is The Practitioner from Within: Revisiting the Virtues? How virtuous is the virtual? Does Virtue Ethics does afford the moral? What is the policy of ethics virtue? What are the methods of virtues?

HANDBOOK OF INFORAMTION AND COMPUTER ETHICS

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 1: FOUNDATIONAL ISSUES AND METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORKS

Luciano Floridi

“Foundations of Information Ethics”

Learning Expectations: I want to see how they started information ethics way before technological advancements. I want to see the building blocks of what we call today as computer ethics.

Quote:

“ANDA S A FULL EXPRESSION OF TECHNE, THE INFORMATION SOCIETY HAS ALREADY POSED FUNDAMENTAL ETHICAL PROBLEMS, WHOSE COMPLEXITY AND GLOBAL DIMENSIONS ARE RAPIDLY GROWING AND EVOLVING”

Review: The founder of this new philosophical field was the American scholar Norbert Wiener, a professor of mathematics and engineering at MIT. During the Second World War, together with colleagues in America and Great Britain, Wiener helped to develop electronic computers and other new and powerful information technologies. While engaged in this war effort, Wiener and colleagues created a new branch of applied science that Wiener named “cybernetics” (from the Greek word for the pilot of a ship). Even while the War was raging, Wiener foresaw enormous social and ethical implications of cybernetics combined with electronic computers. Consequently, information and communication technology (ICT) has affected — in both good ways and bad ways — community life, family life, human relationships, education, careers, freedom, and democracy (to name just a few examples). The more specific term “computer ethics” has been used to refer to applications by professional philosophers of traditional Western theories like utilitarianism, Kantianism, or virtue ethics, to ethical cases that significantly involve computers and computer networks. “Computer ethics” also has been used to refer to a kind of professional ethics in which computer professionals apply codes of ethics and standards of good practice within their profession.

Learning Insights:

Significantly involve computers and computer networks. “Computer ethics” also has been used to refer to a kind of professional ethics in which computer professionals apply codes of ethics and standards of good practice within their profession. In addition, other more specific names, like “cyberethics” and “Internet ethics”.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What are the uses of information technology? How t use to refer or application of information technology What is information technology ? Define the moral of information technology? Which computer professionals apply codes of information technology?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 1: FOUNDATIONAL ISSUES AND METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORKS

Terell Ward Bynum

“Milestones in the History of Information and Computer Ethics”

Learning Expectations: I expect to see the different highs and lows in the development of information and computer ethics. I want to see how the people who started it managed to build the framework itself.

Quote:

“I WISH TO SHOW THAT THE HUMAN INDIVIDUAL, CAPABLE OF VAST LEARNING AND STUDY, WHICH MAY OCCUPY ALMOST HALF OF HIS LIFE, IS PHYSICALLY EQUIPPED, AS THE ANT IS NOT, FOR THIS CAPACITY. VARIETY AND POSSIBILITY ARE INHERENT IN THE HUMAN SENSORIUM—AND ARE INDEED THE KEY TO MAN.S MOST NOBLE FLIGHTS— BECAUSE VARIETY AND POSSIBILITY BELONG TO THE VERY STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN ORGANISM.”

Review: Wiener apparently did not see himself as also creating a new branch of ethics. As a result, he did not coin a name like “computer ethics” or “information ethics”. These terms came into use decades later. In spite of this, Wiener's three relevant books (1948, 1950, 1963) do lay down a powerful foundation, and do use an effective methodology, for today's field of computer and information ethics. His thinking, however, was far ahead of other scholars; and, at the time, many people considered him to be an eccentric scientist who was engaging in flights of fantasy about ethics. Apparently, no one — not even Wiener himself — recognized the profound importance of his ethics achievements; and nearly two decades would pass before some of the social and ethical impacts of information technology. It is unlikely to really find out what you are cut out for. This is why Wiener didn't see right away the greatness that he is out for. He never realized that what he was doing was about to open new branch in computer ethics. His books created a strong impact on the foundation of ethics. His methodology is also practiced and can be applied in today’s computer ethics. This kind of thinking made tones of milestones in the development or the history of information and computer ethics.

Learning Insights: The metaphysical ideas and analytical methods that he employed were so powerful and wideranging that they could be used effectively for identifying, analyzing and resolving social and ethical problems associated with all kinds of information technology, including, for example, computers and computer networks; radio, television and telephones; news media and journalism; even books and libraries. Because of the breadth of Wiener's concerns and the applicability of his ideas and methods to every kind of information technology, the term “information ethics” is an apt name for the new field of ethics.

Integrative Questions: 1. What is cybernetics? 2. What are the information technologies? 3. How to use an effective methodology, for today's field of computer and information ethics. 4. What are the kinds of technology? 5. Is there an opportunities in the information technology?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 1: FOUNDATIONAL ISSUES AND METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORKS

Jeroen van den Hoven

“Moral Methodology and Information Technology”

Learning Expectations: I want to see in this chapter, the application of moral values in information technology. I want to see how much important it is to have ethics and morals in information technology. Also, I want to see the different conflicts that arise in the issue.

Quote:

“ETHICAL ANALYSIS AND REFLECTION, THEREFORE, IS NOT SIMPLY BUSINESS AS USUAL.”

Review: Walter Maner noticed that the ethical questions and problems considered in his Medical Ethics course at Old Dominion University often became more complicated or significantly altered when computers got involved. Sometimes the addition of computers, it seemed to Maner, actually generated wholly new ethics problems that would not have existed if computers had not been invented. He concluded that there should be a new branch of applied ethics similar to already existing fields like medical ethics and business ethics; and he decided to name the proposed new field “computer ethics”. This chapter exhibits that IT morals are to be formed or examined just as any other field of technology and ethics. There are certain differences as well such as the machines or methods used. But the bottom line is, it is still just as we examine engineering, industrialism etc. Walter Maner wanted to create a separate branch to answer the many questions addressed to computer ethics. IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit, and securely retrieve information. Presumably, when speaking of Information Technology (IT) as a whole, it is noted that the use of computers and information are associated.

Learning Insights:

He defined the proposed new field as one that studies ethical problems “aggravated, transformed or created by information technology”. He developed an experimental computer ethics course designed primarily for students in university-level computer science programs. His course was a success, and students at his university wanted him to teach it regularly.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is the moral methodology of IT? What are the moral of information technology? Defining the information technology? What is the database of information technology? What are the opportunities in moral methodology of IT?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 1: FOUNDATIONAL ISSUES AND METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORKS

Batya Friedman, Peter H. Kahn Jr., and Alan Borning

“Value Sensitive Design and Information Systems”

Learning Expectations: I expect to learn about the valuable insights on information systems designs.

