History Project

CONTENTS:    

INTRODUCTION(2-3) ELEMENTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC CULTURE(4-6) EXAMPLES OF MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE(7-15) AURANGZEB AND LATER MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE(1617)  CONCLUSION(18)

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INTRODUCTION: Architecture refers to “design and construction" process. Then “What is Islamic architecture?" One confirms to the spiritualism and other to the worldly affairs. Islamic Architecture then perhaps is the design and construction of structures that are in conformity to the principles and values of Islam.The moral of the story is oneness, truthfulness, unity and humanistic values. The religion of Islam expresses the divine power in unique formal way and rejects the representation of human figures. Imitation of lively things is forbidden because it implies likeliness to the creative activity of God, whereas painting of objects having no life is not objectionable. This gave a new direction and light to the Islamic art and architecture. Titus says, ”In the case of Islamic art, there is no representational symbol system or narrative which can be read; it expresses notions of the divine, not through devotional images but through the totality of its form and it is this totality of form that unites and characterizes all the visual arts of the Islam”. Slowly and gradually with the passage of time, there evolved three important and different methodologies for representation of artistic views; calligraphy, arabesque and geometry. These find a great place as a form of expression in Islamic buildings. Islamic visual arts are decorative, colourful and in the religious arts are arabesque. From 750 AD to mid-llth century, ceramics, glass metalwork, textiles, illuminated manuscripts and woodwork flourished. Lustered glass became the greatest Islamic contribution to ceramics. Manuscript illumination became an important and respected art. Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written Arabic, developed in manuscripts and architectural decorattm Calligraphy established as inscriptions, especially in interiors and geometry played an important role tn overall development of the architectural masses, volume, colour and surface decoration. The vegetal and floral arabesque could be witnessed in the interim decoration on the carpets, stained glass, tiles, mosaic work, etc. All the above mentioned artwork is for rendering the interiors and making them conducive for prayers and meditation. However, the term Islamic Architecture has always been debatable. Some architects/authors believe that the buildings constructed by a particular community are Islamic. Others believe that buildings where activities related to the religion of Islam take place are Islamic buildings. This cannot always be assumed to be true because many secular buildings are also constructed during the period of Muslim rulers in India. On the contrary, some authors also believe that the buildings in conformity with the principles of Islam, which are well reflected in the structures are examples of Islamic architecture. The discussion can go on and on, but to confine the periphery of the book, we take up buildings constructed by Muslim rulers in India and study them in context with the principles of architecture that they follow.

FORM AND FUNCTION The form and function are important variables in framing am style of architecture. Form and function are something which are deeply related and have been a matter of concern for architects of all ages. The elements of form and function can be studied differently, but at same point of time they have a relationship. One of them follows the other in some manner or the other. Talking about Islamic architecture, which is no exception to the fact, the two factors of form and function can be realized as: Form here shall refer to the type of architectural characteristics that we lee like the dome, the arch, 2

etc. whereas function shall refer to the activities performed in the buildings. The forms employed in architecture were different before the advent of Islam In Arab world. There was Christian culture and the buildings were In conformity with their principles. The Arab rulers depended on these craftsmen for their buildings.but were interested in employing planning concepts and decorative forms with a new synthesis and orientation .The form and the function of the buildings changes as the concept of Islam emerged.Although the Christian architecture formed the basis.

MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE: Mughal architecture is the type of Indo-Islamic architecture developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries throughout the ever-changing extent of their empire in the Indian subcontinent. It developed the styles of earlier Muslim dynasties in India as an amalgam of Islamic, Persian, Turkish and Indian architecture. Mughal buildings have a uniform pattern of structure and character, including large bulbous domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways and delicate ornamentation. Examples of the style can be found in India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan. The Mughal dynasty was established after the victory of Babur at Panipat in 1526. During his fiveyear reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few have survived. His grandson Akbar built widely, and the style developed vigorously during his reign. Among his accomplishments were Agra Fort, the fort-city of Fatehpur Sikri, and the Buland Darwaza. Akbar's son Jahangir commissioned the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir. Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan, who constructed the Taj Mahal, the Jama Masjid, the Red Fort, and the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore. The end of his reign corresponded with the decline of Mughal architecture and the Empire itself.

