History Project Ashoka.docx

RELEVANCE OF SOCIAL IMAGERY PORTRAYED DURING THE MAHABHARATA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO GENDER AND THE OVERALL INFLUENCE OF TEXTS TODAY -Eashan Nakra GENERAL INTRODUCTION The topic this project is based on is an aspect of the Mahabharata, and shall involve analysis of the same. The project shall deal with the question: What was and is the relevance of social imagery, especially those pertaining to women, during the Mahabharata? The Mahabharata is an epic written during 6th century BCE and 6th century CE. It is an epic known for its complex storyline and multiple sub plots. The Mahabharata is an epic of war, kingship, marriage, property, kinship, power, divinity with greed, malice, love, friendship, sacrifice as some of its themes. {Themes in Indian History part 1, Theme 3 : Kingship, Caste and Class, Page 73} The Mahabharata is not just a narrative text, contrary to popular perceptions surrounding it. Historians classify this text both as narrative as well as didactic as it possesses elements of and common to, both. The narrative aspect of Mahabharata is evident as its speaks of a story, and a chronicle of events that might have or have not taken place, historians lean towards the argument which suggests that while some events might’ve occurred and inspired many parts of this epic, this text is one that has been greatly exaggerated and contorted due to its narrative requirements. The didactic nature of the Mahabharata is extremely intriguing and allows multiple perspectives and deductions. The society then was based on the dominant culture of Brahmanism wherein, Brahmins were at the top of the caste system (which had established social hierarchy and division), followed by Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The culture of Brahmanism fed off texts such as Vedas for legitimacy and for acquiring followers. One major pathway for doing this was by providing their power a divine backing. The Vedas, spoke of a pantheon of Gods before puranic literature came into being, and thus included Agni, Indra, Soma and Vayu. They also consisted of hymns and sacrificial texts. While the Vedas did not directly feed into Brahmanism, the dominant community manipulated such texts to prescribe a way of life based on their ideas and beliefs. To increase stronghold on society, texts known as the Dharmasutras and the Dharmashastras were introduced which included norms and rules of behaviour. The Manusmriti was introduced for a similar purpose as it contained a detailed code of conduct on issues as personal as marriage and intercourse, amongst others.

THE CENTRAL STORY

{The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page 12}

This introduction shall be observing the storyline of the Mahabharata, specific to its early segment known as the Breach (bheda). This segment gives us an overview of the situation as it exists in the epic and thus provides the ideal background the subsequent segments. It also allows us to observe the kind of complexity that the whole text possesses. The Bheda can be characterised by three principal moments: 1) The Fire in The Lacquer House 2) The Bridegroom Choice for Draupadi 3) The Burning of the Khandava Forest {The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page xiv-xv } Looking at the beginning we find the introduction of the King Samtanu, and his son Bhisma who was born of the Goddess of the River Ganges and his father. Samtanu falls in love with Satyavati who is of a lower social position as she belongs to the fisherman tribe. Her father puts forth several conditions before the King and states that the son born of Satyavati must be heir to the throne and Bhisma, mustn’t bear any sons. Bhisma agrees to these demands and thereby establishes himself as a moral, magnanimous and awe inspiring character in the epic. Dvaipayana also comes forth as a character, and while his importance in the storyline increases manifold only subsequently, he is introduced as the pre marital offspring of Satyavati born of her encounter with a seer, Parasara. Chitragada and Vicitravirya are the sons born of Samtanu and Satyavati, however Samtanu’s bloodline ends with them both. While the elder (Chitragada) dies unmarried, the younger (Vicitravirya) married to sisters Ambika (elder) and Ambalika doesn’t bear any son, and dies childless. Satyavati calls upon Bhisma to oblige the widows (Ambika and Ambalika), however he refuses, furthering his image as a moral and awe – inspiring character. She then class upon Dvaipayana by the Law of Levirate, to service the widows. This is where Dvaipayana’s contribution to the furthering of the storyline increases considerably as he then goes on to bear Dhrtarastra with Ambika (who is born blind, and therefore unfit to be king) , Pandu (who goes on to assume the throne) with Ambalika and bastard son Vidura. {The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page 6} Dhrtarashtra with great difficulty bears a hundred sons, the eldest being Duryodhana. His bloodline is termed as the Kauravas. Pandu in turn has five sons with divine intervention with his two wives Kunti (the senior wife) and Madri. The five progeny are termed as the Pandavas, eledest of whom is Yudhisthira, who was also in fact born before Duryodhana. Background as to the divine origins of the Pandavas has been provided. Pandu has shot a buck while it was in the act of mating with a doe. The Buck was a disguised seer who cursed Pandu to the same fate as him when he would indulge in intercourse. This curse inhibited Pandu from having sons of his own, and thus he called upon his wives to bear sons by various gods. Thus, Yudhisthira is born of Dharma, Bhima is born of the Wind God, Arjuna is born of Indra, while the junior wife Madri bears twins, Nakula and Sahadeva by the Asvins. {The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page 7}

Pandu resigned as king after his curse and becomes a hermit, shifting the power onto Dhrtarastra. However, Pandu is unable to avoid the curse as he indulges himself in intercourse with his wife Madri, causing his death, followed by Madri’s. Kunti and the Pandavas are escorted the court of the Kauravas, in Hastinapura by the fellow recluses of Pandu. The five grow up there. Bhisma, the grand uncle of the Kauravas and the Pandavas, engages Krpa as a teacher for the childrens’ education. Drona is also introduced as a teacher thereafter. The storyline which remains reasonably amicable until now, begins to take a sharp turn towards its more conflicting elements. Having established the background the story enters the first major segment, i.e. “The Book of Fire in the Lacquer”, which starts off with a trial tournament. Arjuna dazzles the audience with the impeccable skills in combat which he had acquired in his years of schooling. Karna is introduced as a character at this moment. Karna is the half brother of the Pandavas, and was born of Kunti and the Sun God. He challenges Arjun to a fight, the verdict of which remains undecided. Meanwhile, Duryodhana has already been fostering hostile feelins towards the Pandavas as they were a threat to fulfilling his ambition of acquiring the throne. Karna and Duryodhana thus become allies in what soon develops as a intra family war for power. There is an assassination attempt by Duryodhana, who attempts to burn the house the Pandavas were residing in, thereby eliminating them. However, Vidura, the bastard son of Dvaipayana warns Kunti and the Pandavas, who leave bodies in the house to convince Duryodhana of their demise while they themselves escaped to the forest. Following this the epic speaks of several adventures and events in the forest, one of the major ones being the slaying of the Demon Hadimba by Bhima, and the latter’s marriage with Hadimba’s sister. The story after a series of events breaks into “The Book of Draupadi’s Bridegroom Choice”. The five disguise themselves as Brahmanas in the court of Drupada, the king of Pancala. Arjuna wins the hand of his daughter Draupadi by accomplishing a feat of archery that none of the other competitors could. Arjuna brings Draupadi home to his mother Kunti, following which the famous incident occurs wherein, Kunti without turning back to see Draupadi, and thinking it to be food, asks Arjuna to share it amongst his brothers, it is only that she realises her folly, but her word stands unchallenged and Draupadi is married off to the five brothers. The news of Arjuna’s win at the tournament in the court of Pancala, reaches the Kauravas who see the Pancalas as a powerful ally to the Pandavas, and hence initiate attempts for partition instead of pre-emptive war. The Pandavas accept the Khandava Tract in the River Yamuna.