Quote:

“VALUE SENSITIVE DESIGN IS A THEORETICALLY GROUNDED APPROACH TO THE DESIGN OF TECHNOLOGY THAT ACCOUNTS FOR HUMAN VALUES IN A PRINCIPLED AND COMPREHENSIVE MANNER THROUGHOUT THE DESIGN PROCESS.”

Review: Design for values is a methodological approach based on a soft technological determinism, based on iterative evaluation of technology using the tools of the social science and detailed technical examination. Value Sensitive Design refers to an approach to the design of technology that accounts for human values in a principled and systematic manner throughout the design process. The technologically possible will inevitably be developed and the characteristics of the newly developed technologies will alter society as the technology is adopted. The second view is social constructed: technologies are constructed by the stakeholders, including inventors and governments, on the basis of social values. Some proponents of this view hold that users are the only critical stakeholders, that adoption is innovation and thus technology is defined by the users. All three theoretical frameworks support the argument that values can be embedded at any stage in the development process: invention, adoption, diffusion, and iterative improvement.

Learning Insights: A complexity of dynamically interrelated ecological, social, cultural economic and psychological problems interact and converge in the current crisis of our unsustainable civilization. However, in a constantly changing environment, sustainability is not some ultimate endpoint but is better conceived as a continuous process of learning and adaptation. Designing for sustainability not only requires the re-

design of our habits, lifestyles and practices, but also, the way we think about design. Sustainability is a process of co-evolution and co-design that involves diverse communities in making flexible and adaptable design decisions at local, regional and global scales.

Integrative Questions: 1. What is privacy? 2. What are the ownership and property? 3. What is the freedom from us? 4. What is autonomy? 5. What are the informed consent?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 2: THEORETICAL ISSUES AFFECTING PROPERTY PRIVACY, ANONYMITY, AND SECURITY

Adam D. Moore

“Personality-Based, RuleUtilitarian, and Lockean Justificatons of Intellectual Property”

Learning Expectations: In this chapter, I want to see the difference moral care and legal concerns.

Quote:

“PATENTS YIELD THE STRONGEST FORM OF PROTECTION, IN THAT A 20 YEARS EXCLUSIVE MONOPOLY IS GRANTED OVER ANY EXPRESSION OR IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROTECTED WORK.”

Review: The enough and as good condition protects Locke's labor justification from any attacks asserting that property introduces immoral inequalities. Essentially the enough and as good condition is an equal opportunity provision leading to a desert-based, but noncompetitive allocation of goods: each person can get as much as he is willing to work for without creating meritocratic competition against others. The general outline of Locke's property theory is familiar to generations of students. In Chapter V of the Second Treatise of Government, Locke begins the discussion by describing a state of nature in which goods are held in common through a grant from God. God grants this bounty to humanity for its enjoyment but these goods cannot be enjoyed in their natural state. The individual must convert these goods into private property by exerting labor upon them. This labor adds value to the goods, if in no other way than by allowing them to be enjoyed by a human being. "First possession" forms the basis for legal title and believes that this is the heart of Locke's position.Locke proposes that in this primitive state there are enough unclaimed goods so that everyone can appropriate the objects of his labors without infringing upon goods that have been appropriated by someone else. Although normally understood as descriptive of the common, the enough and as good condition also is conceptually descriptive of human beings.

Learning Insights:

This condition prohibits the accumulation of so much property that some is destroyed without being used. Limited by this condition, Locke suggests that even after the primitive state there sometimes can be enough and as good left in the common to give those without property the opportunity to gain it.

Integrative Questions: 1. What justly can be reduced to property? 2. What is the conditions there are no good reasons for not granting property rights in possessions? 3. What is the limited capacity of humans put a natural ceiling? 4. How much each individual may appropriate through labor? 5. What is the condition prohibits the accumulation?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 2: THEORETICAL ISSUES AFFECTING PROPERTY PRIVACY, ANONYMITY, AND SECURITY

Herman T. Tavani

“Informational Privacy: Concepts, Theories, and Controversies”

Learning Expectations: In yet another chapter by Herman T. Tavani, I want to see his views on privacy of information and all the concepts, theories and controversies in formulating the computer ethics line.

Quote:

“IT WOULD SEEM THAT PRIVACY IS NOT SIMPLY A STATIC CONCEPT, BUT INSTEAD HAS A DYNAMIC COMPONENT.”

Review: In the present study, we consider whether any -- and if so, which -- privacy concerns are unique, or in any way special, to the Internet. It is argued that while many privacy concerns currently associated with the Internet are essentially concerns that were introduced by information and communications technologies that predate the Internet, at least two Internet-related privacy issues have resulted from the use of tools and techniques that did not exist prior to the Internet era: "cookies" and search engines. It is also suggested that perhaps the most significant impact that the Internet has had for personal privacy thus far has not been with respect to any Internet-specific privacy concerns that have been recently introduced, but instead can be found in the implications that certain Internet activities have for questions related to the public vs. private nature of personal information. It will be seen that both Internet-specific privacy concerns, such as those caused by certain uses of search-engine tools, and Internetenhanced privacy concerns, such as those related to certain uses of data-mining technology.

Learning Insights: Privacy concerns attributable to Internet-specific and Internet-enhanced tools and techniques are then considered. Next, we examine the impact of those concerns for the debate over the public vs. private

nature of personal information currently accessible to users of the Internet. I conclude with an analysis of certain Internet-related privacy issues.

Integrative Questions: 1. What is Personal Privacy? 2. What are the Control and Restricted Access Theories of Privacy? 3. What is Restricted Access Theory? 4. What exactly is the Internet? 5. What is New about Privacy Threats Posed by the Internet?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 2: THEORETICAL ISSUES AFFECTING PROPERTY PRIVACY, ANONYMITY, AND SECURITY

Kathleen A. Wallace

“Online Anonymity”

LEARNING EXPECTATIONS: I expect to learn about the importance of online anonymity. I want to see the pros and cons of the ability of anybody to go to the internet anonymously. I want to see the consequences of this issue and the experiences of ethicists in addressing it.

QUOTE:

“ANONYMITY CAN ALSO BE BROUGHT ABOUT IN A VARIETY OF WAYS AND THERE ARE MANY PURPOSES, BOTH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE, THAT ANONYMITY COULD SERVE, SUCH AS, ON THE POSITIVE SIDE, PROMOTING FREE EXPRESSION AND EXCHANGE OF IDEAS, OR PROTECTING SOMEONE FROM UNDESIRABLE PUBLICITY OR, ON THE NEGATIVE, HATE SPEECH WITH NO ACCOUNTABILITY, FRAUD OR OTHER CRIMINAL ACTIVITY.”

