Imperial_influence_in_roman_chariot_raci.docx

Imperial Influence on Roman Chariot Racing Factions: Before, During, and After the Nika Riots of Constantinople in January of 532AD

Jordan Crawford HIST 443: Byzantine Empire (284-717AD) Ralph Mathisen T/R 12:30pm December 14, 2015

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From January 11 to January 19 of 532, the Eastern Roman capital of Constantinople was set aflame in the deadliest riots ever witnessed in the Byzantine Empire. Caused by the combination of massive financial debt, the implementation of new tax codes, the rise of chariot-racing factions as socio-political forces amongst the people, and, most importantly, Imperial involvement and favoritism amongst the teams, the social construct in the city of Constantinople would prove never to be the same. The week of the Nika Riots, as they came to be known, was the most decisive moment for the future trajectory of Justinian’s reign. In this paper I argue that Imperial financial involvement as well as Imperial favoritism amongst factions led to the establishment of the Blues and Greens as the most forceful socio-political entities of the people within the Byzantine Empire. In addition, I argue that the longevity of the riots and the turning point that caused them to become volatile were directly caused first by Justinian’s actions and later his inactions. Finally, I will show that though the Nika Riots led to the ultimate dissipation of the factions as socio-political entities, these nine, horrific days in 532 would mark the true beginning of the Era of Justinian.

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Factional Origins and Their Rise as a Socio-Political Entity (6th c. BCE to 527 AD) The origins of chariot racing in the Roman Empire date back to the 6th century BCE where they were ceremoniously played at Etruscan funeral games.1 Prior to Augustus, chariot races were simply spectacles for elite Patricians and, eventually Emperors exclusively, to host for the people of Rome. These spectacles, much like gladiatorial combats or wild animal hunts, were held in front of thousands of people inside a major amphitheater. As is the case in modernity, an entire culture associated with the games grew separate of the modernized vision of Roman culture. This new culture could be deemed as hooliganism. Citizens of Rome became emotionally and fiscally involved in the games themselves. Fans rooted for individual charioteers or for specific teams and made bets with fellow race-goers as to which individual or team would win. Fights often broke out inside and outside of the Circus Maximus in Rome, often between partisans of different teams and between those who had gambling debts to resolve. In almost every way the culture that grew out of chariot racing in the Circus Maximus mirrors that of todays American football culture. Yet, a major difference exists between the present and the past: sport organizations of today have no direct political or financial dependency to the federal government.2 Prior to Augustus, this was the case as well. Yet, it was under Augustan rule that the Roman factional system of the Eastern and Western empires was born.

1

McManus, Barbara. The Circus: Roman Chariot Racing. July 2003. Accessed December 1, 2015. http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/circus.html. 2 In some Dictatorial or Monarchical societies, there are instances in which government officials or elites themselves fund, organize, and participate in games, mainly Middle Eastern Soccer organizations. Outside of this region, the majority of Professional Sports Organizations are not funded or fiscally financed by involved Government officials.

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As stated before, fans rooted for individual charioteers, who resembled modern day superstars, or for an individual team. These teams were the Reds, Whites, Blues, and Greens. In his book Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, Alan Cameron concluded that though the direct origins of the teams and their colors is uncertain, what is certain is that these four teams were formally established and began a somewhat political undertaking around the time of Augustus.3 The involvement of imperial influence within the factions themselves increased. As Cameron wrote in his book, “Whenever we hear of the factional preferences of an emperor, from as early as the Julio-Claudians it is always either for the Blues or the Greens”.4 This is not to say that the Reds and Whites disappeared, for they certainly did not. In the later 5th century the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius came to favor the Reds at the tail end of his reign. However, this did provide evidence that as far back as the Julio-Claudian dynasty, emperors specifically favored one chariot team over the rest, laying the foundations of imperial influence within the factions. These four teams were the dominant teams from the Julio-Claudians through the reign of Justinian. For a brief stint under Domitian (81-96AD), Purple and Gold teams participated in the games.5 However, there is no evidence that they ever attained prominence in the Circus Maximus, nor is there evidence that they gained political prowess or favoritism from any emperor other than Domitian himself. For the original four, this was far from the case.