{The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page 13} Subsequently, the Pandavas acquire a strong ally, Krsna Vasudeva and his brother Balarama. In order to establish their kingdom, the Pandavas clear the forest by burning it, which is thus in the form of the God of Fire, Agni. This remains as the most salient account of the third segment of the Bheda, “The Burning of the Khandava Forest” THE FUZZY EDGES {The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page xvii} As anticipated, with a complex storyline like this, there comes the risk of several loopholes and fuzzy edges. One of the most basic flaw is the brief timespan this epic covers. The story’s major theme is succession conflict, therefore tracing the lineage and family line from Samtanu is

inadequate. The dynasty to which he belonged, Bharata, should also be traced which in turn would lead the reader onto Bharata. (the founder of the dynasty) and his mother, Sakuntala, and the Puravas and beyond. {The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page xviii} The complexity in the family structure and paternity begins with Samtanu’s strange attraction for a woman belonging to a lower social position (Satyavati) and the conditions their marriage demanded, which Bhisma gave into. Dhrtarastra was born blind and unfit to claim the throne however after Pandu resigned himself to the forest after the curse set upon him, the throne went back to Dhrtarastra. This tangled the line of succession, subsequently leading to conflict in the family. {The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page xix} “It is hard not to look upon some of these complications as deliberate elaborations. Not necessarily demanded by the narrative but easily inspired by it. And, again, they grow so organically out of the main story that it is impossible to amputate them” {The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page 1} Several additions and deliberate complications are thus evident in the epic. This brings us to a salient historical concept: Just because there are exterior portions in a text, doesn’t mean during our analysis of the text one blatantly ignores them. Instead, it becomes important to understand the reasons behind these additions and complications. THE SECOND PERIMETER {The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page xix – xx} The first step to analysing such accretions/additions remains, identifying them. Additions and secondary material to the epic aren’t easy to differentiate. “It is by no means easy to differentiate between them (secondary material) and the principal narrative, because in the course of time the stylistic differences were glossed over.” “Any line drawn will be subjective to a point” Unless clearly stated, any attempt at differentiation between exterior portions and the main story in the background of their gradual amalgamation over time, is seen as less backed by historical evidence and study, and more by the historians’ discretion and individual opinion of the text, thus making it subjective. “But one place where the line might be drawn is between man and deity.” In order to explore the same, it is essential to identify and question several elements in the text: Why should Bhisma be portrayed as the son of the river goddess? A salient feature of Bhisma is his virtuous nature. Bhisma promised not to sire children of his own for the sake of his father’s happiness, thus giving him his name meaning : ‘awe inspiring’ The question as to why this wasn’t left as his natural magnanimity remains, what we find instead are backgrounds (possibly addition) of his divine origin.

Bhisma is said to be an incarnation of the God Dyaus who was cursed to be a mortal by the seer Vasistha when the former attempted to steal the latter’s cow. Dyaus went to the river Ganga to ask of the Goddesses assistance. The latter agreed to five birth to Dyaus as a mortal. The second background attempts to clear the loopholes and elaborate on how the Goddess Ganga got involved in the above mentioned situation talks of how the recently sainted, King Mahabhisa didn’t avert his eyes when the wind blew Ganga’s skirt up. He was cursed to new birth as Samtanu. Ganga demanded he beget children to her in order to help her keep her word to Dyaus. After identifying such attributions it is essential to analyse their effects and their necessity. This is an example of an unnecessary divine justification as the storyline could’ve continued attributing Bhisma’s act of selflessness to his general personality and disposition. “As usual as in such pious transformations, the results are less than gratifying: they take away a man’s virtue while adding nothing to the God’s” “Such further elaborations are disappointing because they rob the human actors of much of their motivation…..Bhisma’s noble vow is reduced to the automatic consequence of a curse by a sage, angered over, of all things, a cow.” My speculation regarding the reason behind such justifications is that Brahmanas were existing as a powerful section in society. One of the methods in which they as a community sought respect and acknowledgement to and of themselves and the caste system was through divine justification suggesting that God intended for such communities to exist and Brahmanas being the “closest to God” therefore held utmost legitimacy. Such attributions established the image of God as an entity that doesn’t remain aloof from the mortal world and actions of the people, thus augmenting the practice of ‘worship through fear’. Moreover, inclusion of ‘incarnations’ and ‘divine origins’ also allowed the Brahmanas to exploit the same to draw reverence and further strengthen their claim on their intimacy with God. It wouldn’t be a matter of surprise if their motto read, “The Brahmana you insult, may just be a reborn God”

Now we arrive to the second kind of divine justifications, which is different by virtue of its reason and intended effect. This starts off with a specific question surrounding one of the fragments of the text, why should Karna be the offspring of the Sun God? Several additions and elements in the book had the responsibility of justifying social realities. In the case of Karna, Kunti had him before she got married. Having a child outside the sanctity of a marriage was considered horrible in society then. To justify it in this case, Karna was represented as a child borne out of the Sun God, thus making it unobjectionable. Addition of divinity to such realities and justifying them using the same is a recurring feature in the text. Another example of the same is Vidura, who was the bastard son of Dvaipayana. The text refers to him as an incarnation of the God Dharma, to account for his genealogical illegitimacy. {The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page xxi} A renowned and contended example of such justifications is that of Polyandry. It is puzzling for historians to find a less prevalent practice i.e. Polyandry, included in the central plot of the story. The background provided for the marriage of the five Pandavas to Draupadi involves ‘The Great God’ successively punishing five Indras for their insolence in proclaiming

themselves the king of the Gods. The five Indras were then born as Pandavas with Draupadi as their common spouse. “This story meant to excuse polyandry, by its foolish associations obfuscates the fact that the Great God Siva had gained ascendancy over the now languishing Indra” Thus, the literary practice of making various additions to the text and involving several justifications for social realities is one that is of interest to historians as it allows a keen insight into society prevailing then. Analysing such texts keeping all the necessary elements in mind thus becomes of great value. The following section shall deal with the methodological specifics as well as a description of the topic. SPECIFIC INTRODUCTION {Themes in Indian History – Part1 , page 72- 75} HANDLING TEXTS: HISTORIANS AND THE MAHABHARATA While analysing texts, certain elements are analysed and looked into: 1. Language The language in which the text has been written suggests a lot of the intended purpose of the text. Based on how widely spoken the language is, one can deduce whether the author/s wished for it to be widely read and for the ideas to be dissipated, or if the text was meant to be exclusive and limited to a community of readers. The version of the Mahabharata that is mainly referred to has been written in a Sanskrit that is more comprehensible than that found in texts such as the Vedas, which were meant to be read and taught by a specific community – The Brahmans, and read by the “upper” castes of the Varna system. Being written in a simpler Sanskrit suggests that the author/s of the text wished for the Mahabharata to not be limited to a particular sect or group but instead be widely circulated and read. 2. Kind of text This particular element has been discussed previously where it was established that the Mahabharata is a text possessing both didactic as well as narrative elements. It is important in addition, to observe the vague differentiation between didactic and narrative segments, as there are several instances of them overlapping. One of the main ways in which this indistinct differentiation can be observed, is by taking into account instances and stories mentioned in the text (similar to the ones mentioned above) that reflect social realities and prevailing norms. Early Sanskrit tradition refers to the text as “itihasa” meaning” thus it was” roughly translating into “history”. There are two schools of thought surrounding this nomenclature: Some historians believe that the text finds roots in historical events and isn’t a work of fiction, further suggesting that a real war might’ve taken place. The other group of historians suggest that this remains a work of fiction in the background of the absence of substantial evidence suggesting otherwise.

