Islamic Economics: City Of Eighty Four Languages

City of Eighty-four Languages, from Malacca to Mali: Economic Conditions of Islamic Lands in 15th Century

Ismail Yurdakok Researcher/Author [email protected]

Balikesir/Turkey

City of Eighty-four Languages, from Malacca to Mali: Century

Economic Conditions of Islamic Lands in 15th

Abstract

Malacca population was only 2,000 in the year of 1400 but with a rapidly growth it reached 50,000 in the 1450s and 100,000 (or 190,000) at the end of the 15th century. Eighty-four languages were being spoken in the Malacca city and there were 4,000 foreign businessmen. In another parts of the Islamic world: international businessman Mahmud Ghawan from Iran was named as 'King of the Businessmen' by Indian Sultan Alauddin Khumayun Shah and then became the prime minister of Bahmanids. Ahmadabad was established in this century by Ahmad Shah and Khalajids in Northern India (esp. Sultan Mahmud I) were protecting muslim/nonmuslim foreign businessmen. But the economies of Egypt and Baghdad(Iraq) were not good; heavy taxes, and lack of security were repeller factors for businessmen from these countries. Jalaluddin al-Suyuti had written Zamm al-Maks in that years against heavy taxes of Mamluk administration in Egypt and Jeddah and Rasulid dynasty in Aden. Custom duties became very high in Aden and Indian ships began to come to Jeddah directly from Calcutta bypassing Aden. In Iran, Iraq and Azarbaijan, taxes also were very high under the Karakoyunluds dynasty. But Afhganistan especially in last thirty years of this century was in prosperity under the reign of Sultan Husayin Baykara. Three islands in Indian Ocean were today’s Singapore: Jarun Island in Khurmuz Strait, Diu (Island) in Ghujurat and Kilwa(Island) in East Africa were very active international (Islamic) free ports that businessmen of the world used to meet. Africa from Atlantic to Indian ocean was a very rich continent in this century. In general, Islamic countries -with their productive economies- were the champions of free-trade. Historical method will be employed in the paper and useful points for contemporary economic problems will be noted.

Introduction. Probably, 15th century is the last brilliant period of the economies of Islamic lands before western imperialist powers came to the Indian ocean. Although Mongol calamity in the half period of 13th century gave a heavy damage to at least half of the Islamic lands (from Baghdad to Bukhara) but the other parts of muslim world were not been influnced by the destroying of Mongols and 14th century had become a recovery years for the business life of Middle East and Central Asia. Crusades also had ended at the end of the first part of 13th century and from (muslim) Spain to China, muslim businessmen began to gain old succesful trade activities again like in 9th and 10th centuries. No any global slump is seen in 15th century and the muslim states had realized ‘market enterprise’ and ‘free commercial lands’ for all of the entrepreneurs of the world, from Malay world to Morocco. Malacca: Rising Star of 15th Century. After 1390, Malacca as a port was

established in very late years of 14th century by prince Paramesvara from Srivicaya dynasty; that prince Paramesvara had escaped from Palembang (Sumatra) and had stayed a few years in Singapore. The new port gave a big power to the prince that the river was providing contact to the inner hinterland and Malacca became the busiest port of the region on the China-India-West route. The rulers saw the brilliant future of the city and gave importance to the improvement of the port, built vast antrepots underground granaries, storehouses against fires and burglars. They also took measurements for the security of foreign businessmen and their properties. Judicial decrees for these businessmen’s favour and punishments for bribery and fraud were made effective; and these precautions began to attract the foreign businessmen to the Malacca seaport. On the other hand, Malacca had been built on the crossroads of south and north monsoon winds that’s why ships used to reach here from India and West between March and January, and ships of China and eastren islands between November and March and all of ships used to stay some period compulsorily from the position of the winds. So, after a short time, Malacca became one the most important trade centers of the world and it gained a political popularity; parallel its new economic situation. As an indicator of this, only a few years after its establishment in 1403 an envoy from China visited the city and in 1407 China navy paid a visit to the port. In the first years, Malacca had got only 2,000 population in spite of its unexpectedly increased richness and political prestige.But then with the immigrants from the other parts of Malaya peninsula and Sumatra, and foreign tradesmen from India nad China the population increased rapidly and reached 4050,000 in the middle of the 15th century; and at the end of the century to 100,000.Western sources say 100,000 but Malay sources 190,000. Tome Pires a Portuguese traveller visited the port in 1510 mentiones that Malacca is a big city and has got 10,000 houses, eighty-four languages are spoken in her streets, approximately 4,000 foreign businessmen reside, there is vast trade places along the Malacca river and especially on the south shores of the city there are different towns that different nationalities stay in these quarters; also there are enchanting buildings on the Bertam hill include the palace of prince Paramesvara. According to Tomo Pires Malacca has got a trade capacity of 2,4 million “cruzado” (Portuguese golden coin) that it is impossible to compare with any other city in the world. In these centuries, Sevilla (one of the richest trade center of Europe) has got 4 million cruzado trade capacity but at the end of 16th century. Portuguese sources also mentione Sultanate of Malacca has got 4,000 soldier in that years and with the neighbouring of Malay military powers this number was reaching 100,000 soldiers.The palace of Malacca had embraced Islam from the second sultan Megat Iskender (his reign 1414-23) and Malacca became the center of Islamic religion and culture especially in the middle of the 15th century. But Malacca lost her trading superiority in the Portuguese invasion because new administration imposed high taxes and began official malpractices so businessmen preferred to go to Ache sultanate. (1) Three Singapores; Diu, Jarun, Kilwa islans. Diu: another Singapore of 15th Century: Diu is an island and city across the south point of Kathiavar peninsula (Gujurat State) in India. Its length is 11 km. and wideness 3 km. With a bridge it is connected to the land. It has got a natural port that it is not influenced by tides. Zafar Khan (Gujurat governor Tughluk dynasty) declared his independence in 1407, he named himself Muzaffar Shah and gave a garrisonship status to Diu and appointed a qadi and built different mosques. The island rapidly developed and in 1431 Diu-port was extended for covering all of the needings of the Gujurat navy. (But wealthy days of Diu would end in 1509 because of the Portuguese attacks and after long-war-years in 1546 the island would be invaded by Portuguese soldiers and four centuries of Portuguese invasion (to December, 19 1961) would begin. (2) After Muzaffar Shah, Ahmed Shah (d. 1442) is accepted as the real founder of Gujurat Sultanate, he provided stability in Gujurat and made built Ahmadabad as a