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ELEMENTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE: The term structural elements is used here to discuss the elements of Indo-Islamic architecture, which are participating in the buildings either as load transferring components or as separate built up entity. Such elements have been identified as Arches, Domes, Squinches, Iwan, Spandrel, Muqarna, Mihrab.

ARCHES: Arch is a curved element that spans an opening and supports the structural load/weight above it. Arches may be constructed in various shapes like semicircular, horseshoe, ogee, multi-foil, etc. The arch functions in the same manner as a lintel works but it is aesthetically more appealing, Arches were constructed in India, even before the advent of Muslim ruler’s invasion but they were corbelled and not true m. The Muslim rulers brought with them the concept of beautiful true arches having a keystone, in various shapes and carving.

DOMES: Domes are popularly known as “Gumbad”. Dome is a circular roof over an opening, which may be circular, square or octagonal. Generally these spaces were square in plan at ground level. After achieving a certain height (such structures were generally on monumental scale), the plan gradually converted into an octagon and then into a circle, with the help of squinches. The categorisation can be done either on the basis of structure or shape. Different types of domes have been built during the Islamic period like the corbelled domes, double domes,onion domes, circular domes, etc. The Muslim rulers brought with them the concept of true domes.

SQUINCHES: Squinches are an interesting piece of architecture used as a filling to provide an octagonal base over a square plan to place a dome at the upper level. It eliminates the upper corners of a square space and is an element for the transition of a square into octagon. Squinches are persian element of architecture, that give a beautiful look to the comers, as it appears to be reducing corner downwards from the spherical underside of the dome.

IWAN: Iwan is the Cloister or pillared verandah. These formed an important component of buildings like mosques and madrasas.The Iwan generally surrounded the courtyards and provided shelter to those offering prayers or learning quran. These were shelters during the adverse weather conditions. It is also defined as a rectangular hall or space with walls on three sides and one side left open.These spaces also act as covered areas for social gatherings and meetings.

SPANDREL: Spandrel is triangular space between the two consecutive arches,placed side by side.These arches may be enclosed in a rectangular setting,thus creating a frame. Spandrels were generally decorated with geometrical designs like inverted lotus,arabesque,calligraphy or rosettes,etc. in Islamic architecture.Such patterns are more popular in the later periods of Islamic architecture in india. 4

MUQARNA: Muqarna are a popular style in Arab and Persia, employed for covering the ceiling. Muqarnas appear like honey comb motif of a group of arched cells. The number of arches increase in subsequent rows. from bottom to top. At times the size of arches increases from bottom to top. This design is employed to fill up the space at squinches, so that more support can be extended to the portion above it.

MIHRAB: Mihrab is a niche created in the interiors, in the centre of the western wall of the mosque. It denotes the direction of qibla( direction to be faced for prayer), as well as the place for Imam(the leader during the prayer), to guide the followers performing the prayer. The prayer is performed by facing towards the mihrab. It was beautifully decorated with calligraphy, inlay work and geometric designs, etc. Mihrab is an integral part of mosque design and necessarily found in all mosques. Sometimes there are more than one mihrab on the western wall but they are always found in odd numbers, such that the central mihrab is reserved for the Imam. In some cases, the mihrabs also found in tombs.

AESTHETIC ELEMENTS: The term aesthetic elements are used here to discuss the elements if Indo-islamic architecture, which are employed in the buildings as elements for decorative purposes. Such elements have been identified as symmetry. jali work, geometric design,arabesque,calligraphy,finials,glazed tiles and mosaic work.