Moreover, excluding the possible exaggerations such the supposed divinity of the characters and the wealthy cities and bloody battles, the storyline of the Mahabharata is still to complex to be considered as inspired from real events. On the other hand, in the background of the Dharmasutras and the Dharmashastras existing then, it is possible that the Mahabharata was meant to be a reflection of society as a whole, this is because unlike a particular event that may have occurred historically, the story lacks a focussed sense of direction and possesses innumerable sub plots and underlining themes ranging from women’s role, patriarchy, power, inheritance, forest communities etc thus making it more likely to be a reflection of society and its aspects in the form of a fictional story. 3. Author It is essential to observe the author(s) of the text. This is in no way limited to information about the author(s) but more so about analysing the author’s ideas and intentions that are reflected in the text. In addition, one can determine possible personal biases that the author might possess (based on his duty, role, position, personal history etc) and reflect in the writings, resulting in a more accurate analysis of the text. Specific to the Mahabharata, it is believed that there were several phases to the writing of the text which initially began as oral literature. The first phase of composition is attributed to charioteer bards (sutas) who travelled with the Kshatriya warrior to the battleground or routine hunts, their role being the composition of poems about the victories and accomplishments of these warriors. This phase is believed to be unwritten as the poems composed were circulated orally. The second phase is one that is of great significance, 5th century BCE onwards, the Brahmana community consolidated control over the direction of these poems by committing them to writing. What is of particular interest in this stage is the stark difference existing between this one and the preceding one. The compositions of charioteer bards were similar to the prashastis found by historians as they both were written by people appointed by the king to glorify his life or rule and strengthen his legacy. Thus, containing an inherent bias towards the king and exaggeration. The second stage is one where writing of the text in being done during a time where chiefdoms are developing into kingdoms and new norms are replacing pre existing social values as a result of new cultures and influences developing due to the establishment of these kingdoms. Thus, making it safe to assume that the text written then might possess several elements of social reality and record the changes occurring during that time, giving historians impetus to search for such elements in the text. The third phase (c.200 BCE and 200 CE) is also of great significance as the worship of Vishnu was gaining popularity, as a result Krishna - one of the main characters in the epic began to be associated with Vishnu. Adding a divine association to characters of the epic is not unknown as discussed previously, but at the same time is also not devoid of reason. The case of Krishna along with some other examples proves so, because initially he wasn’t associated with a God, but was when the worship of a particular was gaining importance. The motive in this case seems to be the increase in the audience base and following of the text and the culture of Brahmanism as a whole, the Brahmanas hoped to acquire followers by the inclusion of deities in the epic. This is interesting because it is the inclusion of various beliefs to subsume them under a single one. The period between c.200 and 400 CE, is recognised as the time frame during which didactic portions and elements were added to the text. These additions were significant both from an analytical point of view as well as the from the point of view of the text. These portions are

observed as similar to those found in the Manusmriti, (The Manusmriti is a text of norms and society’s code of conduct under Brahmanism, and what makes it a matter of interest is its relevance today as it’s a text that is still followed under Hinduism despite its atrociously oppressive and backward content) and are believed to be added by a sage named Vyasa which led to the growth of the text from 10,000 to around 100,000 verses. It is due to the substance of normative writings and the developments believed to have inspired the text that Mahabharata despite being an epic, cannot be considered like a bedtime story. 4. Audience The fourth parameter for analysing the text is by identifying the target audience of the text. Everything written has a target audience be it today with books targeted towards groups and sub groups ranging from children to adults and fiction lovers to romance aficionados. When it comes to historical texts, it is nowhere near that simple. This is because, it texts weren’t written as per interests but largely with the motive of enforcement and influence. Didactic texts such as the Dharmasutras, Dharmashastras and the Manusmriti were written with the objective of enforcing social norms upon the people and strengthening the roots of Brahmanism and its oppressive culture among believers and non – believers alike. The language gives an insight into the target audience because as discussed it suggests how exclusive or inclusive the text was meant to be. The target audience of the epic was society in general as derived from the language it was written in. 5. Date and place It is for largely obvious reasons, essential to determine the date in which the text was written and place it was found in/based on. An important concept that exists in historical study of artefacts is contextualise and knowing the date and place plays a similar role. It allows one to draw parallels especially if the text has been inspired from the society then. This makes the study of the text far easier with a detailed context in place allowing strong deductions and analysis from and of the same. While the dates are known to us in the form of the phases of composition of the text, in 195151, the archaeologist, B.B.Lal attempted to search for locational correspondence, hoping to find physical evidence of the content of the text (wars, palaces etc). He excavated a village by the name of Hastinapura in Meerut, a place with the same name as the capital of the Kurus as mentioned in the text. His account of the five occupational levels he found evidence of are of interest as they furthered the search for convergence and also allowed a very important question to be raised, “Was the description of the city in the epic added after the main narrative had been composed, when (after the sixth century CE) urban centres flourished in the region? Or was it a flight of poetic fancy, which cannot always be verified by comparisons with other kinds of evidence?” Which brings us back to the conflicting schools of thought surrounding the Mahabharata and its content – inspired or fictional. 6. Content

The sixth element which is analysed when handling a text is its content. The content of the Mahabharata specific to the topic shall be discussed in detail in the subsequent section. At the moment, we shall be delving into the introduction of the sub topic. SPECIFIC TOPIC ‘Relevance of social imagery portrayed during the Mahabharata with special reference to gender and the overall influence of texts today.’ It is important to determine the key terms mentioned in this topic to be able to analyse the same on a level playing field and remove ambiguity. There exist several definitions depending upon the context, in marketing social imagery is the conveyor of the meaning of the product. However, since society is what we are going to be discussing this is the definition we shall be considering: Social imagery, is the process through which perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs about certain groups are shaped through mediums including and not limited to posters, slogans pictures, newspapers etc. Social imagery in today’s world has expanded its horizons to include several medium by virtue of social media. Social imagery has a key role in reinterpreting people and communities and redefining their identity in society thus also determining their treatment in the said space. While this can be used positively to break free from prevailing stereotypes and establish mutual respect in society. However, this wasn’t the case in 6th century Indian society and thus we shall be exploring the role of social imagery from the perspective of the dominant culture briefly, and then in detail. The social structure prevailing then was experiencing several changes. There was the emergence of religions such as those of Jainism and Buddhism which originated from oligarchies existing then. Brahmanism, was seeking to establish a stronghold on society amidst such changes which threatened to reduce the popularity of the former. The caste system was still very prominent, it had the Brahmanas at the top, followed by the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the Shudras at the bottom, with them being oppressed to great extents in terms of treatment and social standing. Another oppressed community was those of the chandalas, who were treated as untouchables and weren’t part of the caste system. They faced social ostracization along with blatant suppression and disregard in societal norms and behaviour. Several groups known as the ‘jatis’ emerged which encompassed communities and guilds such as those of the blacksmith etc which the caste system didn’t include. Women were oppressed irrespective of their caste or community (although being a woman of a lower caste was a plight like no other which brought upon complete subjugation), as they were seen as inferior to men and several texts equated them to animals and as a possession of the man in the house. Texts such as the Dharmasutras, Dharmashastras, Manusmriti which as discussed previously were didactic, set down a despotic code of conduct elucidating the role and behaviour of people as per their position in society. Social ideals were as discussed, already in place. Reflections of norms and society, in the stories of the Mahabharata is the social imagery that shall be referred to through the course of this project. From the perspective of the dominant class i.e. Brahmanas, social imagery was means for manipulating the image of several communities and classes,