capital city that Ahmadabad was adorned with huge buildings. Gujurat highly developed in the long reign of Mahmud I (1458-1511) that he punished pirates of Jagat (Dvarka), provided security for international businessmen, progress in agriculture was obvious and new kinds of fruits were grown up. Another transit center was Jarun island on the east shores of Hurmuz strait. Escaping from Mongol armies the people of Hurmuz port had settled this island in 1300. Jarun island became the gateway of for Kirman, Sistan and Khorasan regions and an active trade city. Russian traveler Afanasi Nikitin visited the island in 1472 and said “men and goods had come from all over the world” also another traveler from Venice Josafa Barbaro mentioned as “a very developed business center.” Kilwa an island in the east Africa was the third transit center established by muslims in the first century of Islam on the west shores of Indian ocean. Especially in the 15th century Kilwa reached the highest welfare level and was the most powerful state on the east Africa. The busiest business center for Africa and South Asia. The greatest buildings on the south of equator before British colony period were seen on this island. But Portugal army destroyed the island completely between the yera sof 1505-13. Ambition and envy of Portugueses depleted, put the end of the greatest and liveliest trading center of the world in eight years. This was not the end of only Kilwa but the end of active business life of East, West and South Africas. (3) Muhammadabad was established by Sultan of Gujurat Mahmud I in 1482 and capital city was moved here from Ahmadabad. Construction works lasted twenty three years and markets, shopping districts, public squares, gardens, pools, palaces were built. The city appeared as a magnificent panorama and became a trade center. The city win fame for her silk industry, weaving and producing of swords. Muhammadabad was being mentioned as “the most beautiful city of west India.” (4) Sultan Mahmud I (his reign 1436-69) was the founder of Malwa branch of Halajids in northern India that he also built hospitals, madrasas (higher schools) and protected scholars and businessmen and no any discrimination to Hindus was seen in his administration.He was very sensitive in his campaigns for protecting of arable fields. (5) Another part of India, Delhi (Sultanate) was destroyed by Timur in the late years of 14th century (1398.) Hamid Khan (grand vizier of Delhi Sultanate) invited Behlul-i Lodi to Delhi in 1451. After coming of Sultan Behlul to Delhi, this city was improved, repaired and became a center for scholars and artisans again. Sultan Behlul provided stability and economic affluence and a lot of cities and towns gained liveliness. (6) King of the Businessmen. The interesting story of Mahmud Ghawan is as an example of enterpreneur muslim businessman in 15th century and also indicates very active intermuslim relations. Mahmud Ghawan (1411-81) was born in Ghawan (city) on the shore of Caspian Sea. He visited for trade a lot of cities of Iraq and Khorasan (as a historic region that covered some parts of modern day Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan) and listened to the lectures of scholars of these regions. In his 42 years old, he left Iran in 1453 and via Arabian Gulf reached India. He settled Bider, capital-city of Bahmanids in Central India. Mahmud began to be busy with tarde here and in the course of the time he became known with nation and the palace.Then he was appointed as a commander for a revolt.He suppressed the revolt and increased esteem. In the period of Alauddin Khumayun Shah (1458-61) title of “malik al-tujjar(king of the businessmen)” was given to him and h also suppressed different revolts in this term. Mahmud Ghawan was appointed as grand vizier in 1463. He played a great role in Bahmanid history applying innovations in administration and military system.He provided a systematic measurement of lands making written the real boundaries of the villages and cities and searched the amount of revenues from these measurements.(7) Afghanistan. Timur (founder of Timurid Empire and dynasty (his reign 1370-1405) in Central Asia made opened water-channels in the villages of Kabul. Kabul was a very