3

Cameron, Alan. Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976. doi:http://rbedrosian.com/Byz02/Cameron_1976_Byz_Circus_Factions.pdf. 4 Cameron, Alan. Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, p.54 5 McManus, Barbara. The Circus: Roman Chariot Racing. July 2003

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Imperial favoritism of one team over the others meant more than the emperor’s blessing: he purchased a team of horses, called the auriga, and would invest more into the training of the best horse, the funalis.6 He owned training facilities, paid charioteers to perform for their favorite team, bought slaves to tend to the horses and charioteers, and financially rewarded charioteers for their victories. These gestures displayed a transition from the Emperor as a “supporter” or fan of races t owards the Emperor as intricately involved in the chariot racing culture. As the chariot racing culture and the spectacle of the sport grew throughout the Roman Empire, so too did evidence of imperial influence in the factions themselves. According to the late 2nd and early 3rd century Roman historian Dio, “…Caracalla put to death a man who favored, not a different, but the opposite color to himself”.7 By the middle of the 3rd century, it was evident that factional differences had extended outside the boundaries of the racing culture and had officially arrived on the political scene. They would remain a forceful entity here for the next 300 years. The actions of Caracalla marked the beginning of factions finding themselves amidst imperial resolutions. Whereas jealousy seemed to be the root cause of factional disturbances in the early Empire, by the time the capital had been established in Constantinople in the 4th century, individual Romans no longer viewed other faction members as “fans” or “rivals”. In a Curse Tablet dated to the 340’s AD, a charioteer condemned a fellow sportsman and his team: “Help me in the Circus on 8 November. Bind every limb, every sinew, the shoulders, the ankles, and the elbows of Olympus,

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McManus, Barbara. The Circus: Roman Chariot Racing. July 2003 Cameron, Alan. Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, p.55 Author’s Note: Caracalla was a Green, meaning that the man he executed can most presumably have been a Blue.

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Olympianus, Socrtius and Juvencus, the charioteers of the Red”.8 Jealousy had turned into animosity and volatility that would be expressed through violent action within the games at the Hippodrome. Yet, another extremely important change occurred within the factions during this time as well. Originally, factions were made up of partisan fans of chariot racing. As the spectacle of chariot racing grew, so too the did festivities surrounding them. Theatrical acts, dancers, entertainers, and other forms of visual arts began to perform with and support these factions in the games. So much so, that by the 5th century the “Artists of Dionysus”, the “Parasites of Apollo”, and the “Lovers of Arms”, theatrical factions, were converted into Blues, Greens, Reds, and Whites.9 Not only had imperial favoritism grown, so too had the popularity and mass appeal of the factions amongst a widespread range of citizens. The positive correlation between the growth of imperial influence within the factions and the growth of the appeal of factional culture to the people had tremendous consequences in the near future. One of these consequences was the Blue and Green domination. Though Anastasius supported the Reds, an anomaly amongst his fellow emperors, by his reign the Blues and the Greens were the two most forceful socio-political factions of the four. In times of political uprising, it appeared that over time “…the Greens had incorporated the Reds, and the Whites had been absorbed into the Blues”.10 Though separate inside the Circus Maximus of Rome and the Hippodrome of Constantinople, outside of it there were 8

Harris, H.A. Sport in Greece and Rome. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972. 235-36. Taken from the website The Circus: Roman Chariot Racing, curated by Barbara F. McManus of The College of New Rochelle; Revised in July of 2003; Accessed on December 3, 2015. http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/circus.html 9 Cameron, Alan. Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, p.226 10 Dash, Mike. "Blues vs. Greens: Rocking the Byzantine Empire." Smithsonian, March 2, 2012. Accessed December 1, 2015.http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/blue-versus-green-rocking-thebyzantine-empire-113325928/?no-is