propagating their cause of achieving absolute social dominance and ingraining their ideals. They had control over creating such imagery as they were the wealthiest class with the farthest reach in terms of ideological influence, making them a powerful class in a society they weakened. As for the general society, they were consumers of the propaganda and falsehoods that the Brahmanas were preaching as the divinely ordained truth and order. However, when studying of rituals and norms it is important to realise that they were not followed by all and they did emerge resilience within the culture of Brahmanism itself as well as by local cultures who refused to be included within this tyrannical framework. Women were restricted and repressed to an extent that their sexuality too or rather especially was not under their personal choice was rather controlled by society which through norms disallowed them sexual independence all under their consideration as a possession without a mind and body of its own. They were seen as dependent beings with their only role being that of serving the husband and having children. The constant objectification and lack of acknowledgement of women’s individuality in light of blatant disrespect in “holy” scriptures and didactic texts, bludgeoned women to the bottom to an extent where enforced norms had become ingrained and oppression - routine. {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah; Page: 2} Studying the role of women in the Mahabharata is one that bears great relevance. Several female characters in the text are propagated as role models for women in Indian society even today. This is an unfortunate reality because the women looked upto are “products of and fashioned by millennia of patriarchal norms, which play an important role in creating women’s images of themselves and in reinforcing gender dichotomy.” Analysing these images allows us to understand how patriarchy has continued to survive and thrive after all this time. It also gives us an insight into the role of women as either contributors to this oppression, passive victims or active fighters of this system and thus, is “an attempt to unravel the mystique of women portrayed in the Mahabharata may help in understanding the evolution of an integrated social set up”

MAIN BODY The Second Sex, by Beauvoir has tried to explain the reasons why women were largely unable to mobilise themselves and unite against misogynistic social structures, one of the reasons highlighted included that of having no past or history. This in no way undermines the role of women in building civilisations and societies, but rather puts forth how the interpretation of the collective memory of the history of humankind and development which is preserved by both men and women, is manipulated by men. As discussed, the dominant structure or group possesses control over the dominant modes of expression. {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 2} Thus, male dominance over the narrative was something which rooted women of historical backing, crippling a large part of their ability to organise themselves.

The Mahabharata was no different, as it remains an epic with a complex and differentiate storyline reflective of multiple themes and issues. {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah; Page: 6} However, it was only later that the realisation of concepts of ‘dominant cultures’ and ‘control over narratives’ came about and the societal consequences of ‘lack of perspective in primary texts’ explored. For years The Mahabharata was used as a primary source for research and was treated as a homogenous composition i.e. bearing a multitude of perspectives and views. What shall follow will be as described by Shalini Shah, “ a thematic discussion of the women’s world in the Mahabharata which tends to unfold the mystique of “being a woman”. PATRIARCHY AND PROPERTY Patriarchy is a multipronged attack on equality amongst genders as its foundation is based upon the glorification of the male and ideals of masculinity and creation of ideas of femininity to control dissent from women who are simultaneously being reduced to subjects of a system inherently against them and as objects incapable of being at par with men. The idea of objectification and lack of acknowledgement of the agency of women, has always been prominent in patriarchal setups and ancient India was no exception. In addition, women had limited if not non- existent ownership of property and resources. In any society, ownership of resources and means of production is a symbol and means of dominance and control and were thus, kept out of the control of women. This section shall deal with several stories within the Mahabharata that reflect this social reality. The first instance is that of the law of levirate called upon by Satyavati. {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 31 } Vicitravirya, the son of Samtanu and Satyavati married sisters, Ambika and Ambalika who were the daughters of the King of Kasis and Kausalya. Problems arose when Vicitravirya died without bearing a child, this was because this was the potential end of the lineage since Citrangada (the elder son of Samtanu and Satyavati) has died unmarried without bearing any progeny. Satyavati failed to convince Bhisma to bear children with the wives of late brother since he had taken a vow of celibacy earlier. Thus, she calls upon her son Dvaipayana, whom she had when she was unmarried, to under the “Law of Levirate” bear children for his half brother’s widows. “Satyavati then began to worry lest the line of Dul;u;mnta should become extinct. She thought of the seer Dvaipayana” She said to him, "Your brother Vicitravirya has died childless. Father proper children for him." "The best," This instance alone is indicative of several aspects. The daughter in law were treated as property of the paternal family after marriage, with them having complete control over her sexuality and actions. The most shocking of which is the sheer lack of consent of the widows (Ambika and Ambalika) who have no say in whether they want to bear a child, and with whom. They are treated as objects used for the extension of the lineage with bearing children being their sole duty, failure of which called upon arbitrary action from the family she was married into. Another interesting inference is that while Satyavati is an exception when it comes to norms of ‘marriage with higher caste’ (she belonged to a fisherman’s tribe and Samtanu belonged to a

higher caste) and ‘virginity until marriage’ (she had a son with a sage Parasara while unmarried), she did not contribute to the dismantling of the patriarchal system itself and in fact with her orders, propagated it. The marriage of Draupadi is a glaring example of the treatment of women as an object. The following is an excerpt of the talks of marriage between Yudhisthira and Drupada, the father of Draupadi. “She was won by the Partha, your daughter and she is a treasure. We have a covenant that we share together every treasure, king!” The equating of Draupadi to “treasure” and the preceding instance where by Kunti’s word the decision to “share” her was taken couldn’t be a clearer depiction as to how women were perceived as objects. The absence of choice in the process of marriage and treatment as “treasure” speaks volumes of how the institution of marriage was an exchange, with the bride as no more than an offering. What is also particularly disturbing is the absence of Draupadi herself in the entire process of marriage beginning from her choice to marry and the selection of a groom. The practice of svayamvara {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 80} where the groom is chosen from amongst a list of suitors is a veil of choice as the absence of the choice of the bride - to – be has raised questions regarding its nature as a pseudo election of the groom instead of a matter of self - choice. This is supported by the fact that the element of choice of the woman, was nearly non – existent as it was her father who set the design and conditions of the competition for her hand and, the one who succeeded would be her lawful husband as his legitimacy as one could not be questioned by the family of the bride and her herself. When talks of marriage began after Arjuna won the competition for Draupadi’s hand in marriage through his dexterity at archery, inquiries were made by the family priest into the background of the Pandavas, who were disguised as beggars: “Yudhisthira spoke to the brahmin thus: "The Pancala king has bestowed his daughter As his own Law found and his wish desired. "King Drupada set a price for her, And this hero has won her accordingly; No dispute can arise as to his class, His living, his lineage, or family. “” Thus her consent right from the competition held for her hand in marriage and the selection of the groom, to the decision to share her amongst the five brothers to the final talks of marriage between her father and her future family, was unimportant as was the case with several women of the higher classes. An even more startling instance exhibiting the absence of choice and consent of a woman in marriage is that of Subhadra, the sister of Krsna Vasudeva. Vasudeva himself asked Arjuna to