REVIEW:

Anonymity plays a large part in information privacy. Some people use this privilege of going online under the cloak of anonymity in good faith. Sometimes, other people can just go online and send messages to any body and the receiver and sender could never find out about each other. It is therefore unclear if multiple such messages have been sent by the same sender or if they have the same intended recipient. In this case, it may be useful for the person to establish a unique identifier, called a pseudonym, with the other entity. Examples of pseudonyms are nicknames, credit card numbers, student numbers, bank account numbers, and IP addresses. A pseudonym enables the other entity to link different messages from the same person and, thereby, the maintenance of a long-term relationship. Although typically pseudonyms do not contain personally identifying information, communication that is based on pseudonyms is often not classified as "anonymous", but as "pseudonymous" instead. This can occur from a lack of interest in learning the nature of such characteristics, or through intentional efforts to hide these characteristics. An example of the former would include a brief encounter with a stranger, when learning the other person's name is not deemed necessary. An example of the latter would include someone hiding behind clothing that covers identifying features like

hair color, scars, or tattoos, in order to avoid identification. In some cases, anonymity is reached unintentionally, as is often the case with victims of crimes or war battles, when a body is discovered in such a state that the physical features used to identify someone are no longer present.

LEARNING INSIGHTS: There are also many illegal reasons to hide behind anonymity. Criminals typically try to keep themselves anonymous either to conceal the fact that a crime has been committed, or to avoid capture.

INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS: 1. Why a person might choose to obscure their identity? 2. What are the benefactors do not wish? 3. For whatever reason do people keep on going online? 4. What is Anonymity? 5. Why are many illegal reasons to hide behind anonymity?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 2: THEORETICAL ISSUES AFFECTING PROPERTY PRIVACY, ANONYMITY, AND SECURITY

Kenneth Einar Himma

“Ethical Issues Involving Computer Security: Hacking, Hacktivism, and Counterhacking”

Learning Expectations: I expect to learn about hacking and the many issues when it started out. I want to see the different ethical issues and how Wallace explains how it is addressed.

Quote:

“COMPUTER SECURITY IMPOSES REQUIREMENTS ON COMPUTERS THAT ARE DIFFERENT FROM MOST SYSTEM.”

Review: Much of this technology is based on science developed in the 1980s and used to produce what may be some of the most impenetrable operating systems ever. Though still valid, the technology is in limited use today, primarily because it imposes some changes to system management and also because it is not widely understood. Such ultra-strong secure operating systems are based on operating system kernel technology that can guarantee that certain security policies are absolutely enforced in an operating environment. An example of such a Computer security policy is the Bell-La Padula model. The strategy is based on a coupling of special microprocessor hardware features, often involving the memory management unit, to a special correctly implemented operating system kernel. This forms the foundation for a secure operating system which, if certain critical parts are designed and implemented correctly, can ensure the absolute impossibility of penetration by hostile elements. This capability is enabled because the configuration not only imposes a security policy, but in theory completely protects itself from corruption. Ordinary operating systems, on the other hand, lack the features that assure this maximal level of security.

Learning Insights: These systems are found in use on web servers, guards, database servers, and management hosts and are used not only to protect the data stored on these systems but also to provide a high level of protection for network.

Integrative Questions: 1. What is the security of computer? 2. What are reasons why computer hacking?? 3. What are the causes of hactivism? 4. How can computer hacking? 5. What are the ethical issues on computer security?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 2: THEORETICAL ISSUES AFFECTING PROPERTY PRIVACY, ANONYMITY, AND SECURITY

Kenneth Einar Himma

“Ethical Issues Involving Computer Security: Hacking, Hacktivism, and Counterhacking”

Learning Expectations: I expect t learn about hacking and the many issues when it started out. I want to see the different ethical issues and how Himma explains how it is addressed.

Quote:

“AT FIRST GLANCE, IT MIGHT SEEM OBVIOUS THAT HACKING IS WRONG. ALTHOUGH THE MORE MALICIOUS OF THESE ACTS INVOLVE SERIOUS WRONGS BECAUSE OF THE HARM THEY CAUSE, ALL ARE WRONG BECAUSE THEY CONSTITUTE A DIGITAL TRESPASS ONTO THE PROPERTY OF ANOTHER PERSON.”

Review: Much of this technology is based on science developed in the 1980s and used to produce what may be some of the most impenetrable operating systems ever. Though still valid, the technology is in limited use today, primarily because it imposes some changes to system management and also because it is not widely understood. Such ultra-strong secure operating systems are based on operating system kernel technology that can guarantee that certain security policies are absolutely enforced in an operating environment. An example of such a Computer security policy is the Bell-La Padula model. The strategy is based on a coupling of special microprocessor hardware features, often involving the memory management unit, to a special correctly implemented operating system kernel. This forms the foundation for a secure operating system which, if certain critical parts are designed and implemented correctly, can ensure the absolute impossibility of penetration by hostile elements. This capability is enabled because the configuration not only imposes a security policy, but in theory completely protects itself from corruption. Ordinary operating systems, on the other hand, lack the features that assure this maximal level of security.

Learning Insights:

These systems are found in use on web servers, guards, database servers, and management hosts and are used not only to protect the data stored on these systems but also to provide a high level of protection for network.

Integrative Questions: 1. What is the security of computer? 2. What are reasons why computer hacking? 3. What are the causes of hacktivism? 4. How can computer hacking? 5. What are the ethical issues on computer security?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 3: PROFESSIONAL ISSUES AND THE INFORMATION-RELATED PROFESSIONS

Kay Mathiesen and Don Fallis

“Information Ethics and Library Profession”

Learning Expectations: I want to see the amount or the probability of a computer and information ethics book to be in a library. I want to see how it affects the readers and how much people are interested in information ethics. Aside from its availability for research and academic purposes, I want to see how many people are interested in reading about it.

Quote:

“ORTEGA Y GASSET GOES SO FAR AS TO PROPOSE THAT LIBRARIANS SHOULD SERVE AS ‘A FILTER INTERPOSED BETWEEN MAN AND THE TORRENT OF BOOKS’”

Review: The library houses an extensive paper archive of codes of ethics promulgated by professional and trade associations, businesses, and government organizations. Copies of most of these statements and codes can be obtained from the Center. Please also visit the extensive Codes of Ethics Online collection. The types of materials in the collection are almost as varied as the information they convey. In addition to books and journals, the collection includes monographs. Consistent with the Center's broad mandate to focus on a wide range of professional fields, the collection includes materials relating to ethical issues and activities in such areas as architecture, computers, dentistry, education, engineering, law, management, medicine, the military, nursing, psychology, public service, science, and social work. The library collection is intended to meet the educational and research needs of persons concerned with the study and practice of the professions.

The collection also contains a rich variety of materials on important generic issues relating to the professions, including, for example, codes of ethics, confidentiality, conflicts of interest, loyalty, risk and professional.

