Indv Review

INDV 102 FALL 2008 Module III Key Terms (Part A) Module III: Cities, Urbanization & World Urbanization Trends Subprime and spillover effects • Think about mortgage crisis where people owe more than their mortgage is worth • Chicago county, graph of subprime mortgages. They are grouped together (concentrations of areas that have subprime mortgages are in some areas, and not in others. Also, there are neighborhood effects, where the entire neighborhood suffers because houses are abandoned) • Study done by financial bank: 13 of the 20 zip codes are heavily concentrated; this is because of high-property values in the center, so people move outwards (Riverside in Cali). These people moving out owe more than their house is worth. Urban system, Urban Form, Urban Ecology, Urbanism: PAGES 395 & 396 • Urban system—a group of cities/towns in a certain region that depend on each other. Ex American urban system, global system • Urban Form—the physical layout of the city and how it is structured/arranged. • Urban Ecology—demographics and social aspects of local city areas. • Urbanism—how a person acts as a result of growing up in an urban area. Sprawl— The spread of cities that consumes open land areas. This is a direct result of suburbanization. • Cost of Sprawl—average 4 years driving, environmental stress, social cost (people in suburban neighborhoods don’t socialize), cost to provide utilities and water. New Urbanism—redesigning cities so that people can meet each other, and make communities no more than ¼ a mile from the center, so that everyone can walk to get to places. Garages are in the back, porches in the front to encourage interaction with the neighbors. Also, this is the renovation of old ‘ghost’ cities. Zoning—when housing companies separate different socio-economic groups by creating different pricing on housing. Originally used to separate residential from industrial.

Smart growth—ways for a city to expand without creating too much sprawl. Creating cities that people can walk around in. Main ideas of smart growth: • Preserve open areas by creating fringe areas where people are not allowed to live • Make a feeling of neighborhood and community • Support walking-friendly neighborhoods, putting commercial areas at key transportation points • Making the car not as use as in the suburbs by making public transportation and making a car expensive and unreasonable • Make inner city areas more appealing to middle/upper class people. Suburbanization—When people leave the city to live in the suburbs, they commuting from work to their homes via the freeway system. This is an effect of sprawl. It started after WWII, because people wanted their own homes to build their families, and large labor pools were available to build these homes. (people switched from building guns and weapons to building houses.) PAGE 405 TO 409 Central place—developed as a result of that fact that usually cities and towns have market centers. A central place is a central area in a settlement that offers different goods and services to the public consumers. Central place theory, Christaller, high/low order goods, range • Central place theory—a theory that explains why towns develop a hierarchy as a result of their distance away from each other and their population. Smallest houses normally are centrally located, spaced close to each other, and will only provide common needs (eggs, groceries, ect.). This occurs because the people who buy these products will not travel far distances for everyday goods. If the goods are more valuable, people will travel greater distances to obtain them. Therefore, larger cities have a wider variety of products and services. This was theorized by Walt Christaller. Primacy; rank-size rule • Rank-size rule—The relationship between the population of a city and its rank in the overall hierarchy. This rule shows a regular distribution of populations in a city. The formula is the nth most populous city is 1/n the population of the largest city in that region/country. For example, if the largest city had 10,000,000 people, the 10th largest city

would have a population 1/10 of the 10,000,000 (the largest city), which is 1,000,000 people. What would the 2nd largest city have? It would have ½ of 10 million, which is 5,000,000. • Primacy—This rank-size rule does not always hold true. In Argentina, Buenos Areas is the largest city, and Argentina’s 2nd largest city is Rosario, which is has 1/10 the population, not ½. Primacy is when the largest city in the region is disproportionately large in comparison with other cities in the region. London is another example of such a city. Centrality—When a city’s functions (political, cultural, economic) is not proportionate to its population. Cities with relatively high activity in political, cultural, and economic activity have a lot of centrality in that particular urban system. Exurbs—A region or settlement that is located outside a city (usually past its suburbs) and often is inhabited by mostly wealthier families. TYPES OF CITIES (PAGES 400 TO 404) Gateway cities—cities that act as a connection between two countries or regions due to where they are physically situated. o Cities that connect 2 places, a pt of extraction of resources o Often on the coast o Think about the US and movement west, Pittsburg and St Louis were Gateway cities. Shock City- a city that experiences massive growth during this period (the Industrial Revolution). See the “Growth in Manchester Figure for an example) Industrial city-New type of city not made for previous purposes of defense, political, or even trade, but rather for assembling raw materials and making goods. Colonial cities—cities that are created/developed on purpose as centers for administration or commercial activity. (Ex: Hong Kong, Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon), and Nairobi)