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only two socio-political entities. As Alan Cameron noted, “The social, economic, political, and religious tensions that divided the people naturally tended to divide them into two camps, not four”.11 However and whenever this transition of power had exactly happened, it was clear that the Blues and Greens were the socio-political powers for the people, a position the factions would abuse at the turn of the 6th century. In 501 Greens ambushed Blues, killing 3,000 of them in Constantinople. In 505, the Triumph of the Green charioteer Porphyrius Calliopus caused a Blue-Green riot. Ironically, both the Blues and Greens honored him with statues for his achievements with their teams upon his retirement.12 In 520 “…they (Blues) were involved in riots in the connection with the assassination of Vitalian”.13 14 It must be noted and diligently kept in mind that aside from the supposed connection of the Blues to Vitalian, “Of the long series of factional riots that began under Zeno and continued through the reign of Anastasius, every one for which we have details was started by the Greens”.15 Why was this the case? Though emperors had supported the Greens in the past, the Greens tended to be the faction of the non-landowners and underprivileged citizens. Therefore, they were the most frequently and drastically effected victims of imperial imposition. By the reign of Anastasius, as evidenced earlier, the Blues and the Greens had shown their tremendous strength as socio-political entities of the people. They had proven military might in Constantinople, proven their strength in numbers, but, most importantly, established themselves as an immediate threat to the Eastern empire. 11

Cameron, Alan. Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, p.54 Cameron, Alan. Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, p.12 13 Vitalian here refers to the Byzantine General who was assassinated in 520, supposedly at the order of Justinian after Vitalian was selected as consul. 14 Baker, G.P. "Nika: The Revolt of the Blues and Greens"" In Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, 78103. New York: Cooper Square Press, 2002. Reprinted from the original edition that came out in 1931. Excerpt taken from p.84 15 Cameron, Alan. Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, p.94 12

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Therefore, the times of unrestricted imperial influence in the regulation of factions began to dissipate. Anastasius began his reign with an “uncompromising” approach to the factions, an approach that did not work as evidenced by the major riots in 501 and 505.16 His successor, Justin I, took the exact opposite approach to the factions. He let them go absolutely unchecked, a regress from the changes his predecessor had set in motion. But it was during his reign, the late 510’s and early 520’s, that the factions grew out of control and reached their socio-political peak. This was a thanks in part to Justinian, Justin I’s nephew. It is often noted that Justin’s rule was overshadowed by the role that his nephew played in his imperial rule, as well as Justinian’s role in Byzantine history. Yet, it was while Justin was emperor that Justinian’s dangerous, foreshadowing engagements with the factions came to fruition. While in the imperial circle, Justinian gave massive financial and moral support to the Blues. In doing so, he planted the seed for what would become the most immediate threat to the success of his own reign: the Nika Riots of 532 AD.

From Sunday to Monday: The Nika Riots of January 11-19, 532 AD By the time Justinian I ascended to the throne in 527 AD, the Blues and the Greens were established threats to the capital. As evidenced in 501, 505, and 520, they not only had the capabilities to conduct mass murder, but also had the power to remove political figures from authority with the right means.17 Yet, the factional issues at hand in

16

Geatrix, Geoffrey. "The Nika Riot: A Reappraisal." The Journal of Hellenic Studies 117 (1997): 60-86. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/632550.pdf?acceptTC=true. 17 Must be kept in mind that the assassination of Vitalian was supposedly ordered by Justinian and the Blues. This is not confirmed, but evidence points to this being the case.

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the capital were only consequences of the imperial problems faced by the Eastern Roman Empire when Justinian I came to the throne. When Leo I, or Leo “The Thracian”, died in 474, he left the Byzantine Empire in an economic ruin. As Roman historian G.P. Baker stated, “Leo had thrown away a hundred thousand pounds bullion…for thirty years the budget could not be balanced”.18 By today’s equivalence, this would be the worth nearly $6.5 Trillion today!19 To refinance the empire, Anastasius and Justin I both implemented taxation codes in order to restore economic stability. Yet, neither of his predecessors implemented taxation policies compared to those of Justinian I. His conceptions of the Imperial role demonstrated his attitudes about his planned management of the empire. As John W. Baker laid out:

“ First, he was convinced that as emperor he was the ultimate sovereign…Second, he was determined that he would be no mere clothes rack for the Imperial robes he wore…Third, he was a conservative in that he intended everything he undertook to help safeguard the heritage of power, faith, and culture which had become his responsibility…Finally, he saw that heritage as indeed a Roman one.”20

Justinian believed that to maintain the culture he had inherited and to preserve the grandeur of the Roman Empire, “As emperor (he) was determined that the government of

18

Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.79 http://demonocracy.info/infographics/world/gold/gold.html 20 Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.82 19