SYMMETRY: Islamic architecture is known for symmetry in building design.The plans were generally symmetrical along on axis.The buildings had symmetry in plan as well as in elevation.The features on the facade like the entrances or the domes were generally in odd numbers, so that symmetry could be created along the central axis or the component. Symmetry was also observed in landscape planning. The gardens were divided into equal parts along axis, created with the help of water channels.

JALI WORK: The jali were used in beautiful patterns like hexagon or star. These works later developed as master pieces of architecture. It proved to be a device to give controlled illumination in the interiors also ventilate spaces at the same time. The jali work also enhanced the quality of interiors by filtering in light through them. The jali work created beautiful patterns of light and shade.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN: The Islamic architecture is known for its beautiful geometric patterns, especially in the monuments of Mughal period. Square,circles,star of David (six pointed star), etc. are the most popular geometric designs witnessed in Islamic architecture. These patterns are popularly found in jali work, flooring patterns, facades, domes, spandrels, etc. These designs are witnessed at spandrels of arches of many 5

important buildings of Muslim rulers, for example, at Delhi old fort, Humayun’s tomb,Fatehpur Sikri, etc.

ARABESQUE: Arabesque is a form of decoration in Islamic architecture.The patterns include interlacting and scrolling lines,curvilinear lines,floral designs,etc.Many designs of foliage patterns have been employed in buildings of Islamic architecture.These designs are popular in surface decoration of facade of building and gateways. Arabesque was employed for decoration because usage of human figures could not be done in the buildings as imitation of human or lively beings is strictly prohibited in Islam, as it is considered as an act of copying the act of creation of Almighty Allah.

CALLIGRAPHY: Calligraphy is also known as “khatt” in Arabic. It is an art of Writing that developed in Islamic architecture in the inlay Work done in a combination of sandstone and marble.In Islamic architecture it is associated with the writing of quarnic Versus on the facade of buildings. The inscriptions are in Arabic language. There are various scripts such as naskh, taliq, nastaliq, thuluth, etc. The art of calligraphy is very well calculated as the size of words increase with the height such that the

lowest and the highest bands look alike. FINIALS: Finials are an ornamental piece of work at the apex of an object.The domes of some building have beautiful finials.The materials was marble, masonry or metal. The finials also had inverted floral base at many times.

GLAZED TILES: Glazed tiles are used by Muslim rulers on their buildings to increase the life of buildings and also for decorative purposes. Glazing is done on the tiles by adding a layer of mixture of copper carbonate and silica and by keeping the tiles at high temperature.

MOSAIC WORK: Mosaic work is a kind of inlay work used for decorative purpose.Different materials such as glass, glazed tiles, stones, etc. are fitted or fixed into stone work. These materials are lined into the grooves permanently, which are created on the stone slabs. During the later period of Islamic architecture in lndia, marble work was extensively used for inlay work in the form of stripes and arabesque, etc.

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EXAMPLES OF MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE:

KABULI BAGH MOSQUE: Kabuli Bagh Mosque, built in 1527, is an impressive structure located at Panipat, a historical town situated on the banks of the River Yamuna. Panipat is about 92 km north of New Delhi. Babur constructed this mosque in 1527 AD in order to commemorate his victory over Ibrahim Lodhi. After 6 years, Humayun defeated Salim Shah and got a platform around the mosque. The Kabuli Bagh Mosque, the first Mughal monument in India. The age and climate ravage the structure to an extent. Kabuli Bagh Mosque is now protected as a heritage building.

History of Kabuli Bagh Mosque Kabuli Bagh Mosque was built by Babur after the First Battle of Panipath. Kabuli Bagh Mosque is situated 2 kms away from Panipath. Named after his wife Kabuli Begum, it was constructed by the king to commemorate his victory over Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi.