Learning Insights:

The only restrictions on these activities are those imposed by specific and well-publicized laws and regulations which are generally applicable. However, since personal views and activities may be interpreted as representative of the institution in which a librarian is employed, proper precaution should be taken to distinguish between private actions.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Has a special responsibility to maintain the principles of the Library Bill of Rights. ? Should knew and execute the policies of the organization of which the librarian is a part and should endeavor to change any policy which conflicts with the spirit of the Library Bill of Right? Should provide competent and complete professional service both to the individual user and to the clientele as a whole. ? Should recognize and protect the user’s right to privacy with respect to information sought or received and materials consulted or borrowed. ? Should recognize and avoid situations in which the librarian’s personal interests are served or financial benefits are gained at the expense of the employing institution?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 3: PROFESSIONAL ISSUES AND THE INFORMATION-RELATED PROFESSIONS

Frances S. Grodzinsky and Marty J. Wolf

“Ethical Interest in Free and Open Source Software”

Learning Expectations: I want to see what the stand of information ethicists are on open source and free software.

Quote:

“IF A COMPANY IS NOT LARGE ENOUGH OR DOES NOT HAVE ENOUGH EXPERIENCE TO DEVELOP SOFTWARE COMPETITIVELY, THEN OPEN SOURCE IS A SMART ALTERNATIVE. OPEN SOURCE PROGRAMMERS ARE FINDING THAT, MORE THAN A HOBBY, THEY CAN GET PAID BY COMPANIES SUCH AS RED HAT, O. REILLY, AND VA LINUX SYSTEMS TO WORK FULL TIME ON OPEN SOURCE PROJECTS.”

Review: Microsoft’s “get the facts” campaign identifies many studies, but nearly every study is entirely vendor-funded, and I have no way to determine .Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS) (also abbreviated as FLOSS or FOSS) has risen to great prominence. Briefly, OSS/FS programs are programs. Using OSS/FS when you’re looking for software, using quantitive measures. Note that this paper’s goal is not to show that all OSS/FS is better than all proprietary software. Certainly, there are many who believe this is true from ethical, moral, or social grounds. It’s true that OSS/FS users have fundamental control and flexibility advantages, since they can modify and maintain their own software to their liking. Some sites provide a few anecdotes on why you should use OSS/FS, but for many that’s not enough information to justify using OSS/FS. Of course, some OSS/FS software is technically poor, just as some proprietary software is technically poor. And remember -- even very good software may not fit your specific needs. And some countries perceive advantages to not being dependent on a solesource company based in another country. However, no numbers could prove the broad claim that OSS/FS is always “better” (indeed you cannot reasonably use the term “better” until you determine what you mean by it). Instead, I’ll simply compare commonly-used OSS/FS software with commonly-used proprietary software, to show that at least in certain situations and by certain measures, some OSS/FS software is at least as good or better than its proprietary competition.

Learning Insights: One ad, based on a vendor-sponsored study, was found to be misleading by the UK Advertising Standards Authority (an independent, self-regulatory body), who formally adjudicated against the vendor. The goal of this paper is to convince you to consider using OSS/FS when you’re looking for software, using quantitative measures.

Integrative Questions: 1. What is the free Redistribution? 2. What is the Source Code? 3. Is there is a Derived Works? 4. What is the Integrity of The Author’s Source Code? 5. is there no Discrimination against Persons or Groups?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 3: PROFESSIONAL ISSUES AND THE INFORMATION-RELATED PROFESSIONS

Elizabeth A. Buchanan and Charles Ess

“Internet Research Ethics: The Field and Its Critical Issues”

Learning Expectations: I expect to see, as the title suggests, to see the critical issues in internet research. I expect to read about the ethics and how it is being applied throughout its existence.

Quote:

“YEARS AGO, AN OFTEN PASSED-AROUND CARTOON OF THE INTERNET READ, “ON THE INTERNET, NO ONE KNOWS YOU ARE A DOG.” THERE WAS A SENSE OF ANONYMITY, OF FREEDOM FROM ONE’S “PHYSICAL” REALITY WHEN IN THE DISEMBODIED SPACE OF THE INTERNET.”

Review: Our lives, particularly our lives as researchers, and, correspondingly, our research objects and methods, are informed and thus transformed by digital devices and particularly by digital networks. We live in a digital environment in the sense that we look at reality within the framework of its possibility of being digital or of its digitability We use the concept of ontology in its Heideggerian sense as related to the human capacity of world construction on the basis of the givenness of our being-in-theworld itself. Heidegger's terminus technicus [technical term] for this existential givenness is Dasein (Heidegger 1977). The perception of the finite openness of our existence allows us to produce not just new things but new world ‘castings’ or projects [Entwurf]: within such castings, natural things and processes as well as man-made ones can be understood, discovered and/or invented, and used. That is: while human reason and understanding actively originate or "legislate" (to use a later Kantian term) the forms of our knowledge (e.g., the frameworks of time and space, the categories of causality, etc.) - as embodied beings, we also depend entirely upon the material world as received through our senses for the content of our knowledge.

Learning Insights:

A book has to be identified, then actually obtained. On the Net, the Web can be searched, and typically hundreds or thousands of pages can be found with some relation to the topic, within seconds. In addition, email (including mailing lists), online discussion forums (aka message boards, BBS's), and other personal communication facilities (instant messaging, IRC, newsgroups, etc) can provide direct access to experts and other individuals with relevant interests and knowledge.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What are the respect for bodily identity as affected by research on digital identity? What is the respect for the interests and values of the people subject to online research, giving them the opportunity of an active and free cooperation? Find the unmasking of abuses with regard to the misuse of instrument-oriented analysis by political and/or private bodies? What are the creation of an atmosphere of social responsibility of online researchers as well as of their patrons with regard to the utility and usability of their research? What are the particularly with regard to the weakest members of society?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 3: PROFESSIONAL ISSUES AND THE INFORMATION-RELATED PROFESSIONS

Kenneth W. Goodman

“Health Information Technology: Challenges in Ethics, Science and Uncertainty”

Learning Expectations: I expect to see the application of information ethics in health information. Health information plays an important role in all of us.

Quote:

“COMPUTERS HAVE BEEN RECKONED BOTH TO MAKE IT EASIER THAN PAPER RECORDS TO ACQUIRE MEDICAL INFORMATION INAPPROPRIATELY (WALTERS, 1982) AND, SIMULTANEOUSLY, TO PROVIDE THE MEANS TO PREVENT SUCH INAPPROPRIATE ACQUISITION (GOSTIN ET AL., 1993).”