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the Empire should be…above all, revenue producing to the fullest extent”21. In order to accomplish this, Justinian surrounded himself with administrative geniuses well versed in the methods of maximizing revenue. He placed John of Cappadocia as the Praetorian Prefect, Eudaimon as the City Prefect, and Tribunianus22 as Quaestor. These four men would become the architects of not only the greatest insurrection in Byzantine history but of Justinian’s legacy as well. From 527-532, John of Cappadocia implemented 26 new tax codes that applied to all citizens in the empire, from the poorest to the wealthiest.23 As new tax codes were issued, “Tribunianus began to acquire a reputation for greed…and the general population gained an increasingly antagonistic view of him”.24 A growing, volatile sentiment towards these two men grew amongst the factions. The Greens were rightfully upset with the steep tax codes and the Blues were upset that they were being taxed so high as Justinian I was their factional patron. At the time, impoverished provincials flooded Constantinople and were “particular victims of the governments fiscal oppression”. However, “the nobility…already identified to some extent with the Blue faction, had its own interests to pursue”.25 Justinian had been their patriarch. He had funded and favored them before he was emperor and when he took over the throne the Blues expected this trend to continue. To their dismay, it did not. Anastasius and Justin I took polarizing stances towards the handling of the factions. When on the throne, Justinian took a stance more like his uncle had. He

21

Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.83 Tribunianus, Tribonian, and Tribunian all appear in separate texts, but refer to the same man. 23 Dash, Mike. "Blues vs. Greens: Rocking the Byzantine Empire.", March 2, 2012 24 Hughes, Ian. "The Nika Riots and Marriage." In Belisarius: The Last Roman General, 65-73. South Yorkshire: Pen and Sword Books Limited, 2014. 25 Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.86 22

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informally denounced his own direct allegiance to the Blues and sought not to let them go without check, but not to act as uncompromising as Anastasius had. His decision to play the middle ground laid the foundation for the spark that would ignite the Nika riots and send Constantinople into flames. But, as Alan Cameron argued, “It was the Blues and Greens, for purely selfish reasons of their own, who plunged the city into chaos”.26 On January 11, 532 the early running of the Gold Cup took place inside the Hippodrome at Constantinople, which could be said is the modern day equivalent to the World Cup in soccer. During one of the early races,27 a fan by the name of Theophanes stood up and began to voice complaints of the Greens directed at Justinian I. Along with making common demands for the Greens, he also voiced a “demand to justice from a powerful oppressor”.28 Justinian I, thinking the man was acting as a joke or as a ploy to get him to react, indulged Theophanes to state the name of his oppressor. The man he named was Calopodius, a member of Justinian I’s Imperial circle and a Blue supporter. Justinian I supposedly remarked that, “…those concerned were Monophysites”, 29 also members of the Greens. As Greens began to leave the stadium, Blues and Justinian hurled remarks at them, which at the time would have been considered extremely crude. As a reaction to the torment they received, angry members of the Greens, and Blues oppressed by Calopodius, set fire to parts of the city. They burned the Bronze Gate, the Senate House, and St. Sophia’s church. The culprits were found and sentenced to execution by Eudaimon. However, the noose was loose and two men escaped death but were thrown in jail instead. As it happened, one man was a Blue and the other a Green. 26

Cameron, Alan. Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, p.54 A typical Roman chariot race consisted of 25 races, each containing four teams with a race measuring seven laps around the Circus Maximus, Hippodrome, or major Amphitheater throughout the Empire. 28 Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.81 29 Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.82 27

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By January 13, frustrations over economic stability, a lack of action by Justinian I, and now the incarcerated Blues and Greens, boiled over into the Hippodrome once again. By the 22nd of the 25th race of the day, the normal chants for or against racing teams were silenced. Instead, the only chants that could be heard were “Long live the humane BlueGreens”30 and “Nika! Nika!” (Victory! Victory). They had officially coalesced to create one, large socio-political entity that combined the complaints and demands of citizens from all socio-economic backgrounds. On Wednesday the 14th, the Blue-Greens set out into the streets again and set fire to the Baths of Zeuxippus, while demanding the immediate dismissal of Eudaimon, Tribunianus, and John the Cappadocian at the Hippodrome.31 As Procopius pointed out in his History of the Wars I, “…fire was applied to the city as if it had fallen under the hand of the enemy”.32 Most baffling to Justinian was the participation of the Blues in the destruction of the city. Though he had previously supported them, “Not all the Blues were willing to follow his leadership, but there were plenty who were eager for Civil War”.33 Justinian I’s tax implementations, the economic instability, the antagonistic views of his closest advisors, and his inaction to initial complaints blew up into a fullblown insurrection. The factionists created an anti-culture separate of the chariot races and Roman culture entirely. They adopted a “Hun Haircut” and wore togas with a purple stripe called