PAGES 418 TO 421 Overurbanization—This happens as a result of the mass migration from rural to urban areas. It is marked by the mass growth of cities, and when people arrive faster than new jobs and houses are created. It can result in squatter settlements in extreme cases. Squatter settlements—AKA slums or shantytowns: areas where very poor people who can’t afford the deed to a home live. Squatters don’t own the land that they live on, rather they move to a squatter settlement, put up a house, and begin to live there. In places like Mumbai, India, the government can come and knock their house down to build any development they like, because squatter’s don’t actually neither own their home nor their land. Ex. Rio de Janeiro (please look at my lecture notes Video notes on Slums 11/19 for more details). Megacities—(coined 1970s, new word to define population)— cities w/ more than 10 million people. They tend to have primacy and large degree of centrality. o 1950:2 (NY and Tokyo) o Today: 20 (3 in India) o Fastest growing are Costal cities, northern hemisphere, in most densely populated areas, in Philippines, Bangladesh Informal sector—economic activities that are not recorded; black market activities. A great example is the Favelas of Rio de Janeiro: • Favelas—cities w/in the city (up to 200,000 people), and there are 800 of these in Rio. o Its illegal to live there, and it works like this: A family buys a house from someone who doesn’t actually own the land (probably a drug lord), then sells their roof to the next guy, who builds up again, and it goes up to 8 stories. Yet no one who lives there has a deed to the land. There are people who illegally set up Internet cafes, banks, boutiques, ect. Counterurbanization—the result of the deindustrialization and agglomeration diseconomies effects that cause cites to lose population and people move to smaller towns.

Splintering urbanism—A clear divide is occurring in the world today: those who are connected to communication (internet, cell phones, ect.) and those who are detached from this system. Transnational corporations with Internet and instant worldwide communication create increasing differences between the fast-moving world and the slow one. Transnational corporations have the ability to shoot vast amounts of information over the web, thus changing technological and economic exchange. Metropolitan centers benefit the most

from this, mostly because these centers are where the transnational corporations are centered. Covenant—the deed/title to a piece of land. Redlining—the process in which banks mark certain low-income (high-risk) areas on a map, and these areas tend to pay more interest loans. Because of this, banks make the areas more poor, thus leading to lower-income and a worse situation. This process targets racial ghettos, and in discriminating against lower-income areas, it actually discriminates against minorities, female-led households, and other groups. What is urban? From Rural to Urban (scale from smallest to biggest): Hamlets, villages, towns, cities, Urban & Metropolitan Areas • To define “urban”, we use whatever the local govt/census bureau defines as “urban” o These numbers are different in different areas Micropolitan, metropolitan, MSA • United States number to be a _______: o Urban Cluster 2,500 o Micropolitan 10,000 in Urban Cluster o Metropolitan 50,000 in Urbanized Area Nucleated settlements—settlements that revolve around a centrally located area. Emergence of urban civilization: • Why? —People started to come together, stop farming for only themselves, and began to specialize in labor in these new industrial markets. As a result, central areas and markets began to form, so did government and taxes. • How? —Transition from subsistence minisystems to city-focused empires, government arises from elites • Where? —Areas of the Fertile Crescent (fig. 10.1). Earliest cities: fig. 10.4. Planned or organic

Planned—cities with central urban forms and grids (ex Phoenix) Organic—cities that just built up over time, and the streets wind more. (Ex Mumbai’s slums, Boston) • Compare western US to eastern (i.e. Phoenix vs. Boston) • What does city in Lat Am look like? o A grid system, w/ a market & church appear in the center plaza, and higher incomes are closer to the center of the plaza o This is similar no matter what Spanish colony they are o Why did Spain pass a law like this 500 years ago? o This can also be seen in other ancient cities (Greek, ect). • •