abduct her seeing his interest in his sister, lest Subhadhra’s choice during the svayamvara be unconducive to the Pandava and he loses his opportunity to marry her. {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah; Page: 32} “Forcible abduction is also approved as a ground of marriage for barons who are champions. as the Law-wise know. Abduct my beautiful sister by force, for who would know her designs at a bridegroom choice?” The most well known instance of treatment of woman as property however, is undoubtedly the dice game. Yudhisthira was gambling against Duryodhana and after losing himself and his brothers, he staked their common wife: {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah; Page: 30} “She is not too short or too tall, not too black or too red, and her eyes are red with love – I play you for her! …….. such is the woman, king, such is the slender – waisted Pancali, for whom I now throw, the beautiful Draupadi!” The staking of Draupadi is an explicit reference to her as the common property of her husbands, what is more horrifying is the description of Draupadi as a commodity being sold to a buyer, with high praise being spoken about her physicality to bring Duryodhana to accept her as stake. There is an absolute lack of consideration of her identity as an individual person and as a human. When talking of women and property, it is important to not limit this section to the treatment of women as property and explore the relation, in particular the ownership of property by women as well. And it is in this context, emerges the concept of Stridhana. Stridhana, is an issue that cannot be ignored when it comes to ownership of property by women. {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 32 } While women did not share the same property rights as men as she didn’t inherit her father’s property after his demise. Stridhana refers to the money or wealth women received upon their marriage, the origin of the concept of dowry. The nature of dowry wasn’t simply financial security for a woman. “When the wedding was done. King Drupada Gave the warriors plentiful bounty of gifts. A hundred of chariots. wrought with gold. That were yoked with four horses with bridles of gold…… …….When the wedding was done and the Pandavas Had received their Sri with fullness of treasure, They disported themselves like the equals of Indra In the king of Pancala's capital seat.” Thus, the Pandavas too received gifts and wealth from the family of the bride, which suggests that dowry wasn’t simply meant for financially empowering the woman, moreover, the usage

of the wealth and ownership of the same was rarely in the hands of the woman as the paternal family had complete control over her choices and decisions. Thus, it would’ve been a part of the exchange between the two families. If the marriages are to be seen in terms of a transaction, then the role of gifts emerges prominent as a tribute to establish trust and confidence between those involved, and strengthening the link between the bride and her family and the groom. The case of Draupadi isn’t an isolated instance as the same occurred in the case of Subhadra where upon her marriage with Arjuna: “Thereupon famous Vasudeva gave sublime wealth as a gift to the bridegroom's party and as a dowry from her kinsmen to Subhadra. A thousand golden-membered chariots hung with circlets of little bells. yoked with four horses. and driven by dextrous charioteers did the illustrious Krsna give, and ten thousand cows from the Mathura countryside. fine milkers all and propitiously coloured.” The role of dowry less as pre-mortem inheritance and more as a linkage between the daughter with a desirable son in law is further reaffirmed by the norm in the Manusmriti which barred women from taking ornaments and wealth of her parents at the time of marriage if the groom was of her choice. This is another indication of the lack of agency of the woman in matter of her own marriage as legitimacy and confidence from her family (in the form of dowry) was absent in cases where she exercised her choice to choose her partner and was otherwise present as a salient feature of the marriages where the family chose the groom. FEMALE BODY AND MALE REGULATIONS ON MENSTRUAL TABOOS The idea and practice of attacking women’s individual agency had to be backed by a more foundational ideology which would justify the subjugation of women. This notion was found in the vile and abusive nature of the idea of the ‘female body’. A process unique to the body of a woman was targeted in particular throughout this misogynistic culture – menstruation. There are two perspectives reflected in the Mahabharata regarding menstruation: 1) Menstruation was regarded as a symbol of impurity of women and norms regarding how woman should live in isolation in unhygienic conditions while menstruating give a horrifying picture of the insensitivity and abuse prevailing. 2)The second perspective recognises the association of a woman on her periods with life as it was a call for intercourse with the purpose of procreating and hence giving life. However, it mustn’t be assumed to be sensitive and amiable to women, as it too had patriarchal foundations. It is in such cases that the consideration of context is ever so important, taken out of context this association would stand in a positive light however, keeping in mind the patriarchal setup and obsession with the male child, one can observe the true nature of such beliefs. The perspectives above may seem contrasting however, it is all a question of how society viewed menstruation. The process of menstruation was marked by two primary features. First being the discharge of blood. Secondly, the preceding phase where the woman was ovulating and thus was a chance to have a child keeping in mind the woman’s fertility. The brahmanical community was aggressively repelled with the idea of the former and sought to isolate menstruating women. While keeping in mind the latter perspective, a woman on her periods was seen as methods of extending lineage. The first viewpoint under consideration is better shown through the case of Draupadi who upon being staked and lost in a gamble to Duryodhana by Yudhisthira, was dragged out of her

chamber (where she stayed because social norms required a woman to do so when she was menstruating) and presented before the Kuru assembly in an atrocious manner and condition. {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 45 } ““It is now my month! This is my sole garment, man of slow wit, you cannot take me to the hall, you churl!”…. Her hair dishevelled, her half skirt drooping…. …She whispered again, and Krsna said, “In the hall are men who have studied the books, all follow the rites and are like unto Indras. They are all my gurus or act for them: Before their eyes I cannot stand thus!” …….. “She (Draupadi) submits to many men and assuredly is a whore! Thus, there is, I think, nothing strange about taking her into the hall, or to have her in one piece of clothing, or for that matter naked! She, the Pandava’s wealth, and the Pandavas themselves have all been won by Saubala here according to the law”” The above mentioned excerpts from this instance reflect numerous patriarchal and misogynistic mindsets. The first, and the most obvious yet shocking is the isolation of menstruating women which was written down in didactic texts, and the manner in which they were meant to stay in unhygienic conditions with one a single piece of cloth draped around their body for days, without being allowed to maintain personal hygiene during this time. This is representative of the blatant consideration of the condition of a woman and the blatant attempts to degrade her. This is further shown by the manner in which she was dragged out into the assembly full of men in such condition and the consequent attempt made to humiliate her by stripping her completely. It is also important to note the way in which Draupadi has been called a “whore” due to her marriage to the five brothers, something that wasn’t her choice in the first place and is only looked down upon because she’s a woman, for a man in the same circumstance would not have his character questioned. Draupadi was by virtue of several ideas and stigmas discussed, seen as the prized possession of her husbands, tainting this possession thus became an attack on the owner. Even here, as seen in one the excerpts, she has been described as the wealth of the brothers, thus, actions to humiliate Draupadi were thus with the intent of humiliating her husbands. This brings in the notion of how the abuse of a woman is seen as a matter of shame for her husbands and her household, with no focus being shed on the trauma thus caused to her. Something that continues to plague Indian society as women who are victims of rape are seen as harbingers of shame for their family. This notion shall be discussed in the next section in greater detail. The second perspective regarding the “sole role” of women in bearing sons is elucidated through the following instances in the Mahabharata: The first instance is of Vasu also known as King Uparicara and his wife Girika who was having her periods and thus, looking at the chance of having a son: “One day Vasu's wife Girika lovingly announced that her season had come, and she bathed and made herself pure for the conceiving of a son…….Vasu went hunting…..And while he roamed the lovely woods, his seed burst forth. No sooner had it been spilled than the king caught it with a tree leaf, thinking, "My seed should not be spilled in vain," and "Nor should my wife's season remain barren!" …….. he said to a fast kite that was perching close by,