30

Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.85 Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.84 32 Procopius. "Justinian Suppresses the Nika Revolt." Translated by H.B. Dewing. In History of the Wars I, 219-30. New York: Macmillan, 1914. Accessed November 28, 2015. https://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/source/procop-wars1.asp. 33 Procopius. "Outrages of the Blues." In The Secret History. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961. http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/procop-anec.asp 31

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“Hun Style”.34 The mere naming of this rebellious culture clearly demonstrated the barbarian acts that they participated in and sought to portray. The culture was so violent and volatile in nature that “…some of the opposite party joined this (Blue) faction so as to get even with the people of their original side who had ill-treated them”.35 BlueGreens, though associated together in name, acted as one extremely large rioting group with a combination rather than a consolidation of demands. They intended to steam forward with their insurrection until all of their demands were met. Luckily for Justinian I, his decision to call major Generals into the capital to discuss the possibility of an African takeover coincided perfectly with the insurrection. Just returned from the Persian Wars, the 29 year-old General Belisarius and his approximately 1,500 personal soldiers were in the capital awaiting orders.36 As Procopius stated, “All hopes of the emperor were centered upon Belisarius…bringing with him a following which was both powerful and imposing”.37 Unlike Anastasius, who early in his reign probably would have sent the troops in immediately, or Justin, who arguably would have done everything possible to reconcile with the factions, Justinian I again took to the middle ground and did nothing. For the next couple of days, chaos ensued due to Justinian’s inaction. As he waited to decide his own fate, the fates of the people grew bleaker by the day. “Law and Order, throughout the state, overwhelmed by distraction, were turned upside down…judges, when deciding cases that came up before them, cast their votes…according as either of the disputants was an enemy or friend of the faction in 34

Procopius, The Secret History. University of Michigan Ann-Arbor, 1961. Procopius, The Secret History. University of Michigan Ann-Arbor, 1961. 36 Rosen, William. ""Solomon, I Have Outdone Thee"" In Justinian's Flea: The First Great Plague and the End of the Roman Empire, 92-98. New York: Penguin Books, 2007. 37 Procopius, The Secret History. University of Michigan Ann-Arbor, 1961. 35

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power”.38 As the Blues were the stronger force between the two factions, people did not want to cross them. They were willing to kill anyone just to declare them as a Green or a Monophysite. As Procopius pointed out, “No one could hope to live very long under this state of affairs, for everybody suggested he would be the next to be killed”.39 On Sunday the 18th, Justinian met with the Blue-Greens in the Hippodrome finally having come to a conclusion about how to reconcile with the rioters. Placing a copy of the Gospels in his hand, he promised to grant the people their demands in releasing John the Cappadocian, Eudaimon, and Tribunianus from their imperial posts in order to move forward towards a “faithful peace”.40 After a week of rioting and imperial inaction, the Blue-Greens were passed reconciliation. Things had gotten so out of hand that what they previously wanted was irrelevant: what they wanted now was a new emperor. The BlueGreens left the Hippodrome as Justinian I retreated to the Imperial palace and went to the home of Hypatius, Anastasius’ nephew. Recently released from the Imperial palace for “his own safety”41, Hypatius had no intentions of partaking in treason against Justinian I. He was part of his imperial circle and was a loyal servant to him. However, the momentum of the crowd was too overwhelming and he was forced into the Hippodrome, placed in the kathisma, Justinian I’s Imperial box, and crowned with a gold chain. 42 As Hypatius was being crowned in the Hippodrome, those remaining in the Imperial Palace, Justininian and Theodora, Belisarius, and General Mundus, planned their next move. Justinian felt the best option was to run away, let the mob elect Hypatius, and