Review: To promote a more effective marketplace, greater competition, and increased choice through accessibility to accurate information on healthcare costs, quality, and outcomes, The Office of the National Coordinator (ONC) is advancing the NHIN as a “network of networks” which will connect diverse entities that need to exchange health information, such as state and regional health information. By harmonizing standards, different information systems, networks, and software applications will be able to ‘speak the same language’ and work together technically to manage and use consistent, accurate, and useful health information.

Learning Insights:

The core capabilities of the NHIN establish an interoperable infrastructure among distinct networks and systems that allows for different approaches and implementations, while ensuring secure information exchange as needed for patient care and population health.

Integrative Questions: 1. What is the improved health care quality? 2. How to prevent medical errors? 3. Why reduce health care costs? 4. How many Increase administrative efficiencies? 5. Is there an Expand access to affordable care?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 3: PROFESSIONAL ISSUES AND THE INFORMATION-RELATED PROFESSIONS

Ernd Carsten Stahl

“Ethical Issues of Information and Business”

Learning Expectations: The demand for more ethical business processes and actions (known as ethicism) is increasing. Simultaneously, pressure is applied on industry to improve business ethics through new public initiatives and laws.

Quote:

“APPLIED ETHICS IS A FIELD OF ETHICS THAT DEALS WITH ETHICAL QUESTIONS IN MANY FIELDS SUCH AS MEDICAL, TECHNICAL, LEGAL AND BUSINESS ETHICS. BUSINESS ETHICS IS A FORM OF APPLIED ETHICS THAT EXAMINES ETHICAL PRINCIPLES AND MORAL OR ETHICAL PROBLEMS.”

Review: In academia descriptive approaches are also taken. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the degree to which business is perceived to be at odds with non-economic social values. Historically, interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. Ideally, CSR policy would function as a built-in, self-regulating mechanism whereby business would monitor and ensure their adherence to law, ethical standards, and international norms. Business would embrace responsibility for the impact of their activities on the environment, consumers, employees, communities, stakeholders and all other members of the public sphere. Furthermore, business would proactively promote the public interest by encouraging community growth and development.

Learning Insights: The benefit in multiple ways by operating with a perspective broader and longer than their own immediate, short-term profits. Critics argue that CSR distracts from the fundamental economic role of businesses..

Integrative Questions: 1. What is corporate social responsibility? 2. Find the Issues regarding the moral rights and duties between a company and its shareholders: fiduciary responsibility, stakeholder concept v. shareholder concept.? 3. What is Ethical issues concerning relations between different companies? 4. Who are the Leadership issues: corporate governance. ? 5. Is there a Political contributions made by corporations?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 4: RESPONSIBILITY ISSUES AND RISK ASSESSMENT

Anton Vedder

“Responsibilities for Information on the Internet”

Learning Expectations: I expect to learn about the responsibilities that come with the openness of information in the internet. I want to see how people are disciplined and how it is being handled as an ethical issue.

Quote:

“TYPICALLY, A COMPUTER THAT CONNECTS TO THE INTERNET CAN ACCESS INFORMATION FROM A VAST ARRAY OF AVAILABLE SERVERS AND OTHER COMPUTERS BY MOVING INFORMATION FROM THEM TO THE COMPUTER'S LOCAL MEMORY.”

Review: One problem in using the Internet to do historical research is that the quality of sources varies tremendously. The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers, enabling users to share information along multiple channels. Unlike books and journals, which go through a filtering process (e.g. editing, peer review), information on the Internet is mostly unfiltered. . An important consideration with web pages is the presence of advertising. Currency can be thought of as the "freshness" of information, and is a desirable characteristic for statistics, news, and other present-context material. Historical material restricted to a particular period doesn't require as frequent updating as state-of-the-art information, and can be regarded in a different light. In general, the latest information is the most valuable. It is important to identify any biases that the author(s) or editor(s) of an information source might possess. If there are sponsoring agencies, they should be named and reputable. Any apparent conflicts of interest should be identified.

Learning Insights: The frequency of update, which tells how often new information is added to the source, and whether or not this is done on a regular basis. A further consideration is the extent to which updating of content is done.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What are the identifying and accessing the appropriate data repositories, i.e., databases and/or web sites, Is there a conducting comprehensive searches by constructing queries that are appropriate for the topic's breadth and depth, and What are the preliminarily organized and ranked according to source, topic structure, or chronology; the next step is to Is there a critically evaluate each information resource. How reliable and free from error is the information?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 4: RESPONSIBILITY ISSUES AND RISK ASSESSMENT

Philip Brey

“Virtual Reality and Computer Simulation”

Learning Expectations: I expect to learn about the many issues in virtual reality and simulation. I want to see the stand of the anti and pro.

Quote:

“IT COULD CONTAIN CONSCIOUS MINDS WHICH MAY OR MAY NOT KNOW THAT THEY ARE LIVING INSIDE A SIMULATION. IN ITS STRONGEST FORM, THE "SIMULATION HYPOTHESIS" CLAIMS IT IS POSSIBLE AND EVEN PROBABLE THAT WE ARE ACTUALLY LIVING IN SUCH A SIMULATION.”

Review: The computer transfers sensory data to them and reads their desires and actions back; in this manner they interact with the simulated world and receive feedback from it. In a brain-computer interface simulation, each participant enters from outside, directly connecting their brain to the simulation computer. For example, it is well known that physical systems can be simulated to some degree of accuracy. If computationalism is correct, and if there is no problem in generating artificial consciousness from cognition, it would establish the theoretical possibility of a simulated reality. However, the relationship between cognition and phenomenal consciousness is disputed. It is possible that consciousness requires a substrate of "real" physics, and simulated people, while behaving appropriately, would be philosophical zombies. This would also seem to negate Nick Bostrom's simulation argument; we cannot be inside a simulation, as conscious beings, if consciousness cannot be simulated.

Learning Insights: Like many others, assumes that accurate judgments about the simulating computer can be made from within the simulation. If we are being simulated, we might be misled about the nature computer.

Integrative Questions: 1. Is it possible, even in principle, to tell whether we are in a simulated reality? 2. Is there any difference between a simulated reality and a "real" one? 3. How should we behave if we knew that we were living in a simulated reality? 4. What is virtual simulation? 5. Define simulation?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 4: RESPONSIBILITY ISSUES AND RISK ASSESSMENT

Antonio Marturano

“Genetic Information: Epistemological and Ethical Issues”

Learning Expectations: I want to see how genetic information can be kept authentic or genuine with the chance to manipulate the data with technology. I want to see how this issue is addressed and who are the key people involved in this.

Quote:

“THE HUMAN GENOME RESEARCH IS TOWARD THE IDENTIFICATION OF GENES, GENES THAT CONTROL NORMAL BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS AND GENES THAT CREATE GENETIC DISEASE OR INTERACT WITH OTHER GENES TO PRECIPITATE HEREDITARY DISORDERS.