"Friend, as a kindness to me, take this seed of mine to my house and give it to Girika, for today is her season." The kite took it and flew up with a fast swoop.” This is a clear example of the extent to which one was willing to go to for making the woman’s ‘rtu’ or “season” “fruitful”. The notion of menstruation being associated to life continues to be overrun with patriarchy because the society continued to limit the individuality and character of women to no more than objects that were to be used for the extension of the lineage and birth of a son. Menstruation was seen as the time when the sole duty (to provide a son) of the woman was ready to be fulfilled, which justified such madness to impregnate her. There was no sensitivity and respect towards the sexuality of women. “Leaving the season barren” or not having intercourse during a woman’s periods was a problem only because it was seen as a missed opportunity for having a son. The second instance is that of Utanka, who was a student of the brahmana, Veda. The former was charged with the duty of catering to the needs of the house while Veda left to attend to some work. The following is an excerpt from the mentioned context: {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 47} “Meanwhile. Utanka lived in his guru's house. obediently carrying out his teacher's charge. And while he lived there the women of his teacher assembled. summoned him. and said. "Your teacher's wife has had her period. and the teacher is abroad. See to it that her season be not barren. She is in a bad way now." “ The second instance is a sign of obsession with regards to engaging in sex during a woman’s period, not only is the husband willing to go to great lengths to impregnate his wife, but society too was willing to allow the woman to ask another man to have sex with her if her husband wasn’t present. Something that was highly condemnable if done otherwise. Downgrading a woman’s sexuality as something that can be passed around from one man to another is an outrageous belief.

WOMEN AND SEXUALITY In a society where procreation of sons and continuation of the lineage was of prime importance, and the duty of a woman was solely of that of bearing a son, it was necessary that the sexuality of women be controlled. Thus, the oppressive patriarchal system sought to control the sexuality of woman to horrifying extents as they not only posed a threat to the structure, but were also essential for the continuation of Brahmanism and thus, responsible for its possible disintegration as well. The foundation provided for the severe laws on the “promiscuity” of women was the description of a tradition where women were unfaithful to their husbands: "In the olden days, so we hear. the women went uncloistered my lovely wife of the beautiful eyes; they were their own mistresses who took their pleasure where it pleased them. From childhood on they were faithless to their husbands” A statement by one of the protagonists of the epic – Yudhisthira, elucidates the image of women that prevailed in society:

“No man is dear to them, only that man who gives them pleasure at the time of sexual intercourse is dear to them for that time” Following this was the description of an instance where at the sight of the ancient tradition the son of a great seer, Svetaketu in a fit of anger laid down a law that would bar the infidelity of women and henceforth impose absolute control over their sexuality: {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 52} “Ever since, we hear. this rule has stood. 'From this day on.' he ruled, 'a woman's faithlessness to her husband shall be a sin equal to aborticide, an evil that shall bring on misery. Seducing a chaste and constant wife who is avowed to her husband shall also be a sin on earth. And a wife who is enjoined by her husband to conceive a child and refuses shall incur the same evil.' “ Now we arrive at the structure that would impose restrictions upon and control the sexuality of women – the Father. It was the father who beheld control over the sexuality of his daughter since a young age. The following instances within the epic highlight the nature of this control The first instance is that of Yayati (A King and ancestor of the Pandavas) and Devayani who soon becomes his wife. This is a conversation that occurs when Yayati asks her hand in marriage: {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 53} (Devayani) “The baronage is in league with brahmindom and brahmindom allied with the baronage. You are a seer and the son of a seer, Yayati-by all means marry me!.......…… (Yayati) ………….Therefore, I think that it is harder to fight a brahmin, my bashful maiden. And, therefore, my dear, I will not marry you if your father does not give you away.” The second instance is regarding Satyavati, the great grandmother of the Pandavas who when on a ferry was taken keen interest in by a seer - Parasara. She addresses him upon noticing his want for her: {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 53} “…..the modest and spirited girl said smilingly, "Sir, you must know that I am a virgin and in my father's keeping. If I consort with you, blameless lord, I shall lose my virginity. And when my virginity is lost, how shall I be able to go home, good brahmin?” What is more than evident is the blatant nature of absolute control a girl as under by her father. The father had control over whom she engaged in sexual activity with before marriage as well as whom she married. The former is highlighted in the instance above as it was the responsibility of the father to ensure his daughter’s virginity until marriage and thus in essence he had control over the reproductive parts of his daughter – an idea horrific beyond measure. A woman who exercised sexual independence had no place in her home and was a source of shame for the household and the father. That is more than evident in the case of Kunti and Surya where upon summoning the Sun God, Kunti is trying to convince the God that she cannot have sex and bear a son with him due to the effect upon the members of the household:

{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 53} “The sun said: Your intention, lovable girl, was to have a son by the sun…give yourself to me, for I shall father a son such as you desire…….. ……Kunti said: God, my father is alive, and my mother and other relatives. No such breach of the rules should occur while they are alive. If I lie with thee, God, against the rules, then the good name of my family in the world will perish on my account.” Thus, it is clear that the sexuality of a woman was under no condition something pertaining to just her own self, rather was to be regulated by the household who associated the idea of integrity and respect with the same, something that shall be further elaborated in the next section. However, that isn’t to say that there aren’t exceptions. There are instances of women who persuaded the man for the satisfaction of their desires thus exercising their will when it came to their sexuality: The first is an instance of Sarmistha, the daughter of Vsaparvan who was persuading Yayati to bear her a son. However, Yayati being a King known for his lawful nature was reluctant to give into her desires: {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 56} Yayati: “I know you as the blameless Daitya girl of accomplished conduct, and in your beauty I see not a flaw the size of a needle's point! But Usanas Kavya said when I married Devayani that I was never to call Vrsaparvan's daughter to my bed….. ……Sarmistha: Save me from breaking the Law, king, and teach me the Law. If I have a child by you. I shall practice in this world the purest Law….. I am Devayani's slave, and Bhargava's daughter is your serf. She and I are equally your dependents, king - pleasure me!...... ……… At these words of hers the king saw the truth of them. He paid honor to Sarmistha and taught her the Law. He lay with Sarmistha and had his pleasure of her.” Another instance is that of Ulupi, daughter of Kauravya – the snake of the Airavata lineage. This takes places when Arjuna is sentenced to the life of a hermit in the forest for a year, and is spotted by Ulupi who falls in love with him and asks him to have intercourse with her: {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 56} Ulupi: “……I saw you descend into the river to bathe, and I was driven out of my mind by Love. Make me happy today, scion of Kuru, I am churned by the Bodiless God for your sake! Make this matchless maiden happy today, in secret, by the gift of yourself! Arjuna: King Dharma has ordered me for twelve months to a hermit's life, my dear. I am not my own master…… Ulupi:……. You have always protected the destitute and unprotected Pandava. I am praying to you out of love, therefore do my desire. You must fulfil me by giving yourself! …..At these words of the daughter of the king of the Snakes, Arjuna did as she desired.”