Architecture of Kabuli Bagh Mosque Built in 1526 AD, the mosque, situated inside an enclosure having octagonal towers at its corners, has its entrance on the north. The gateway built of bricks with red sandstone facing consists of a lintel bracket-type opening encased in a huge arch, the spandrels of which are decorated with arched recesses encased in rectangular panels. The mosque is flanked by chambers on two sides of the mosque. In addition to this, there is also an inscription in Persian that runs along the parapet. The main prayer hall is square and has annexes on sides. Its high facade is divided in panels and plastered with lime. Each annex constitutes of nine bays. These bays are crowned with hemispherical domes sitting on low drums. Humayun, after defeating Salim Shah, added a masonry platform known as "Chabutra-I-Fateh Mubarak. It bears an inscription dated 1527 AD that records the name of the king and other details about its builders.

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The mosque that Babur himself provided is located in Panipat, presently placed in Karnal Districtof Haryana State. Inscriptions indicate that the mosque was well set into motion, if not finished, by the end of 1527 and its gate, well and garden were completed by 1528. The location of the mosque is known as the garden eventually eroded. The building's colossal size suggests that the mosque, rather than the garden, dominated the complex.

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One of the mosques constructed by nobles under Babur's orders is at Sambhal, approximately 140 km east of Delhi. It was constructed in 1526 by Mir Hindu Beg, a key noble in the court of both Babur and Humayun. Built a year before Babur's Kabuli Bagh mosque in Panipat, the Sambhal mosque is the first surviving Mughal building in India. The complex is entered through a gate on the east that opens to a huge walled courtyard. The prayer chamber, resembling the one of the Panipat mosque, is rectangular with a large square central bay. Its entrance is set into a high Pishtaq. The chamber is flanked on both sides by three-bayed double-aisled side wings. A single dome surmounts the central bay and a small flat dome surmounts each bay of the side wings. The mosque's Pishtaq and other features resembling 15th century Sharqi structures, intimates a potential dependence on local artisans and designers.

BABRI MOSQUE A second mosque possibly built in response to Babur's general orders, stands at Ayodhya, today in Faizabad district, on the banks of the Ghaghara River. This very Mughal architecture during Babur is however the most arresting of the illustrations present in India in contemporary times, acknowledged as the Babri Masjid. Unlike the other mosques built under Babur's aegis, this one at Ayodhya is a single-aisled three-bayed kind. It is also however considerably smaller than the other two. The central bay's Pishtaq is much higher than the flanking side bays, but all three bays incorporate arched entrances. Most of the Babri Mosque is stucco-covered, over a rubble or brick core, but carved black stone columns from a pre-12th century temple are embedded onto both sides of the central entrance porch. The mosque is surmounted by three prominent domes. Babri Mosque, amidst its colossal existence, breathes the sighs of history, whilst reflecting the development of Mughal architecture during Babur's regime. It was constructed in an enclosed courtyard in the traditional Western Asia hypostyle plan and was an amalgamation of the Hindu architecture with that of Western Asian style. Central courtyard of the mosque is surrounded by lavishly arched columns overlaid to increase the height of the ceilings. The amazing architecture of their craftsmanship is noticeable in the design of vegetal scrolls and lotus patterns.

Babur ruled India for less than 5 years before his unfortunate death in December, 1530. Although he had reigned for only a short time, he was the man to have introduced Timurid architectural concepts and most importantly, the rationally organised four-part paradise garden, a factor which was to forever be omnipresent in Mughal architecture, not only during Babur, but also his successors.

HUMAYUN’S TOMB: Humayun’s Tomb, one of the earliest extant examples of the garden tomb characteristic of Mughalera architecture, situated in Delhi, India. In 1993 it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage site. A landmark in the development of Mughal architecture, Humayun’s Tomb was commissioned in 1569, after the death of the Mughal emperor Humayun in 1556, by his Persian queen Ḥamidah Banu Begam. It was designed by Persian architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyas. The structure inspired several other significant architectural achievements, including the Taj Mahal. 8

The 10-hectare (25-acre) plot on which the building stands is one of the first to have been laid out in a manner based on the description of an Islamic char bagh (“paradise garden”). The garden is divided into four large squares by means of causeways and water channels. Each of the four squares is further subdivided in like manner so that the whole is subdivided into 36 smaller squares. The tomb occupies the four central squares. Within the premises are a baradari (pillared pavilion) and a hammam (bath chamber). Inspired by the structural splendour of this garden, Edwin Lutyens, the noted English architect and planner of New Delhi, re-created a similar design around what is now the Rashtrapati Bhavan (Presidential House) in the early 20th century.