developed city in all of the 15th century especially in the long reign of Ulug Bek (1461-1502.) In another part of Afghanistan, the capital city was Herat and the other Timurid ruler Sultan Husayin Baykara (his reign 1470-1506) had got a vast lands from Bistam and Damagan in the west to Ghazna and Balkh in the east, from Kharizm in the north to Kandahar in the south. A lot of artists and artisans had gathered in Herat and this city had got a population of 3 million. Herat lived the most brilliant period in this century. Although as unnecessary luxury the walls of the palace of Bag-i Safid were overlaid with jades that were imported from China in 1410. A Shifaiyye, famous medical school and hospital was opened in the second part of thsi century and another famous palace Bag-i Shah had been built for the garnd vizier Ali Shir Nawai (of Husayin Baykara.) May be for this reason, famous scholar Molla Abdurrahman Jamii had sent a letter to Husayin Baykara that Jamii was warning him not to take high taxes from the farmers.(8) Carpet-making, artisans in bookbindership, coppersmith, gilder, silk industry, weaving of prayer rug, miniaturists, calligraphy of Herat were very famous in the world. Baysungur (the son of Sultan Sahruh) had established a workshop that more than a hundred artisans were working there. Another Timurid ruler Abu said Mirza Khan (his reign 1451-69) abolished non-shar`i (illegitimate) tax (tax of tamga) and he prohibited taking of taxes from fruit trees. Abu Said Mirza Khan encouraged irrigation and was interested in agriculture and farming. Sultan charged his grand vizier Qutbuddin Simnani for organizing and extend the irrigation system that Simnani was an expert in irrigation. Sultan made built the canal of Juy-i Sultani in the northern Herat and Ghulistan dam in Mashhad. In his reign Timurids extended their sovereignty in Mawaraunnahr, Turkistan, Qabulistan, Zabulistan (today’s Afghanistan), Khorasan and Mazandaran. It is seen that decreasing of taxes brought political success. (9) In central Asia, the cities of Mawaraunnahr ( its area 660,000 sq. km.) reached the peak level in economic and cultural progress. Especially Samarkand went ahead with a lot of architectural monuments. Advanced irrigation system in fertile soils of the oasis of the central Asia and rich gold and silver mines. Historical silkroad was giving still important role for economic development of Mawaraunnahr (in this century) and developed trading life that depends on transportation of China goods (to the Middle East and West.) (10) Diamonds and sapphire of Khotan was coming to the capital city Samarkand. Khotan was a historical city and region in the south of East-Turkistan (now under the military occupation of China.) Khotan was famous for her carpet, walnut, jade and metal casting and engraving of valuable stone and metal was very developed. Irrıgation also was progressed and wheat, corn, rice, mulberry, cotton, different fruits were being grown. Weaving industry of silk was widespread. Dark-green and brown-white jade was being engraving on the swords, belts and traces of harnesses of horses. (11) In another place; khan (ruler) of Darband (on the shore of Caspian Sea) had invited Giovanni de Valle, a Venetian sailor, for development of Caspian sea trade. Some progress was seen, and a limited trade between the ports of Darband and Astarkhan but not suufficient. Ambrogia Contarini another captain from Venice says that fish industry was developed in Caspian Sea and Tatars that used to live on some islands of this sea, were fishing seal, and were using fat of seals in illumination and calming of camels. But methods of fishing was primitive and a lot of kind of fish was not being fished.(12) In the northern lands of caspian, Kazan Khanate (today’s Tataristan Republic of Russian Federation) was a Tatar-Turkuman state between 1437-1556. The majority of the people were busy with agriculture and archaeological searches show they also active in animal husbandry, fur trade and leather industry and that’s why capital city Kazan had become a trade centre. Nonmuslims in the vast lands of this Khanate were giving their non-high taxes and living in a broad freedom. (13) Egypt. Egypt began 15th century with the calamities. After drought and scarcity a new plague re-shocked the economy in 1403. Two-third of the population of Cairo