Economic base – basic and nonbasic sectors, multipliers vs. multiplier effect Basic Vs. Nonbasic • Basic brings in money from the outside • Total employment=basic employment +non basic employment o Ex Tucson basic employment—Education, Raytheon, Tourism (spas) • Informal section (gardening) vs. Formal (farmers market) • Activities are not ‘by definition’ basic or Nonbasic, but we can guess Basic Sector • Workers engaged in “export” activities • Jobs that bring in $ from the outside world. • Examples: o Auto assembly plant (large-scale exports) o Software designers • Jobs that cause growth o Ex if we can get another contract for Raytheon, Tucson will grow o Ex golf in Tucson causes growth Nonbasic • More linkages link to Nonbasic sector and generate jobs there

• Internal, not necessarily sold the outside • Examples o 7/11 clerk, policeman (local serving people) • Depending on the Basic sector • Jobs that get created as a result of growth Basic:Nonbasic Ratio • Usually the larger the city gets, the high % of Nonbasic jobs o Why? You have more linkages, ect. • For cities of 1 million, ratio is 1:2 o 333,333 to 666,666 Economic Base Multiplier • A new software company comes to town bringing 250 new jobs. What’s the total impact? • # Basic jobs= 250, # of Nonbasic jobs=250X2 • 250 +500 = 750. • The multiplier is 3 (250 X 3) • VS Multiplier effect (the 250 X 2 which is create by the 250 basic jobs) o Ex 500 jobs for the factory, and 2000 Nonbasic jobs created, Multiplier is 5. o If you have a multiplier of 2, you hire 500 people, 200 Nonbasic jobs will be created “The Urbanizing Century” – urbanization – levels and rates of urbanization by region—see figure 10.1. Overall trend is a move to the cities (urbanization). Last year (1st time) more than ½ the world’s population lives in cities. See fig 10.11, table 10.1, 10.2 for the graphs. Here are the trends:

• Huge change over the years to cities (more people move in) • Most urbanized region in the world is North America, then Latin America o All over 70% o Africa and Asia close to 40% o Faster (in terms of urbanization) is Africa o Fastest growing are Costal cities, northern hemisphere, in most densely populated areas, in Philippines, Bangladesh Conurbations—continuous, extending urban area formed by merging of formerly separate cities (ex: there will eventually be a city the whole way along I-10, from Phoenix to Tucson) (ex San Diego to LA, along the coast of California). Megalopolis—a long urban corridor (ex from Washington DC to Baltimore). Usually interstate. PAGES 428 TO PAGE 431 Congregation, segregation, enclaves, ghettos, colonies: Congregation—when certain groups of people live in specific residential and territorial areas. • Allows the culture of a group (religious, area-based, ect.) to be preserved. • Lowers fights between different subgroups (minority groups), and creates a buffer against people living on the outside. • Support for businesses, networks, and other organizations occur because of congregation • Creates a certain power to this group through elections. • Minority groups—groups that are either portrayed (or they portray themselves) as separate from the rest of the overall population. Isotropic surface—a make-believe flat, straight plane that shows the further away one is from the city, the less accessible things are. Also, utility decreases, but at a different rate than accessibility. It results in circular zones with different uses of land. The distance from the closest to the center to the furthest, as a function of utility, generally is as follows: High-volume retailing, factories, warehouses, residential. (Fig. 11.1 shows this great)

o Utility—how useful a certain area is to a specific person or group.

o Most people try to get the best utility for the area that they live in. o Accessibility—How easy it is for people living in residential areas to be involved in the commercial areas, and vise versa.  Ex I want a city that has shops, a place that I can work, where everything is close  Trade-off model—do not assume that the poorest people live in the residential outskirts of the city. In fact, it is the opposite. Rich people can afford space to buy big homes on the outside of the city, while poor people are forced to live closer to the center with less land and worse housing.

PAGES 428 TO PAGE 431 CONTINUED Central business district (CBD)—the city’s center used for commercial activities, such as offices, shops, city halls, museums, ect. o Has tallest buildings as a result of the densest amount of shops, offices, are warehouses. o Built at transit stations o Zone in Transition— the land surrounding a CBD, made up of mixeduse land: both industrial and residential (small factories, big housing projects, older neighborhoods, ect.)  It is in transition because it grows and changes as the CBD changes  When immigrants first come to the city, they cannot afford to live anywhere else besides the transition zone, close to the CBD. Fiscal squeeze—this occurs when wealthier people leave the city, thus paying taxes to their suburbs, and the cities become in worse condition every day because they collect taxes from poorer people. This occurs as a result of decentralization (people moving from the city to the suburbs). Invasion and succession—people of the same ethnic or social group stay together in residential areas. Thus invasion and succession is the process in which one ethnic or social group gains dominance in a particular residential area. Examples are Chinatowns, Little Italy’s, ect.