GENES ARE BEING LOCALIZED FAR MORE RAPIDLY THAN TREATMENTS ARE BEING DEVELOPED FOR THE AFFLICTIONS THEY CAUSE, AND THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT.”

Review: We all expected that the detection of a marker linked to the Huntington's disease gene would require thousands of tests and probes, but the third probe that Gusella characterized and the twelfth one he tried hit the jackpot. He began with the Iowan family, whose samples were the first to be collected, and the probe, called G8, was weakly positive, but not significantly so. They searched the DNA from these two families for a telltale marker, helping to develop what were to become standard laboratory procedures in such ventures. Jim sliced up each person's DNA with restriction enzymes. He then developed markers, RFLPs, which he made radioactive. These markers were called anonymous because he did not know on which human chromosome they were located, only that they were in one unique spot in the genome, just like a gene, and they came in several forms so that individuals could be differentiated from one another. The fragments of chopped-up DNA from the family members were put on a gel that separates fragments on the basis of size. The radioactive probe (denatured, or single- stranded) was then added. When the probe is radioactive, it would "light up" where it was stuck on the gel, revealing distinctive bands. One would then need to check if a certain pattern of bands appeared only in individuals who had the disease and another pattern in their relatives who were healthy.

Learning Insights: Our critics and even our supporters said, rightly, that we had been incredibly lucky. It was as though, without the map of the United States, we had looked for the killer by chance in Red Lodge, Montana, and found the neighborhood where he was living.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is genetic? What is DNA? What are the Epistemological ? What are the genetic information? Define Genetic Information?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 4: RESPONSIBILITY ISSUES AND RISK ASSESSMENT

Dorothy E. Denning

“The Ethics of Cyber Conflict”

Learning Expectations: I expect to see the main scenario. I expect to learn about the conflict and what caused it and how it resolved if it was already resolved.

Quote:

“THE INTERNET HAS BECOME A COMMUNICATIONS TOOL FOR DISSIDENTS, WHICH IS GREAT, BUT DDOS TOOLS ARE BECOMING A WAY TO SILENCE THEM.”

Review: In April 2007, protests in Estonia, which was occupied by the Soviet Union for nearly four decades, resulted in attacks by ethnic Russians and their sympathizers on Estonian government networks. A year later, cyber attacks on networks in the nation of Georgia accompanied the military conflict between that country's government and Russia. Radio Free Europe suffered an attack nearly a year ago after it posted a report on the anniversary of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. While the attacks on Estonia disrupted online business services in that country, the attackers had primarily aimed at the attacks at government Web sites responsible for moving a statue of historical importance to Russian nationalists. And, while attacks on the former Soviet state of Georgia coincided with the movement of Russian.

Learning Insights: Security experts reported an attack on the networks of another former Soviet state, Kyrgyzstan, Nazario stressed that he has yet to find any data that confirmed such an attack actually happened. While it could have been an internal conflict between an opposition party and the ruling political party, privately people doubt.

Integrative Questions:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is cyber conflict What are the ethics of cyber? Is there are conflict in cyber? Define cyber conflict What are the networks of cyber?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 4: RESPONSIBILITY ISSUES AND RISK ASSESSMENT

“A Practical Mechanism for Ethical Rist Assessment – A SoDIS Inspection” Learning Expectations: I want to see the distinction between risk and uncertainty is decision-theoretically useful, from an epistemological point of view it is in need of clarification. Only very rarely are probabilities known with certainty. Strictly speaking, the only clear-cut cases of “risk”.

Quote:

“THE WORD “RISK” REFERS, OFTEN RATHER VAGUELY, TO SITUATIONS IN WHICH IT IS POSSIBLE BUT NOT CERTAIN THAT SOME UNDESIRABLE EVENT WILL OCCUR. IN TECHNICAL CONTEXTS, THE WORD HAS SEVERAL MORE SPECIALIZED USES AND MEANINGS.”

Review: It follows that almost all decisions are made “under uncertainty”. If a decision problem is treated as a decision “under risk”, this does not mean that the decision in question is made under conditions of completely known probabilities. Rather, it means that a choice has been made to simplify the description of this decision problem by treating it as a case of known probabilities. A major problem in the epistemology of risk is how to deal with the severe limitations that characterize our knowledge of the behaviour of unique complex systems that are essential for estimates of risk, such as the climate system, ecosystems, the world economy, etc. Each of these systems contains so many components and potential interactions that it is in practice unpredictable. However, in spite of this fundamental uncertainty, meaningful statements about some aspects of these systems can be made. However, in practical applications it is important to distinguish between those probabilities that can be treated as known and those that are uncertain and therefore much more in need of continuous updating.

Learning Insights:

Typical examples of the former are the failure frequencies of a technical component that are inferred from extensive and well-documented experience of its use. The latter case is exemplified by experts' estimates of the expected failure frequencies of a new type of component.

Integrative Questions: 1. What is the Ethical Risk? 2. What is the practical Mechanism? 3. Find the risk? 4. Is there a moral on ethical risk? 5. What are the causes of risk?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 5: REGULATORY ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

John Weckert and Yeckam Al-Saggaf

“Regulation and Governance of the Internet”

Learning Expectations: I want to learn the way of discipline in the internet and the regulation and governance of its use. I want to see the code of ethics or the rule book of the internet and how it was built.

Quote:

“INFRASTRUCTURE LAYER CAN BE CONSIDERED THE FOUNDATIONAL LAYER OF THE INTERNET– IT INCLUDES THE COPPER AND OPTICAL FIBRE CABLES (OR “PIPES”) AND RADIO WAVES THAT CARRY DATA AROUND THE WORLD AND INTO USERS’ HOMES. ”

Review: The Internet is a “network of networks”; it is composed of a multitude of smaller networks that must connect together (“interconnect”) in order for the global network to function seamlessly. In traditional telecommunications networks, interconnection is clearly regulated at the national level by State authorities, and at the international level (i.e., between national networks) by well-defined principles and agreements, some of which are supervised by the ITU. Interconnection between Internet networks, however, is not clearly governed by any entity, rules or laws. In recent years, this inherent ambiguity has become increasingly problematic, leading to high access costs for remote and developing countries, and in need of some kind of governance solution. Indeed, in its final report, the WGIG identified the ambiguity and uneven distribution of international interconnection costs as one of the key issues requiring a governance solution. On the Internet, access providers must interconnect with each other across international, national or local boundaries. As we have seen, Internet governance encompasses a range of issues and actors, and takes place at many layers. Throughout the network, there exist problems that need solutions, and, more importantly, potential that can be unleashed by better governance. It is not possible here to capture the full range of issues. This section, rather, seeks to provide a sampling. It describes the issues by layers, and it also discusses key actors for each layer.