had died; the big parts of the city were ruined. (14) Amirs (commanders) and others (powerful persons, chiefs) plundered Cairo and handed the properties of the State and endowments.(15) Internal tumults were followed by the revolts of Bedouin tribes. There was no state authority in the first fifteen years of the century especially in the southern Egypt.This situation gave heavy damage to agriculture, inflation increased and money system collapsed. After 1415 Egypt began to regain former power. Trade of spices was monopolized by State and new international order in Sultan Barsbay period (1422-38) made become ‘Egypt-Red-Sea-Indian ocean trade road’ the safest route. Bedouin tribes were under control in this period and disorder in south Egypt was solved. After these works an economic development was seen that Egypt did not see it in a long period. Buildings that were built in the term of Sultan Qayitbay are the evidence of that development. Sultan Qayitbay (his reign 1468-96) stabilized the economy and the spectacular building projects were started not only in every quarter of Cairo but also in Damascus, Aleppo, Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem and Alexandria. His term was a recovery period but on the other hand necessary operations for the economy could not been done.And last ten years of the century were also not good; in 1492 the plague returned to Cairo and approximately 200,000 persons died. Wars with Ottomans forced new recruitments for the army. And expenses for the army and for great construction projects increased the inflation. Qayitbay confiscated the properties of the rich, applied heavy taxes on tradesmen of cereal grains and wanted taxes from the real estates of endowments and some persons. Bedouin tribes also became out of control. Unnecessary wars betwen two great muslim empires (Ottomans and Mamluks) gave damage to both economies. (16) Criticisms of Asadi and Suyuti on 15th Century Egyptian Economy. High taxes of Mamluk administration is the main characteristic of this period. Heavy taxes became a heavy blow on home trade and foreign trade. Non-stable economic conditions increased because of disputes and fightings among unrest army groups that their salaries were not being paid regularly. Famous scholar of the period Jalaluddin Suyuti (1445-1505) points these disorders but also at the same mentiones active trade in markets:producing of weapons and war tools, maritime arsenals, weaving, mining, glass industry, pottery and wood industry;textile industry on woollen, silk, linen, cotton and leather industry were famous for. (17) Asadi (Muhammad b. Muhammad) completed his study al-Taysir wa al-I`tibar on October 1450. This study was written in the form of Siyasatnama (rules for kings) and was submitted to sultan of Mamluks Saifuddin Jakmak (his reign 143853.) Asadi writes the reasons of collapse of Egypt’s economy was insufficient land system, neglecting of irrigation, impotence of the administration in protecting of the villagers against Bedouins, oppressings and exploitations of local authorities on nation and patronage of governments these authorities. Author notes that agriculture –as a main income source- was neglected, new water channels were not opened and former canals were not repeared, and justice is not performed because of favouritism of notables. In third part, Asadi writes misappropriations in coinage and tools of balances and says these two factors had upset economic structure of Egypt.He wants rigorous inspection on mint in his ‘Draft on Money Reform.’ Asadi underlines that the reason of the inflation that causes the social unrests is ‘giving of food trade to the monopoly of some men’ that they are under the patronage of some statesmen. He says no any privilege should not be granted for anyone, a trustworthy administration should be established, and the men who do misappropriation must be dismissed and punished and Asadi states his the other proposals.(18) Asadi’s proposal on money reform was accepted and performed by Sultan al-Malik alAshraf Inal (his reign 1453-61.) Sultan struggled to demonetization of the lowstandard coins. He began gradually and first wanted to prohibit to use of that kind of coins were minted in Damascus, but he was informed that some soldiers and people were against this and might be a revolt ; that’s why he gave up. But the

next year he fixed the rates of gold and silver that he minted in Cairo and demonetizated low-standard coins and made decreased the prices in the rate of onethird for protecting the nation to lose and Sultan Inal’s economic policy gave successful results in his terms. (19) It is observed that some scholars are also work as businessmen in Cairo; one of them Khatib al-Jawhari (1416-95) jurist and historian he was a jeweller in the Jewellery (covered) Market of Cairo.(20) Jalaluddin Mahalli (1389-1459) used to sell cloth in his shop and give courses in Barquqiya and Muayyadiyya madrasas.(21) Aleppo (today the second city of Syria with a population of two millions) had got a very active trade in 15th century (in this period; greater Syria: today’s Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Palestine and some south provinces of Turkey were under the administration of Egypt Mamluk’s.) 14th and 15th centuries are the brilliant centuries for Syria’s economy. Ivory, iron, weaving, ceramics.. it was to find everything in the markets of Aleppo. Caravans that used to begin their journays from this city’s khans (inns and large commercial buildings that even some of them, today also give services) they used to go Iraq, Turkey, Iran, Hijaz, Yemen, Oman, India, China, Egypt and North African countries. There were also a lot of European businessmen used to stay in Aleppo. (22) Jeddah (was also a city of Mamluks) was the exit of Mecca to the world. Pilgrims were coming to Jeddah from Egypt and Africa. Goods from Europe to India and goods from India to Europe were passing from Jeddah.Aden port was a transshipment centre that Indian ships was transferring their goods to ships that these ships used to know Red-Sea routes and all of the goods (to Europe, Egypt and East Mediterrenean) were coming to Jeddah. But businessmen used to pay maks (non-religious tax) first to Rasulids (of Yemen) and then Meccan sharifs. But Yemen authorities in Aden began to take high customs duties in 1424. And businessmen come from Calcutta inclined to Jeddah directly. This situation gave positive impact to the revenues of Meccan sharifs. But the problem of rates of sharing of this revenue between Mamluks and sharifs went on more than sixty years. Even Shahruh (Sultan of Timurids) interferred the problem. But Malik al-Zahir Jakmak asked a fatwa from the four grand jurists ( of four sunni schools) of Cairo that he said he was giving the salaries of soldiers of Jeddah and Mecca for protecting of Jeddah (port) and Hijaz from foreign powers. Although grand jurists gave a good fatwa what Sultan Jakmak wants and approved sultan’s demand in spite of Jeddah and Meccan people put their reactions. But another famous scholar of this century Jalaluddin al-Suyuti (1445-1505) would write a paper on this problem: Zamm al-Maks (Dhamm al-Maks, wickedness of maks.) (23)And in 1478, Egyptian historian Ibn Iyas went to Mecca as a pilgrim with the Sultan of Mamluks (Qayitbay), a quarrel occurred with Sultan and some Meccan men; Ibn Iyas mentiones some troubles and inflation that he witnessed.(24) Baghdad. 15th century is one the worst periods for Baghdad. Timur destroyed Baghdad two times in 1392-93 and in 1401. The city did not see much damage in the first, but in 1401 the innocent people were killed and most of the buildings were destroyed. Timur sacked the city dealing it a blow from which it did not recover in coming centuries. Ahmad Jalayir (ruler of Jalayirids who ruled Iraq and Azarbaijan between 1336-1432) came to Baghdad in 1405 and struggled for repairing buildings and markets but his time was very short that he was killed in a dispute with his former ally, Kara Yusuf, chief of the Karakoyunlu (Black Sheep) Turkman tribal confederation from eastren Anatolia. Baghdad was under the administrations of Turkman dynasties (between 1410-67 Karakoyunlu and after them Akkoyunlu (White Sheep); and under their bad rule the city deteriorated. The majority of the people left the city. Floods gave heavy damage to the homes, markets and arable fields because irrigation system had been destroyed. In 1437, Maqrizi was writing that Baghdad was in ruins even no any mosque, no any community, no any market; canals had become completely dry; and a fanatical tribal system was dominant in the city