AGRA FORT: Agra Fort was built in the year 1573 under the reign of Akbar – one of the greatest Mughal Emperors. It took more than 4000 workers and eight years of hardship to complete the fort. Knowing the significance of its location, Akbar built the fort to make it the main residence of the Mughals. The fort remained as the main residence of the emperors belonging to the Mughal dynasty until the year 1638. The fort houses numerous impressive structures like the Jahangir Mahal, Khas Mahal, Diwan-iKhass, Diwan-i-Am, Machchhi Bhawan and Moti Masjid. In 1638, the capital of the Mughal dynasty was moved from Agra to Delhi, causing the Agra Fort to lose its status as the main residence of the Mughal emperors. The fort is separated from its sister monument Taj Mahal by just 2.5 kilometers. Often described as the walled city, Agra Fort is a UNESCO World Heritage site. Today, the fort is a major tourist spot and attracts many tourists from all over the world.

History of the Fort Agra Fort is known for its rich history. The fort has been owned by many emperors and rulers in the past, undergoing many changes in its appearance. It all began in the year 1526 when the first battle of Panipat was fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty. When Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi, he made the fort and the palace of Ibrahim Lodi as his home. He then modified the fort by building a huge step well (baoli) inside. The fort soon became an important monument to the Mughals. In fact, Babur’s successor, Humayun’s coronation took place at the fort in the year 1530.

Layout of the Fort: The fort, when viewed from above, has a semicircular shape. The base of the fort faces the bank of the river Yamuna. The Agra Fort is enclosed by a double battlemented massive wall of red sandstone. This wall is about 2 kilometer in perimeter and is interrupted by graceful curves and lofty bastions. The walls of the fort are a massive seventy feet high. The fort stretches for almost 2.5 kilometers. It has four gates (one on each side). Out of the four gates, the Delhi gate and Lahore gate are the most prominent ones. The Lahore gate was later renamed as Amar Singh Gate. Akbar used the Delhi gate as his main entrance and the gate also served as a security against the invaders. There is also an inner gateway known as the Elephant Gate. The entrances were built in such a manner that the invaders found it difficult to enter the fort even with the help of war elephants. The Indian army still uses the Delhi gate for security purposes. 9

The fort has various palaces and halls. Among the palaces, the prominent ones are Macchi Bhavan, Khas Mahal and Shah Jahani Mahal. The Amar Singh gate leads to the courtyard. The magnificent Diwan-I-Am (Hall of Public Audience) is on the right hand side. A little further lay the royal pavilions, which houses the famous Nagina Masjid and Mina Masjid. The fort also has royal baths made out of marbles, which were used by the princesses. Also, places of worship and a private market place for the ladies were built within the fort. At the base of the fort, a secret passage was dug in an attempt to access it with ease, during times of emergency. Other attractions of the fort include a grape garden, a jasmine tower, a mirror palace (Shish Mahal), courtrooms and the ruins of Akbar’s once magnificent palace. It is said that the fort once housed five hundred beautiful looking buildings. Unfortunately, many of those buildings were destroyed at different time periods for various reasons.

Architecture

Bricks formed the base of Agra Fort’s structure. Red sandstone was brought all the way from Rajasthan and that was laid on the external surfaces. Back then, the entire fort was built using the red sandstone. This appearance of the fort underwent a major change during the reign of Shah Jahan. Unlike his grandfather, Shah Jahan was smitten by the beauty of white marble. Hence, he destroyed many structures within the fort, only to rebuild them using white marble. Shah Jahan was made to spend his final days in the Musamman Burj of the Agra fort, which was built by him.The Musamman Burj is located on the left of the Khaas Mahal. It is a beautiful octagonal tower with an open pavilion. It is said that Shah Jahan used to view the Taj Mahal from this very place.