Gentrification—when higher income people move into a lower income area because of cheap housing that is located in a central area. This is a type of invasion and succession. An excellent example of this occurred in Crown Heights, NY. African Americans mostly inhabited this area, until religious Jews moved in. Eventually the religious Jews gained dominance in the area. Concentric zones (Chicago, Burgess model)—circular zones that radiate from the center as a result of gentrification. For example, Chicago in the 1920 had four zones: the Zone in transition, the Zone of workers’ homes, the Residential zone, and the Commuters’ zone. In the Zone of transition, there were places like the slums, Chinatown, and Little Italy. In the Zone of the workers’ homes, there were low-income apartments (flats), residential homes, and immigrant settlements. In the Residential zone, there were welllighted areas, hotels (residential), and the restricted residential district. In the Commuters’ zone, there was the bungalow section (probably the richest homes). (See Fig. 11.4 p. 431).

Edge cities—cities that exist on the outskirts of a metropolitan area. They develop from high concentrations of shopping and office areas located near major highway intersections. (I think Arizona Mills mall area would be an example of this.) Another example is Tysons Corner, Virginia (Fig. 11.32 p. 454). Polycentric cities—cities that have many centers (i.e. edge cities). Another word for a polycentric city is a galactic metropolis, pertaining to the idea that there are many sub-centers that radiate from the center. There are six types of polycentric cities: 1. The traditional downtown central area a. Think of traditional cities with the biggest building in the center (ex lower Manhattan, City of London) 2. Newer business centers a. Think areas outside of downtown that have been converted from residential to commercial centers (ex midtown Manhattan, London’s West End) 3. Internal edge cities a. Think industrial/ transportation places that occur as a result of the struggle for obtaining space in traditional centers. (Ex London’s Docklands and Shinjuku in Tokyo) 4. External edge cities

a. Linked to some type of major transportation system, such as a freeway system, a train station, or an airport. (Ex O’Hare area in Chicago and the Heathrow district in London) 5. Furthest edge-city complexes a. Made for less important office buildings, involved w/ tasks such as research and development. Usually about 30 to 50 km from the city’s core. (Ex Greenwich Connecticut in relation to New York) 6. Specialized sub centers a. Located for a variety of reasons, mostly for entertainment/sports centers, and education. They are usually either close to the city’s traditional core, or they could be cities that were slowly absorbed by an expanding metropolis.

Models Hoyt sector model—a concentric city model (CBD at the core, surrounded by different zones). Please see concentric zones definition (page 8 of this study guide) and p.431 in the textbook. Harris and Ullman multiple nuclei model— suggests that even though a city could have began with a CBD, it has since changed and evolved as the city has grown. Each subsequent growth has created new centers for which other areas can grow. In turn, these areas become centers, and so forth. (Ex. Hotels and restaurants come about by airports). This theory is grounded in the fact that people have greater mobility as a result of the vast ownership of an automobile in America. This model has no clear CBD.

Von Thunen model—Using basic agricultural assumptions, he created an old (early 1800s) model used to describe agriculture surrounding a city. He suggested that four agriculture rings surround a city. Perishable items (#1) were closest because of their timed nature. The forest (#2) would be converted into fuel (this was before industrialization). Crops such as grains for bread (#3) would be lighter and use less fuel, thus reducing the cost to transport them (resulting in field crops being further than the 1st two rings.) The last right is where animals are raised, because animals could transport themselves. Past the fourth ring, the distance was too great for agriculture products. The model is still relevant because it shows the relationship between the cost of land and the cost of transportation. The main idea is: the closer a person is to the city, the higher the price of land. In other words, it shows that proximity is directly proportional to land price. Most information taken from: Knox, Paul L. and Marston, Sallie A. Human Geography: Places and Regions in Global Context. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 2007.