Thus, while women did have their independence oppressed, some women were bold enough to demand the satisfaction of their wants. However, this is not necessarily seen as independence of women rather is seen as a mere reflection of the “unfaithfulness” and “promiscuity” of women which was inherent to their being. THE FEMALE CHILD Before delving further into the norms surrounding womanhood, it is necessary to observe the initial stages of a woman’s life i.e. her childhood as a girl in a patriarchal household and society. We shall in this section observe the opinion and behaviour surrounding upon and after the birth of a daughter in a house, and further observe the same with respect to a son. The idea of a daughter as a burden was two pronged. It focussed on the threat a female child could pose to the integrity of the family and the burden upon the same. It also focussed around her burden on the resources of the family, a considerable proportion of which was given during her marriage as dowry. While instances highlighting the latter are evident through the quotes descriptions in the section on “Patriarchy and Property” which showed the extravagant wealth given during marriage. The former aspect of this idea is however of particular interest as it’s an extension of the previous section which talked of the apparent need to control the sexuality of a woman and the role of the father in the same. The first instance that highlights is that of Matali, a father of a marriageable daughter whose words reflect the prevailing mindset around the birth of a daughter. He talks of how undesirable the birth of a daughter is in a reputed family, and how a daughter brings into disrepute her father’s house, her mother’s house and the house where she lives as a bride. {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 62} Such a statement cannot be considered as the consequence of simply sexism for that remains as too simplistic an analysis. Rather, such a statement stems from a collection of the various patriarchal norms and ideas, many of which have been explored in the above sections. It is because it is the role of the father and the family as a whole to exert control over the sexuality of the woman in a family in the background of the inherently “promiscuous” nature of women that it becomes a task for a family to control the sexuality of a woman until marriage, after which agency is transferred to the husband. (something dealt with in detail in the next section). This leads us to observe the idea of virginity until marriage and the dynamics of the same in the context as presented. Virginity until marriage was a symbol of the two ideas stated above. Thus, it represented the success of the family in carefully exerting control over the sexuality of the woman, failure of which was a source of shame. Thus, the idea of virginity comes to the forefront as an idea not just limited to the woman herself, but also pertaining more so to her family and the latter’s integrity. The instances highlighting the reluctance of Kunti and Satyavati to engage in sexual activities before marriage are a consequence of the same. The following instance of Draupadi’s marriage brings into focus further dynamics of the idea of virginity: {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 63 }

“One after the other. a day apart. The warrior sons of the king of men. The beautiful scions of Kuru's line. Took each the hand of the choicest of brides. And this great wonder the seer declared. A wonder surpassing the power of man. That the beautiful bride of majestic might Each day became a virgin again.” This suggests that at each marriage with each of the five brothers, Draupadi’s virginity was restored. This is an indication of how virginity was not a sexual concept in any form, because in that case it could not be restored once lost. Virginity thus, drawing from the context is a social concept built upon a contorted idea of morality which was inherently patriarchal and oppressive for women. In essence, virginity could be described as one of the strongest mechanisms to control the sexuality of women and prevent her from realising her own agency. However, this was a socially dictated concept which held a lot of value in society. This is evident from the consequence described for a woman exercising one’s sexual independence before marriage: “…the maiden who spoils her virginity incurs three-fourths of the sin of brahmanicide, while the man who knows her incurs a sin equal to fourth part of that of brahmanicide” We shall now explore the idea of a female child with respect to a male child. This isn’t a new concept for several of the instances mentioned through the course of this project have reflected a strong bias towards the sons. Having introduced this idea in isolation, the following instance of Kunti’s blessings to Draupadi after the wedding highlights the same: "… bear live children, bear man children, and be, my dear, joined with much happiness, favored with love, and gifted with joy! ……..As I bless thee now, bride, in thy linen raiment, so shall I bless thee again when thou hast virtuously born a son." The last line is suggestion of how Kunti was willing to bless Draupadi again when she’d bear her a grandson. The idea of a woman as a burden influenced this bias, along with the idea that it was the role of the son to extend the lineage. Women were inferior to men and thus, incapable of taking on this task. However, there is more to it than patriarchal norms and opinions, for when it came to men taking on the lineage instead of women, there was a strong element of fear involved. Allowing a woman to bear power after her father in the household risked a shift in the entire structure of the household which was a unit of society in itself. This is because allowing women to hold power was a grant of agency, something was society through its oppressive mechanisms was trying it’s best to avoid. A greater concern however could the aftermath where power would shift from a woman, a feature of matriliny, thus setting a motion in change in system which in turn could lead to a stark change in patriarchal perceptions and machinery.

However, this is a very weak possibility because in the context of the society then, such a change would never materialise. To understand why it is essential to understand the auxiliary concept on matriliny. The reason it can be said with near certainty that matriliny wouldn’t shift the power structure is because the epic already has instances of brotherless women holding power due to the absence of a son in the family, yet the structure reverting to patriliny in the following generation. The instance of Citrangada, the daughter and only child of King Citravahana is a prime example of this process. When the topic of marriage between Citrangada and Arjuna arose, the king set the condition for marriage as the son born of Arjuna and Citrangada to be his heir: “All my forebears had sons, but to me this girl was born who surely shall continue the line, My fancy is that she is my son, and I have styled her my puppet according to the provisions, bull of the Bharatas. So let her bring forth a son who shall be the dynast: this son I demand as my price for her. By this covenant you must take her Pandava” A major reason why matriliny cannot be equated with matriarchy is because matriliny was integrated within patriarchy itself, is based on anthropological data which indicates that the power in a matrilineal setup rested with the maternal uncle and not the mother. However, the mention of the maternal uncle as a key holder of power is absent in the Mahabharata since it is entirely based on patrilineal succession. In the Mahabharata, the maternal uncle is presented in a positive light with examples of Sakuni and Vasudeva, maternal uncles of the Kauravas and Pandavas who in several instances have undertook initiatives to preserve the ambitions and interests of their nephews, with regard to the throne. This positive image is contrasting with what would’ve existed in a matrilineal society since a child and his maternal uncle would face a conflict of interest as the former would hope to inherit after the latter’s demise. Reverting to the original topic of deliberation under this section we find an extremely negative image surrounding a female child in a household, an image that led to the propagation of patriarchy while it itself was fuelled by patriarchal notions, thus giving us an insight into the vicious social setup that relied on the cyclical oppression and control of women. MARRIAGE AND WIFEHOOD While marriage was discussed as an example of objectification previously, this section will observe marriage in more detail by exploring the dynamics of wifehood. Marriage as a phase in the life of a man and woman was seen as essential. The following is an extract of a conversation between an ascetic Jaratkaru and his ancestors who asked him to marry and have a child lest they go to hell: {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 67} “Strive. son. with all effort for the continuation of our family. for your own sake as well as ours - for such is the Law. O lord, For by neither merits of Law nor high-piled austerities do people in this world gain the goal that others reach by having sons.” The purpose remained the same as it has always been, to continue one’s lineage by having sons who would do the same. Marriage as in institution however was much more complex. The idea of marriage as a transaction by treating women as an object has been introduced earlier. The control of a