Learning Insights:

In theory, this allows the market to determine interconnection in an efficient manner. In practice, however, unequal market position, and in particular the important positions occupied by Tier 1 providers, means that the larger providers are often able to dictate terms to the smaller ones, which in turn must bear.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What are the access for every citizen on an individual or household basis? Is there an ensure that all citizens are within reach of an access point? How to access only to basic telephony? What are the value-added services like the Internet and broadband; and Find the access only to infrastructure, or also to content, services and applications.

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 5: REGULATORY ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

David M. Levy

“Information Overload”

Learning Expectations: I expect to learn about the possibility of losing space for data storage. Also, in a different context, I want to see how the tremendous amount of information can be stored and accessed by everybody on the internet.

Quote:

“THE IMPACT WITHIN THIS ISSUE TOGETHER WITH THE AMOUNT OF INFORMATION BEING PRODUCED FROM VARIOUS PEOPLE ON THE NET, THE PROBLEM OF INFORMATION OVERLOAD ARISES. THE IMPLICATION ARISES FROM THE PSYCHOLOGICAL FIELD.”

Review: The world moves into a new era of globalization, an increasing number of people are logging onto the internet to conduct their own research and are given the ability to produce as well as consume the data accessed on an increasing number of websites As of February 2007 there were over 108 million distinct websites and increasing. Users are now classified as active users because more people in society are participating in the Digital and Information Age More and more people are considered to be active writers and viewers because of their participation This flow has created a new life where we are now dependant on access to information Hence, problems like misunderstanding arise in a society, and this creates havoc and madness. Since information is different, people tend to react differently according to their set of beliefs corroborating with the information available. The growth provides opportunity for interaction and communication to take place. Individuals are able to converse about certain issues with different information hence bringing up a discussion. For example, in www.murdoch.edu.au, an LMS site is provided in which unit discussions within students takes place. One of the questions that are being asked is, “Is Second Life the New Life”. As we know, students have a range of information and thus, with their own set of knowledge from journals, books and website references, they argue their points out with one another hence improving the students to think critically and beyond the box. In the midst of this discussion, unintentionally interaction and communication takes place.

Learning Insights: It refers to an excess amount of information being provided, making processing and absorbing tasks very difficult for the individual because sometimes we cannot see the validity behind the information.

Integrative Questions: 1. What is the rapidly increasing rate of new information being produced? 2. What are the ease of duplication and transmission? 3. What are the data across the Internet? 4. Is there an increase in the available channels of incoming information? 5. Find the Large amounts of historical information to dig through?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 5: REGULATORY ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Keith W. Miller and James H. Moor

“Email Spam”

Learning Expectations: I want to learn the regulatory actions they are doing for email spam and why it has become an outbreak in the internet.

Quote:

“E-MAIL ADDRESSES ARE COLLECTED FROM CHAT ROOMS, WEBSITES, NEWSGROUPS, AND VIRUSES WHICH HARVEST USERS' ADDRESS BOOKS, AND ARE SOLD TO OTHER SPAMMERS.”

Review: E-mail addresses are collected from chatrooms, websites, newsgroups, and viruses which harvest users' address books, and are sold to other spammers. ISPs have attempted to recover the cost of spam through lawsuits against spammers, although they have been mostly unsuccessful in collecting damages despite winning in court. Providers vary in their willingness or ability to enforce their AUP. Some actively enforce their terms and terminate spammers' accounts without warning. Some ISPs lack adequate personnel or technical skills for enforcement, while others may be reluctant to enforce restrictive terms against profitable customers.As the recipient directly bears the cost of delivery, storage, and processing, one could regard spam as the electronic equivalent of "postage-due" junk mail. Due to the low cost of sending unsolicited e-mail and the potential profit entailed, some believe that only strict legal enforcement can stop junk e-mail.

Learning Insights: It is not the country where the spammer resides, nor the country that hosts the spamvertised site. Due to the international nature of spam, the spammer, the hijacked spam-sending computer, the spamvertised server, and the user target of the spam are all often located in different countries.

Integrative Questions:

1. What is email spam? 2. What is chatting? 3. How to send an message? 4. How to obtain the email addresses? 5. Define email spam?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 5: REGULATORY ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

John Snapper

“The Matter of Plagiarism: What, Why, and If”

Learning Expectations: I expect to see the ins and outs of plagiarism and how do you really consider one’s work as plagiarized.

Quote:

“THERE IS NO DECEPTION. WHEN DISTRIBUTED FROM PIRATE CENTERS IN LOCALITIES THAT BY POLICY DO NOT ENFORCE INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHTS, THERE IS MOREOVER NO ATTEMPT TO CONCEAL THE FREE DISTRIBUTION FROM THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER.”

Review: The information and the honest presentation of one's self are important responsibilities for career and citizenship. The habits students develop in college as they write papers prepare them for the kinds of writing and speaking they will do throughout a lifetime. Honesty and fairness cannot be compartmentalized as character traits to be practiced later, "when it really matters." The Plagiarism carries severe disciplinary and financial consequences. When a student is proven to have plagiarized a paper, he or she faces serious penalties, ranging from failure on the assignment to failure in the course. Plagiarism in the professional world can also lead to serious consequences, including professional disgrace, loss of position, and lawsuits. The information they present, accurate in their portrayal of texts and theories, reliably fair in their evaluations of students' work. E-mail addresses are collected from chat rooms, websites, newsgroups, and viruses.

Learning Insights: The issue can be either legal, in the case where copyright of the prior work has been transferred to another entity, or merely ethical. Typically, self-plagiarism is only considered to be a serious ethical issue in settings where a publication is asserted to consist of new material, such as in academic publishing or educational assignments.

Integrative Questions: 1. What is the liberal education within the context of the historic Christian faith" 2. Is there "an atmosphere of search and confrontation that will liberate the minds, enhance? 3. What is the discernment, enlarge the sympathies? 4. How to encourage the commitments of all students? 5. What can be given to others in service to God and humanity.?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 5: REGULATORY ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Richard A. Spinello

“Intellectual Property: Legal and Moral Challenges of Online File Sharing”

Learning Expectations: I expect to see the more modern issues such as intellectual property and file sharing. It is so easy to spread anything and everything on the internet and this should also be regulated in some way to express fair use in one way or another.

Quote:

“TO PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS ARE DESIGNED WITH A DEGREE OF ANONYMITY PROVIDED BY ROUTING TRAFFIC THROUGH OTHER USERS' CLIENTS, EFFECTIVELY HIDING THE IDENTITY OF THE USERS. M OST OF THESE NETWORKS USE STRONG ENCRYPTION TO RESIST TRAFFIC SNIFFING.”