38

Procopius, The Secret History. University of Michigan Ann-Arbor, 1961. Procopius, The Secret History. University of Michigan Ann-Arbor, 1961. 40 Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.94 41 In Secret Histories, Procopius had a very negative view of Justinian and Theodora. Though the facts of what happened are taken as true, a lot of the reasoning is up for debate because of his personal bias. 42 Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.94 39

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then return later to reclaim his position as Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. However, it was in this meeting that the fate of the factions would change forever. Theodora, a supporter of the Greens and a tolerant ruler towards Monophysitism, stood up and declared to her husband:

“My opinion is that at the present time, above all others, is inopportune for flight, even though it bring safety…may I never be separate from this purple…I approve a certain ancient saying that royalty is a good burial-shroud”.43

The transition from failure to success in suppressing the Nika Riots can be attributed to the mere fact that “Theodora preferred a purple shroud to a white one”.44 Had Justinian fled, the trajectory of the Byzantine Empire would have been drastically changed. However, they stayed, and with Belisarius and his troops in Constantinople, late in the day of Sunday the 18th the unstoppable force of the Blue-Greens met the immoveable mountain of Belisarius. With Belisarius’ 1,500 men and the men of General Mundus as well, the two generals led their troops around the Hippodrome where at least 30,000 45 Blue-Greens were cheering on Hypatius, their de-facto Emperor. Belisarius snuck up into the kathisma were Blue-Greens were stationed around Hypatius, Mundus and his troops circled the exits of the Hippodrome, and on the command of Belisarius, the troops stormed inside. As soldiers stormed in to the Hippodrome from every entrance, more soldiers blocked the

43

Procopius, History of the Wars I, Translated by H.B. Dewing, 1914 Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.102 45 Some estimates say upwards of 50,000, but that is the highest estimate there is. 30,000 seem to be the more commonly accepted and primarily documented number. 44

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exit ways so no one could escape.46 There is no primary evidence of any weaponry used in the slaughtering other than sharp steel of swords. Over the course of the day, all 30,000 Blue-Greens in the Hippodrome were dead. Hypatius and his brother, Pompey, were arrested and executed the following day, Monday the 19th, officially bringing to an end the Nika Riots.

Socio-Political Crumbling of the Factions: Immediate Impact in Constantinople Within forty days of the executions of both Hypatius and his cousin/cohort Pompey, Tribunianus and Eudaimon were reinstated to their original posts. Phocas, a new Praetorian Prefect, was hired and fired and John of Cappadocia was given his post as Praetorian Prefect once again.47 After “Five weeks and five days Conastantinople sat in her ashes, a catastrophic ruin…on the fortieth day…the site of St. Sophia’s grew a new church”.48 Burned during the initial riots on January 11, St. Sophia was raised from the dead. Justinian I made it his personal project to have the new temple, later deemed Hagia Sophia or “Temple of Holy Wisdom”, reconstructed to commemorate the events in 532, as well as to create an architectural feat that could define his Empire. The temple was finished in 537 and aside from a few additions and re-enhancements through the later Ottoman Empire it has remained the same as a lasting legacy of Justinian I, the Byzantine Empire, and the victory in the Nika Riots. In 540-41, the plague struck Constantinople, immediately halting the increasing population mustering in Constantinople.49 It would wipe out over 25 million people and

Geatrix, Geoffrey. "The Nika Riot: A Reappraisal.” p.72 Hughes, Ian, Belisarius: The Last Roman General, p.68 48 Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.99 49 Geatrix, Geoffrey. "The Nika Riot: A Reappraisal.”, p.60 46 47

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depressed birth rates right at a time when Justinian I sought to expand his Empire.50 It hit both Patricians and Plebians, both Blues and Greens. The fate of the factions would be forever altered again over the five years from the Nika Riots to the Plague of Justinian. Inside of the Hippodrome, all four chariot racing teams, the Reds, Whites, Blues, and Greens, participated in competitive races through the 12th century.51 However, their power as socio-political entities outside of it ceased following the Nika Riots. All of the steam that had built up, beginning with the formal recognition of the teams under Augustus and ending at the ascension of Justinian I, was finally released in January 532. Had it not happened under Justinian then it would have happened under another emperor. The timing of the Nika Riots occurring under Justinian I could have happened before or after him. Yet, they did not. Only under Justinian I did economic instability, religious tensions, the volatile nature of the factions, and a botched execution, align to create the perfect means for an insurrection. As John A. Baker diligently noted, “It should also be remembered that these Circus Factions provided the only means for expression of popular feelings or discontent”.52 As the circumstances for insurrection aligned under Justinian I, so too did the pinnacle of factional relevance in the socio-political world. The factions had reached their absolute highest point of power they could have hoped to attain outside of the Nika Riots having been successful. Yet, even if Justinian fled, he would have come back. The factions could not have been in power for very long had they been victorious. They were not victorious, and because they were not at the most opportune point, the factions never