and the surroundings. (25) Karakoyunlu Dynasty is a Turkuman sultanate ruled Iran, Iraq, Azarbaijan and Eastren Turkey betwen 1351-1469 there were two kinds of taxes shar`i (Islamic, religious) and `urfi (customary, imposed by rulers) and `urfi taxes were highly much. Muhassils (tax collectors) used to collect the taxes. (26) Ottoman Economy. Ottoman economy saw a heavy damage in the first years of 15th century that Timur’s army destroyed the Ottoman cities and rural economy in 1401. Although, after one year Timur returned to central Asia (capital city of Timurid dyansty is Samarkand of today’s Uzbakistan) but Timur gave independence a lot of local states and dissolved the Ottoman empire. And there was a need a rebuild for Ottomans. After an interregnum period prince Muhammad I (Chalabi) obtained success to unite the State in 1413. Absolutely the most important event for Ottomans in 15th century is to conquer Istanbul and to bring Byzantium Empire to her end. Although Byzantium Empire had consist of (only) Istanbul (city) but it was a big obstacle for Ottoman unity in the centre of the Ottomans. After taking Istanbul, the conquerer (Fatih Sultan) Muhammad II paid ransoms of notable Byzantines and gave permission for these families and other Greeks that returned in a fixed period to Istanbul for going on their life in the city and Istanbul now the capital city of the Empire with a huge commercial capacity. Sultan also emancipated immediately the fifth of the captives of war (that this amount of the captives were his share from war booty=khumsu sultani) and made houses for them and they would not pay any tax.In 1454, a guarantee were given to Venice for her colonies in the East and the colonies of Genoese in Black Sea and Aegean Sea accepted to pay a(n annually) tribute. So, in this way, they would enter Ottoman markets easily. In 1479, a free-trade agreement was signed between Ottomans and Venice and Venice would pay annually 10,000 golden coins to Ottomans. And Venice had acccepted to pay her 100,000 ducat (Venetian gold ducat was introduced in 1284/5 and rapidly one of the most important trading coins in mediaeval Europe) former debt from alum trade. Another right was given to Venice a bailo (the Venetian Resident in Istanbul) would represent his country and this ambassador had got also a judicial status that he could solve the disputes of Venetians. The same aggreements were signed with Genoese and Bogdan (Moldavia) (27) When Ottoman Sultans ascended the throne their first job was ‘sikka and khutba’ (the right of minting coins and mention in the khutba (imams used to say their names in the khutbas in fridays in mosques), two prerogatives of the Sultan.) When new coins of new sultan begin to circulate, new Sultan used to prohibite the use of former (Sultan’s) coins. This means with the decree of prohibition of old coins the mint would begin an extraordinary working period work. Old coins used to be changed either scrap (to be melted down for re-use) or the State used to fix a rate to change them new coins. The government used to appoint ‘silver searchers’ that also named ‘prohibitionists of old coins’ and these men used to visit the markets and streets and control the men and take the old coins without paying any indemnification. But sometimes the application of the prohibition was not so hard and new coins used to be given when officers were taking old coins. This financial operation (of tajdid al-sikka and prohibition of old coins) was providing an extra income for State treasury (as a right of mint of State and (right of) fee of minting) How much silver (coins) were manufactured the income of the mint would increase. In reality this policy was a (hidden and extra) taxation of the cash values. Even sometimes sultans did this application without any changing in the throne for a solution for budget deficits. Sultan Fatih Muhammad II repeatedly carried out this policy. Muhammad II (his reign 1453-81) used to adulterate the aqcha (silver coin) ( made dropped the rate of silver in the coin adding some copper) that is his aim to gain the profit of a small develuation. Muhammad II performed this financial operation in 1444,1460,1475 and 1481 and in every application the weight of aqcha was made