Important Structures Inside the Agra Fort:

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Jahangir's Hauz – This is a monolithic tank, and was built by Jahangir. The tank was initially used for bathing. It is now a part of Akbar’s Bengali Mahal. Shahjahani Mahal – The Shahjahani Mahal is probably one of the earliest attempts of Emperor Shah Jahan to turn a red sandstone palace into a palace of white marble. Babur’s Baoli (step well) – Babur built a stone step well which took care of the water needs in the ancient fort of Agra. This was probably one of the earliest modifications made to the fort. Nagina Masjid – Nagina Masjid is a mosque which was built by Shah Jahan. The mosque was built using white marble only and was considered a private place of worship. Diwan-I-Am (Hall of Public Audience) – This hall was built by Shah Jahan. Interestingly, the hall was first built using red sandstone but was later shell-plastered, giving it a look of white marble. Ghaznin Gate – The Ghaznin gate actually belongs to the tomb of Mahmud of Ghazni, one of the rulers of the Ghaznavid Empire. The gate was moved into the fort by the British for political reasons.

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Bengali Mahal –This palace was built by Akbar and was later modified by Shah Jahan. An interesting aspect of this palace is it is said to be housing secret buildings hidden underneath the palace. Akbar’s Mahal – The ruins of Akbar’s famous palace still remains in the fort. Akbar breathed his last in this very palace. The entire palace was built using red sandstone.

FATEHPUR SIKRI: Fatehpur Sikri town, western Uttar Pradesh state, northern India. It lies just east of the Rajasthan state border, about 23 miles (37 km) west-southwest of Agra. The town was founded in 1569 by the great Mughal emperor Akbar. In that year Akbar had visited the Muslim hermit Chishti, who was residing in the village of Sikri. Chishti correctly foretold that Akbar’s wish for an heir would be gratified with the birth of a son; the child, Salim, was born in Sikri that same year, and he would later rule as the emperor Jahangir. The grateful Akbar decided that the site of Sikri was auspicious and made it his capital. He personally directed the building of the Jami Masjid (Great Mosque; 1571), which stretches some 540 feet (165 metres) in length and contains an ornate tomb for Chishti. The mosque’s southern entrance, the colossal gateway Buland Darwaza (Victory Gate; 1575), is one of India’s greatest architectural works. The monumental gateway is constructed out of red sandstone and is attractively carved Fatehpur Sikri contains other early Mughal structures, exhibiting both Muslim and Hindu architectural influences. They include the palace of Akbar’s wife (Jodha Bai), a private audience hall, and houses. The Mughal capital was moved to Delhi in 1586 because of Fatehpur Sikri’s inadequate water supply. Now maintained as a historic site, Fatehpur Sikri was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1986.

Palace of Jodha Bai The beauty of the red sand stone charms you the moment you step within the vicinity of the Fatehpur Sikri while on a Tour to Uttar Pradesh. Elegance personified, the entirety of the complex of Fatehpur Sikri is adorned with some of the finest elements of the reign of the Mughals. Characteristic in its grandeur, which corresponds to the regality of the Mughals, the entirety of Fatehpur Sikri is a definite must include if you are planning a tour to Uttar Pradesh. Of the Monuments in Fatehpur Sikri, perhaps one of the most notable is the Palace of Jodha Bai, Fatehpur Sikri.