50

Rosen, William, Justinian's Flea: The First Great Plague and the End of the Roman Empire, 2007 Cameron, Alan. Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, p.45 52 Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.87 51

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teamed up in opposition against the Emperor again.53 In fact, they only teamed up together in foreign affairs later under Justinian I, showing that the Nika Riots had directly caused a change in the factions from anti-Imperial to pro-Imperial entities. The failure of the factions in 532 consequently had a positive effect on the strength of the empire as Justinian I’s reign progressed. When writing about the Nika Riots in hindsight, Procopius began his journal of the events by stating, “…contrary to expectation, it provided to be a serious affair, and ended in great harm to the people and the Senate”.54 In both regards he was absolutely correct. Factional riots had occurred before, but the Nika Riots were not such: they were a full-blown insurrection. No one, not even Justinian I himself, foresaw the impending disaster that befell Constantinople in January of 532. Yet, great things came of it. Justinian I’s Codex was released in 534, the Hagia Sophia was finished in 537, and the Roman law and culture Justinian I felt was his responsibility to maintain as Emperor was preserved. All of these cornerstones of Justinian I’s legacy were erected and preserved solely because the Nika Riots occurred during his reign. Likewise, the Nika Riots only occurred because Imperial Influence and favoritism had allowed them to rise as socio-political entities. The removal of Imperial favoritism, in combination with the proper circumstances, ultimately caused their impending demise. However, as John W. Baker poignantly concluded, one thing is certain: “It is from the quelling of this revolt that we can most decisively date the full-scale blossoming of the Era of Justinian”. 55

Geatrix, Geoffrey. "The Nika Riot: A Reappraisal.”, p.72 Procopius, History of the Wars I, Translated by H.B. Dewing, 1914 55 Baker, G.P., Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, p.91 53 54

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References Baker, G.P. "Nika: The Revolt of the Blues and Greens"" In Justinian: The Last Roman Emperor, 78-103. New York: Cooper Square Press, 2002. Reprinted from the original edition that came out in 1931. Barker, John W. "Justinian and Theodora." In Justinian and the Later Roman Empire, 82-91. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966. Cameron, Alan. Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976. doi:http://rbedrosian.com/Byz02/Cameron_1976_Byz_Circus_Factions.pdf. Dash, Mike. "Blues vs. Greens: Rocking the Byzantine Empire." Smithsonian, March 2, 2012. Accessed December 1, 2015. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/blue-versusgreen-rocking-the-byzantine-empire-113325928/?no-ist. Geatrix, Geoffrey. "The Nika Riot: A Reappraisal." The Journal of Hellenic Studies 117 (1997): 60-86. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/632550.pdf?acceptTC=true. Harris, H.A. Sport in Greece and Rome. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972. 235-36. Taken from the website The Circus: Roman Chariot Racing, curated by Barbara F. McManus of The College of New Rochelle; Revised in July of 2003; Accessed on December 3, 2015. http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/circus.html Hughes, Ian. "The Nika Riots and Marriage." In Belisarius: The Last Roman General, 65-73. South Yorkshire: Pen and Sword Books Limited, 2014. McManus, Barbara. The Circus: Roman Chariot Racing. July 2003. Accessed December 1, 2015. http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/circus.html. Procopius. "Justinian Suppresses the Nika Revolt." Translated by H.B. Dewing. In History of the Wars I, 219-30. New York: Macmillan, 1914. Accessed November 28, 2015. https://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/source/procop-wars1.asp. Procopius. "Outrages of the Blues." In The Secret History. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961. http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/procop-anec.asp Rosen, William. ""Solomon, I Have Outdone Thee"" In Justinian's Flea: The First Great Plague and the End of the Roman Empire, 92-98. New York: Penguin Books, 2007.

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