dropped one weight grain. When an operation was done it was not sufficient a prohibition because the nationused to hide their coins not to loss and made produced (transformed) them ornaments and other things even escape to foreign countries. That’s why in these terms some precautions were applied on jewellery and simkashkhanas (shop that makes silver wire) and exports of silver and silver products were being prohibited. An army mutiny occurred in the the first operation of Fatih Muhammad II in 1444 and janissaries (Ottoman permanent brigades in Istanbul) took promise from his son Sultan Bayazid not to do like a this operation (but only one time in his sultanate) in his first days of sultanate, and a small money operation had been done in 1491 but no any event occurred. (28) As a result of a lot of military campaigns of Fatih Muhammad II in his approximately reign of 30 years, taxes were heavy on the rural and urban groups; real estates and endowments of some scholar and notable Turkish families had been seizured by the government and that’s why there was a widespread discontent with his financial/monetary policy. On the other hand custom duties were not high. In the first years of Fatih, Ottoman citizens were paying 2% and foreigners 4%; following years citizens 4% and foreigners 5 %. Ottoman citizens as Greeks, Turks and Armenians were the businessmen of new period that their number increased but numbers of Italian businessmen decreased. Muslim and non-muslim Ottoman citizens were paying the same rate. Fur trade and industry developed also in 15th century in the great cities of Ottomans. Furs of lynx and beach martin were coming from internal markets but the others from Russia. After 1475, Crimea was under control of Ottoman empire, furs of Russian fox and sable furs began to come from via Crimea that with the road security Russia gained a lot of from this trade but especially in the periods of economic crisis Ottoman government prohibited fur imports but full control was not provided because this business was very profitable for both sides (businessmen Russia nad Ottoman.) There were two kinds of guilds on fur production. First postin duzan fur sewers and postin-furushan fur sellers. Mahmud Pasha (Grand vizier of Otoman empire) had made built a Kurkcu Khani (Grand Plaza of Furriers) that there were 120 shops here and incomes of rents were being spent for the poors and other expenditures of the Pasha’s endowment. Big fur traders were working in this plaza but the other fur traders and guilds in different trade centers of Istanbul.(29) As one of the main characteristics of Ottoman economy in the services sector there were a lot of kinds of endowments in different parts of the Empire. As an example: in Narda (now in western Greece); Faiq Pasha (a powerful statesman of the Empire) had made built an imarat (soupkitchen for the poor), a madrasa (higher religious school) a mosque and a dar’u al-ta’lim (primary school) and the expenditures of these institutions were being paid by the incomes of the Faiq Pasha’s foundation that encomes were coming from a fishing enclosure in Serez, lands in Salonika; Pasha had made built also a bridge in this region that its length was 142 m. Another example is Shabuddin Pasha’s foundation in Plovdiv (today the second greatest city in Bulgaria.) A great madrasa, a public bath, a great caravansaray (inn with a large courtyard that businessmen and tourists used to pay no money for accommodation and dinners) and an imarat for the poor.(30) Crimea. Crimea is peninsula on the northern coast of the Black Sea now as an autonomous Republic of Ukraine an area of 26,100 sq.km. and a 1,973,185 population in 2007. But Crimean Tatars used to control a vast region the steppes that streched from the Kuban to the Dniester River. Haji Ghiray (his reign 1429-66) was the founder Sultan of Crimea Khanate and in his period Crimea had a got an important place in the trade of between East and North Europe and Central Asia and Upper Middle East. There were commercial Genoese towns in the south of the peninsula and the officers of the Haji Ghiray used to collect the custom duties. Crimeans were busy with also sea-trade.The fur, fish, grain and wax used to come from Moscow, Kazan (Tataristan) and the other northern regions and silk and spices

from Far-east. (31) Akkirman is another city in northern Black Sea was under Bogdan (today’s Moldavia) administration and was an important antrepot of north trade.Vaivode (ruler) of Bogdan Petro III recognized Ottoman sovereignty in 1456 that from that time Bogdan had got a federal status in Ottoman empire, a decree was issued that the businessmen of Akkirman had got free-trade right in three great cities of Ottoman empire Istanbul, Bursa and Edirne. (32) Africa. Kano Islamic Sultanate (in central Africa) (especially in the reign of Sultan Muhammad Rumfa (1463-99) became the center of international trade. The capital city was full of scholars and foreign businessmen. Hausa in northern Nigeria had become a very active city in trade between Guinea and Cairo and a lot of businessmen from Egypt and Algeria had settled there. (33) In the West Africa, goldmines fields were discovered in the inner regions from the Ghana coasts and muslim businessmen from northern (tribes) Mande, Hausa and Dyula came there. This region developed because it was on the two important trade-routes. Muslim Dyulas came to Volta region (east Ghana) and established some colonies; in the course of the time, the number of these small settlements increased. Another factor that incresaed these muslim towns was the caravan route that was coming from the north crossing all of the Sahara and going to the great markets of Niger. The most important centres in this period were Begho(today’s Nsorkor on the west boundary of today’s Ghana) and Wa (in the northern region) cities became very developed from gold trade. The second step of muslim spreading in the region was the coming of muslim tradesmen from the northern Hausa State that they were busy with starch trade. (34) There were great market cities in Niger and caravans were coming from North Africa across Saharan desert. Songhay empire is the biggest power of Africa in this period. From Atlantic ocean in the west to inner regions of Niger and Nigeria in an area of 1,400, 000 sq. km. Especially after 1464, the important trade cities and critical trade routs of the region were under the control of this empire. Timbuktu is the most brilliant commercial center (as a historical city in West Africa today in Mali and it is located southern edge of the Sahara) but the other cities and towns of the Songhays also had got very active commercial life. Arab, Italian, and Jewish merchants all had gathered for trade in Timbuktu. Sultan (Askia) Muhammad Ture (his reign 1493-1528) appointed various minesterial positions, notably the minister of foreign relations, who was responsible for the well being of the white minorities. There was an additional qadi (Islamic judge) was noted as a necessity in order to settle minor disputes between immigrant merchants. Safe economic trade existed throughout the Empire, due to the standing army stationed in the provinces. Eighty percent of the people lived family owned farms no more than 10 acres (40,000 sq.m) large. The merchants would form partnerships, and the state would protect these merchants, and the port cities of the Niger. It was a very strong trading country, known for its production of practical crafts; metalworkers, fishermen, carpenters, farmers, traders and craft guilds that consisted of various mechanics and artisans. (35) There were thirtyseven city-states under the Shirazi dynasty ( a black African empire) in Kenya and the region was living the best period because of active sea-trade between Africa and Far-East. (36) Kanzis in the south of Upper Egypt were busy with porcelain trade that used to come from China.(37) Conclusion: Muslim countries were representing the world’s biggest economic zone from Malacca to Atlantic ocean all of the 15th century. Although Egypt and Iraq entered heavy recession periods in this century and sometimes recession-starved officials used to demand bribes; but Islamic lands were the richest regions of the world. When a ruler raises custom duties or taxes; international muslim businessmen used to look for new ports and latest strategies were being applied. In general, protectionism was not encouraged by muslim governments. Muslim states also would not erect trade barriers. No any discrimination was applied for businessmen; muslims/non-muslims,