daughter’s sexuality by her father until marriage has also been talked of. This section is a continuation of that line of thought as it shall explore the shift in control from father to husband which takes place during marriage, and also the nature of control exercised upon the woman by her husband. Like any other institution of oppression, in order to establish control over women after marriage a foundation must be strengthened that justified such control. This foundation was provided by the notion of a wife in several texts including the Mahabharata. The image of the woman as a sinner and vile creature born to oppose the interests of and harm the man, was encased in rhetoric and propagated. The following is a line from the epic describing the “nature of women”: “The nature of women is to injure man. Be a wise man or foolish, woman drag him down.” Such notions provided the justification needed to exercise unquestioned control over women and more specifically their sexuality as they were seen as creatures that must be tamed and limited lest the cause the harm they were meant to do. The following few instances shall elaborate upon the nature of this control: The first instance is of a seer by the name of Uththya, his wife Mamata and his younger brother Brhspati. {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 74} “Mamata said to her brother-in-law, who was a great arguer, "I am with child by your eldest brother, stop! And right here in my womb this child of Utathya's has learned the Veda and its six branches, my lord Brhaspati. Now you would spill your seed in vain. And since this is the case, you must stop now!" While there is opposition to the act of sex between a wife and her brother in law, the nature of opposition is most horrifying. Brhaspati has been described as a man of great virility and the priest of the Gods. Semen was seen was a sign of such virility and masculinity and thus it’s discharge when not for the purpose of procreation was looked down upon. It was due to Mamata’s pregnancy during that time that barred her from indulging in sex as Brhaspati wouldn’t have been able to impregnate her. This is an example of the complete disregard for the body of a woman and choice of the wife who if not pregnant would have no choice but to oblige the lust of her brother in law and go on to bear his child as well. While this is an instance of infidelity, and norms regarding the fidelity of women existed, they gave discretion to the husband who decided if and whom should she have sex with. Such control of sexuality by the husband is blatant in the example of Oghavati. Oghavati was the wife of Sudarsana and was offered by her husband to his guest in sexual hospitality. {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 74 } Thus, women were objects not just to help bear a son but also objects that could be used in any manner desired. This is an example of the complete loss of integrity for a woman where she is being reduced to a sex slave for a guest upon her husband’s command. Her identity and character is openly ignored as her body doesn’t belong to her and is but an instrument of procreation, pleasure and another’s will.

The other side of control over the sexuality of women saw husbands having complete legitimacy and authority in determining their wives’ fidelity as per their will and interpretation, and taking actions based on such assumptions. The following is an instance of a woman named Renuka and her husband, the great seer Jamadagni: {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 74} “Once when all her sons had gone out to gather fruit, Renuka, who kept to her vows, went to bathe. As she went, Renuka happened to see King Citraratha of Mrttikavati; and when she saw the wealthy lotus- garlanded king playing in the water with his wives, Renuka coveted him. From this bad though she wetted herself mindlessly in the water and returned trembling to the hermitage. Her husband found her out…… ………and the great ascetic Jamadagni irately said to him (his son Rama) , “Kill your wicked mother, have no compunction, son!” Rama took his ax and cut off his mother’s head” This instance highlights the two aspects to the second form of control. Not only did there exist a disparity in the social norms for men and women with regard to fidelity, with the infidelity of men treated as absolutely pardonable. There was also an unfair balance of power within the household as the husband held the power to judge and question her integrity, and furthermore take arbitrary actions against her without any opposition irrespective of the punishment. Thus, the husband was in control of the idea of ‘sex ethics’ and controlled the sexuality of his wife based on his personal will as well this idea. As in any form of subjugation, ideology was a major aspect and was thus also dominated by the men with women having no liberty to redefine the idea of sex ethics within the household and question the same. Such examples aren’t isolated as they are even found with respect to the protagonists of epics and major deities. The case of Ram and Sita is such an example as well. The following is an instance from after the defeat of Ravana at the hands of Ram and the time for Sita to be received by her husband who rescued her from the house of the Raksasa: {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 75} “Rama suspected her (Sita) of having being touched, and he said to Vaidehi (Sita), “Go, Vaidehi, you are free. I have done what I had to do. Once you found me as a husband, good woman, you were not to grow old in a Raksasa’s house………. Whether, you are innocent or guilty, Maithili, I can no more enjoy you, no more than an oblation that has been licked by a dog”” Thus, no consideration was given to the actual innocence of his wife who wad been abducted and thus kept against her will, it was upto the husband to judge if he still wanted her or not which did not necessarily require a rational foundation and was a decision that could not be opposed by the person involved i.e. the wife. The despotic control over the sexual relations of women within the marriage existed, however norms for sexual relations before marriage were prevalent as well. The apparent “promiscuity” and “immorality” of women with regard to pre - marital indulgence was also condemned with great severity.

Kunti, the mother of the Pandavas is a character whose pre - marital son (Karna) was a reflection of the social reality however, adding the element of divinity as discussed in the initial part of this project, an attempt to justify this social reality was made. A strong reference to this is made in the epic where Kunti discloses the identity of Karna until after his demise, and her eldest son, Yudhisthira curses the entire woman race for the truth kept hidden because had Karna been on their side they would’ve been formidable the horrors of the war could’ve been averted. {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 76} What’s interesting is the lack of perspective in Yudhisthira who is ironically described as the ‘righteous one’ and a personification of the Law. He merely confines his vision to the damage done and the truth hidden ignoring the social context in which his mother was coerced to hide the identity of Karna and abandon him at birth, thus, suggesting that a child born out of wedlock and pre - marital sexual relations of a woman were absolutely unacceptable.

WOMEN AND THE PUBLIC SPHERE The above sections have dealt with the despotic control over women within the household, which brings out the question of the role of women in the public sphere. The role of any community in the public sphere is an important feature as it determines their public credibility. Strong public credibility in turn, allows the concerned community to propagate their interests and ideology and consolidate their community thus bringing it to social dominance. Which as visible in the case of Brahmanas, is an asset that allows the community to mould society as per their belief and will. Obviously in light of all the misogynistic social norms it is evident that women didn’t have a prominent role in the public sphere. Exceptions mentioned within the Mahabharata reflect a very important principle – Norms weren’t universally followed. We shall study the role of women in the public sphere through exceptions, which gives us a picture of what was required of a woman that wasn’t being followed and how men and women were in fact disturbed by the condition of the latter and entered the public sphere to increase their agency and bring in a change in the patriarchal norms. The first instance is that of Yudhisthira questioning Markandeya on the glory of faithful wives: “Sir, I wish to hear you tell of the greatness of women and the subtleties of the Law, O Brahmin…..The obedience of women who are devoted to their husbands seems to me very difficult. Pray, my lord, tell of the greatness of devoted wives who continuously think of their husbands as Gods……What is more marvellous than to be born a woman who is devoted to her husband, speaks the truth, and carries a child for ten months in the womb?” This instance reflects how even among the elite brahmanas, there were men who questioned the existing “law” around women, and sought to credit women as they went through several hardships throughout their lifetime. Dissent is such a case becomes a very important idea since even those who were placed at the top of the hierarchy – male brahmanas, were dissatisfied with the inequalities present in the system.

The example of Sandili is one that is very important as despite the mention of women who were exceptions to their social image, in other texts, the Mahabharata has fewer examples. In the epic, the woman Sandili proudly claims that she didn’t attain heaven by performing penance and renouncing the world dressed like an ascetic. {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 156} This reflects, that women were questioning the prevailing norms which dictated their “duties” and the entire concept of a “good woman”. This is a reflection of how women did exercise their own will and agency of thought, things that were blatantly outlawed in the oppressive culture.