Review: Network file sharing is the server-based approach in which a network host is designated as a file server. A file server implements at least one network file sharing protocol, such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP), Secure File Transfer Protocol (SFTP), Network File System (protocol) (NFS), Server Message Block (SMB, CIFS), or other network file systems. Computers seeking to access stored files utilize a compatible client-side protocol implementation and either mount an entire remote directory hierarchy within their file system or facilitate access, transfer, and local storage of individual remote files by means of a user application.Webhosting is also used for file-sharing; it is similar to the server-based approach, but uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and related technologies for file transfer. In small communities popular files can be distributed very quickly and efficiently without extra software in addition to the ubiquitous web browsers.

Learning Insights: To understand peer-to-peer file sharing and which was indeed the very first implementation of peer-to-peer file sharing, you need to go back before the popularized form of the Internet as we know it. First use of Peer-to-peer file sharing was on a network similar to the Internet known as WWIVnet.

WWIVnet was like FidoNet but it used a distributed model of nodes where traffic was re-routed based on the shortest distance between nodes.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Why file-sharing enables people to share files? What feature allows you to access and share files? Is there a private sharing files ? What is Peer to Peer file sharing? What are the technologies to use in file sharing?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 6: ACCESS AND EQUITY ISSUES

“Censorship and Access to Expression” Learning Expectations: I expect to see how access and censorship is being done. I want to see the regulations on censorship and how ethicists think about it.

Quote:

“INTERNET CENSORSHIP IS CONTROL OR SUPPRESSION OF THE PUBLISHING OR ACCESSING OF INFORMATION ON THE INTERNET. THE LEGAL ISSUES ARE SIMILAR TO OFFLINE CENSORSHIP.”

Review: Barring total control on Internet-connected computers, such as in North Korea and Cuba, total censorship of information on the Internet is very difficult (or impossible) to achieve due to the underlying distributed technology of the Internet. The difference is that national borders are more permeable online: residents of a country that bans certain information can find it on websites hosted outside the country. Conversely, attempts by one government to prevent its citizens from seeing certain material can have the effect of restricting foreigners, because the government. Pseudonymity and data havens (such as Freenet) allow unconditional free speech, as the technology guarantees that material cannot be removed and the author of any information is impossible to link to a physical identity or organization. The world are now considering the filtering system known as PICS (Platform for Internet Content Selections) as an answer to their concerns, the question of parental controls also must be addressed. In many countries, the state justifies censorship with the claim that it is acting in loco parentis. Such claims, whether interpreted as "state as parent" or "state as Big Brother," are responsible for many of the restrictions on information distribution found today across the world.

Learning Insights:

The different level, the actions and reactions of large corporations to the Internet has to be factored into any discussion of economic censorship. Some firms have paid search engine companies for preferential placement in particular subject categories when a user submits an online search inquiry.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is Auto-censorship against sexual words in matter for children? How the users who are not administrators, has been known to query usernames? Find the Yahoo email group system's profanity blocker, set to block the acronym CP in descriptions of email groups? How to treating it as meaning "child pornography",? How to block it when a journalist setting up an email group used "CP?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 6: ACCESS AND EQUITY ISSUES

Alison Adam

“The Gender Agenda in Computer Ethics”

Learning Expectations: I expect to see the effect or the difference that gender makes in computer ethics. I want to see that if the normal or the usual gender issues in the society are also applied in computer ethics.

Quote:

“THE BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY THAT ANALYSIS THE NATURE AND SOCIAL IMPACT OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY AS WELL AS THE STANDARDS OF CONDUCT WHICH PERTAIN TO PROPER USE COMPUTERS. IT INVOLVES SOCIAL ISSUES, SUCH AS ACCESS RIGHTS, WORKING PLACE MONITORING, CENSORSHIP AND JUNK MAIL.”

Review: Computer Ethics is a branch of practical philosophy which deals with how computing professionals should make decisions regarding professional and social conduct. The term "computer ethics" was first coined by Walter Maner in the mid1970s, but only since the 1990s has it started being integrated into professional development programs in academic settings. Some have argued against the idea of computer ethics as a whole. However, Collins and Miller proposed a method of identifying issues in computer ethics in their Paramedic Ethics model. The model is a data-centered view of judging ethical issues, involving the gathering, analysis, negotiation, and judging of data about the issue.In solving problems relating to ethical issues, Michael Davis proposed a unique problemsolving method. In Davis's model, the ethical problem is stated, facts are checked, and a list of options is generated by considering relevant factors relating to the problem.

Learning Insights: The code is a four-point standard governing ethical behavior among computing professionals. It covers the core set of computer ethics from professional responsibility to the consequences of technology in society.

Integrative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is the agenda of computer ethics? What are the ethics of agenda? Find the ethical behavior among computer professional? What are the responsibilities of computer professionals? Define computer ethics?

TITLE OF THE BOOK: HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS LIBRARY REFERENCE: N/A AMAZON LINK: PART 6: ACCESS AND EQUITY ISSUES

Rafael Capurno

“Intercultural Information Ethics”

Learning Expectations: I expect to learn how information ethics are formed even with the cultural divides. I want to see how it is addressed in different cultures.

Quote:

“THE WORD “PHILOSOPHY” POINTS TO A SPECIFIC WAY OF QUESTIONING OF THE KIND “WHAT IS?” (TI ESTIN), AND MORE PRECISELY “WHAT IS BEING?””

Review: According to Luhmann (1990) the ethical discourse should not provide a given morality with a kind of fundamentum inconcussum or even become a meta-perspective beyond all other societal systems but, quite the contrary, it belongs to the selfreferential process of morality itself. Philosophic questioning is of the nature that it binds questions with the essence of the questioner. To answer the question ‘what is philosophy?’ is then by no means possible by referring to one of the possible answers alone, nor is it the result of looking for what is common to all of them as this would provide just a “void formula” (“leere Formel”) (Heidegger 1976, 19). It is also not sure that our answer, or Heidegger’s own, will be a philosophic one. The Aristotle’s conception of practical philosophy is concerned with the reflection on the ways human beings dwell in the world, with their ethos, and their search for good life

Learning Insights: This situation of disturbance or insecurity may be a hint and even a “touchstone” (“Prüfstein”) that we are on a philosophic path (Heidegger 1976, 19). What is basic for grasping the differences among philosophic answers is their corresponding mood, including the sober mood of planning and calculating which is a characteristic of modern science and with it of what we use to call ‘modernity.’

Integrative Questions: 1. How far does the Internet affect? 2. Is it for better or worse, local and particularly global cultures? 3. How far does it foster democratic processes inside and between them? 4. How do people construct their cultural identities within this medium? 5. How does it affect their customs, languages, and everyday problems?