white/black; Islamic countries were ‘free commercial lands’ for all businessmen.

1-The Suma Oriental of Toma Pires (ed. A. Cortesao), London 1944,II, 241-46;W. Gungwu, “The Opening of Relations between China and Malacca, 1403-5,” Malayan and Indonesian Studies( ed. J. Bastin-R. Roolvink), London 1964, pp, 34-62; for advanced studies: R.R. di Meglio, “Arab Trade with Indonesia and the Malay Peninsula from the 8th to 16th Century,” Islam and the Trade of Asia (ed. D.S.Richards), Oxford 1970, p, 105-35; M.A.P. Meilink-Roelofsz, “Trade and Islam in the Malay-Indonesian Archipelago Prior to the Arrival of Europeans,” ibid, pp, 137-57; K.S. Sandhu-P. Wheatley, Melaka: The Transformation of Malay Capital, c. 1400-1980; Kuala Lumpur 1983; 2-J. B. Harrison, “Diu”, Encyclopaedia of Islam (the second edition; in below this source is pointed as Encyc. Is. ), II, 322; for advanced reading: M. S. Comissariat, A History of Gujarat (1297-1573), London 1938-57, I-II 3-Ahmad Aziz, “Dar al-Islam and the Muslim Kingdoms of Deccan and Gujarat”, Journal of World History, VII(1963), p, 787-93; J. Burton-Page, “Gudjarat”, Encyc. Is., II, 1123-30; L. Lockhart, “Hurmuz”, Encyc. Is., III, 584-5;Arthur Serong, “The History of Kilwa”, Journal of Royal Asiatic Society [April 1895], pp, 405-30, its translation into Arabic by Ministry of Culture of Oman: al-salwa fi Akhbari Kilwa(pub. M. Ali al-Salibi), Matrah 1985 4-Yusuf Hikmet Bayur, Hindistan Tarihi (History of India), Ankara 1946, I, 395-97; Azmi Özcan, “Muhammedabad”, Diyanet Islam Ansiklopedisi ,v, 30, pp, 585-6,(Diyanet Encyclopaedia of Islam, (Turkish), I-XXXII, Istanbul 1989), in below, this source will be pointed as DIA; 5-Naimurrahman Farooqi, “Mahmud I”, DIA, v, 27, pp, 346-7; U.N. Day, Medieval Malwa:A Political a Cultural History: 1401-1562, Delhi 1965; 6-M. Imamuddin, “Lodis”, Encyc. Is.,V, 784-5; Abdul Halim, History of Lodi Sultans of Dacca and Agra, Dacca 1961 7-Haroon Khan Sherwani, Studies in Muslim Political Thought and Administration, Lahore 1970, pp, 204-220; the same author, “Mahmud Gavan’s Early Life and His Relations with Gilan”, Islamic Culture, XIII (1939), pp, 179-87 8-A. Urunbaev, “The Letters of Abdurrahman Jami as a Source of the Characteristics of the Poet’s Personality”, Yadnama-i Jan Rypka, Prag 1968, pp, 155-9;M. E. Subtelny, “Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage Under the Later Timurids”, IJMES, XX/4 (1988), pp, 479-501; Ismail Aka, Timur ve Devleti, Ankaar 1991, pp, 93-105; M. L. Dames, “Coinage of Husain Baikara”, JRAS (1913), pp, 1048-9 9-Ismail Aka, “Timurlular Devleti”, Dogustan Gunumuze Buyuk Islam Tarihi, (“Timurids’ State”, Grand Islamic History: from Beginning to Today), Istanbul 1988, v, IX, pp, 257-61; A.S. Beveridge, “Ebu Said”, Islam Ansiklopedisi, v, IV, pp, 47-49; Yusuf Abbas Hashmi, Mirza Sahruh ve Zamani (Mirza Shahruh and His Time) (1405-47), Ankara 1994 10-Osman Gazi Ozgudenli, “Maveraunnehir”, DIA, v, 28, pp, 177-80; R. G. de Clavijo, Embassy to Tamerlane 1403-6 (trs. G. Le Strange), Frankfurt 1994, pp, 200-338 (its original: Narrative of the Embassy of Ruy Gonzales de Clavijo to the Court of Timour at Samarcand, A. D. 1403—6 (ed. C. R. Markham), London 1859, p, 93

11-Ramazan Sesen, Islam Cografyacilarina Gore Turkler ve Turk Ulkeleri (Turks and Countries of Turks According to Islamic Geographers), Ankara 1985, p, 21, 25, 60, 78-80, 198, 12-D. M. Dunlop, “Bahr al-Khazar”, Encyc. Is., I, 931;Xavier de Planhol, “Caspian Sea”, Encyclopaedia Iranica, V, 48-61; for advanced readings: G. M. Angiolella, A Narrative of Italian Travels in Persia in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries (ed. C. Grey), London 1873; Early Voyages and Travels to Russia and Persia by Anthony Jenkinson and Other Englishmen (ed. E. D. Morgan-C. H. Coote), London 1886; Travels to Tana and Persia by Josafa Barbaro and Ambrogia Contarini, London 1873; 13- Ismail Turkoglu, “Kazan Hanligi” DIA, v, 25, pp, 136-38; (from Marjani, Mustafadatu’l-akhbar fi ahwali Kazan wa Bulghar, kazan 1897, v, I, pp, 117-33) 14-Ibn Tagriberdi, al-Nujum al-Zahira, XII, 152; 15-Maqrizi, al-Khitat, I, 365 16-Said Abdulfattah Ashur, al-Ayyubiyyun wa’l Mamalik, Qahira 1990, pp, 286-91 17-Suyuti, Husnu’l Muhadara fi Akhbari’l Misr wa’l-Qahira, II, pp, 45-448 18-Asadi, al-Taysir wa’l-i’tibar, Qahira 1968; (Muhammad Kurd Ali, “al-Taysir wa’l-`itibar”, Majallatu Majma`l `ilmiyyi’l-`Arabi, III/11 (1923), pp, 321-27) 19-Cengiz Tomar, “el-Melikul-Esref, Inal” DIA, 29, pp, 63-4; Ibn Tagribardi, XVI, 3-137 20-M. Mustafa Ziyada, al-Muarrikhun fi Misr, Qahira 1954, pp, 36-9 21- Suyuti, Husnu’l Muhadara, I, 443-4; Sakhawi, al-Dawu’l Lami`, I, 242; VII, 3941 22-Afif Bahnassi, “Aleppo”, The Islamic City, Paris 1980, pp, 177-82; J. Sauvaget, “Halab”, Encyc. Is., III, 85-90 23-Kashf al-Zunun, I, 52, 828; Najmuddin ibn Fahd, Ithaf al-Wara bi Akhbari Ummi’l-Qura, Qahira, IV, 31, 101, 143 24-Ibn Iyas, Badai`u-zZuhur, I, 1-2, 7-9; Muhammad Razuq, DIA, “Ibn Iyas”, v, 20, pp, 97-8 25-Maqrizi, Kitab al-Suluk, III, 1; A. A. Duri, “Baghdad”, Encyc. Is., I, 894-908 26-Faruk Sumer, “Karakoyunlular”, DIA, v, 24, pp, 436-8; Faruk Sumer, Karakoyunlular, Ankara 1967 27-Halil Inalcik, “Mehmed II”, DIA, v, 28, pp, 395-407 28-Halil Sahillioglu, “Osmanli Para Tarihinde Dunya Para ve Maden Hareketlerinin Yeri (1300-1750),” (Place of World Money and Metal Movements in Otoman Monetary History)Gelisim Dergisi/Studies in Development, Middle Eat Technical University, Ankara (1978), pp, 1-38 29- Zeki Tekin, Osmanli Devleti’nde Kurk Ticareti (Fur Trade in Ottoman State), Turkler, (pub., Hasan Celal Guzel and others), Ankara 2002, X, pp, 754-63;

30-Semavi Eyice, “Faik Pasa Camii”, DIA, v, 12, pp, 102-3; Vakiflar Genel Mudurlugu Arsivi (Archives of the State General Directorate of Pious Endowments), Ankara,TD, nu:623; Machiel Kiel, “Filibe”, DIA, v, 13, pp, 79-82 31- Muzaffer Urekli, Kirim Hanliginin Kurulusu ve Osmanli Himayesinde Yukselisi (Establishment of Crimean Khanate and Its Rise Under the Patronage of Ottomans):1411-1569, Ankara 1989, pp, 1-14 32-Mustafa l. Bilge, “Akkirman”, DIA, v, 2, pp, 269-70 (from the Archives of (Istanbul) Topkapi Palace Museum), nu. E.10, 416, 5880, 6237, 10416 33-Jamil M. Abu al-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period, Cambridge 1987, pp, 26-134; for advanced reading: J. Spencer Trimingham, A History of Islam in West Africa, Oxford 1985 34-E. Sik, The History of Black Africa (trs. S. Simon), Budapest 1974, III, 17998;Atiyya Safar, “al-Islam fi Ghana”, Majallatu’l Azhar, 30(1958), pp, 67-71 35-Encyclopaedia Britannica, (Turkish edition), Istanbul 1990, v, 19, pp, 516-17 36-J.S. Trimingham, Islam in East Africa, Oxford 1971, p, 29, 36, 56, 62, 166; 37-M. Sulayman al-Tayyib, Mawsuat al-Qabail al-`Arabiyya, Qahira 1993, pp, 521-24