History of the Palace of Jodha Bai, Fatehpur Sikri Built as a form of homage to the memory of the memory of the great Sufi saint, Sheikh Salim Chisti, who, it is said, blessed the emperor with an heir to the Mughal throne in India, who was to be later known as Jahangir, Fatehpur Sikri was built in 1571 and stood as the capital of the Mughal empire till the year 1585 when it was abandoned due to what, today is guessed by historians to be a severe water shortage. Declared recently as one of the prestigious World Heritage Monuments by UNESCO, Fatehpur Sikri is today one of the most popular tourist destinations while on a trip to Uttar Pradesh. 11

Description of the Palace of Jodha Bai

The palace of Jodha Bai or the Rajput queen of Emperor Akbar, the Palace of Jodha Bai in Fatehpur Sikri is one of the most charming examples of the amalgamation of the apparently opposing architectural styles of the Rajputs and the Mughals. The palace, which is located on the eastern side of the entirety of the fort, was used, according to modern historians as a residence for the various queens of Akbar as well as the other members of the harem. Corresponding to the style used in Hindu architecture, the main palace has a courtyard, around which the entirety of the palace is built. The living quarters are all built after keeping the courtyard as the center of the complex. Added to the brilliance of the red sandstone are the turquoise bricks, which are used on the roofs of the buildings.

TAJMAHAL Taj Mahal, also spelled Tadj Mahall, mausoleum complex in Agra, western Uttar Pradesh state, northern India. It is situated in the eastern part of the city on the southern (right) bank of the Yamuna (Jumna) River. Agra Fort (Red Fort), also on the right bank of the Yamuna, is about 1 mile (1.6 km) west of the Taj Mahal In its harmonious proportions and its fluid incorporation of decorative elements, the Taj Mahal is distinguished as the finest example of Mughal architecture, a blend of Indian, Persian, and Islamic styles. One of the most beautiful structural compositions in the world, the Taj Mahal is also one of the world’s most iconic monuments, visited by millions of tourists each year. The complex was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983.

History Of Construction The Taj Mahal was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahān (reigned 1628–58) to immortalize his wife Mumtaz Maḥal (“Chosen One of the Palace”). The name Taj Mahal is a derivation of her name. She died in childbirth in 1631, after having been the emperor’s inseparable companion since their marriage in 1612. The plans for the complex have been attributed to various architects of the period, though the chief architect was probably Ustad Aḥmad Lahawri, an Indian of Persian descent. The five principal elements of the complex—main gateway, garden, mosque. jawab (literally “answer”; a building mirroring the mosque), and mausoleum (including its four minarets)—were conceived and designed as a unified entity according to the tenets of Mughal building practice, which allowed no subsequent addition or alteration. Building commenced about 1632. More than 20,000 workers were employed from India, Persia, the Ottoman Empire, and Europe to complete the mausoleum itself by about 1638–39; the adjunct buildings were finished by 1643, and decoration work continued until at least 1647. In total, construction of the 42-acre (17-hectare) complex spanned 22 years A tradition relates that Shah Jahan originally intended to build another mausoleum across the river to house his own remains. That structure was to have been constructed of black marble, and it was to 12

have been connected by a bridge to the Taj Mahal. He was deposed in 1658 by his son Aurangzeb, however, and was imprisoned for the rest of his life in Agra Fort.

Layout And Architecture Resting in the middle of a wide plinth 23 feet (7 metres) high, the mausoleum proper is of white marble that reflects hues according to the intensity of sunlight or moonlight. It has four nearly identical facades, each with a wide central arch rising to 108 feet (33 metres) at its apex and chamfered (slanted) corners incorporating smaller arches. The majestic central dome, which reaches a height of 240 feet (73 metres) at the tip of its finial, is surrounded by four lesser domes. The acoustics inside the main dome cause the single note of a flute to reverberate five times. The interior of the mausoleum is organized around an octagonal marble chamber ornamented with low-relief carvings and semiprecious stones (pietra dura). Therein are the cenotaphs of Mumtāz Maḥal and Shah Jahān. Those false tombs are enclosed by a finely wrought filigree marble screen. Beneath the tombs, at garden level, lie the true sarcophagi. Standing gracefully apart from the central building, at each of the four corners of the square plinth, are elegant minarets Flanking the mausoleum near the northwestern and northeastern edges of the garden, respectively, are two symmetrically identical buildings—the mosque, which faces east, and its jawab, which faces west and provides aesthetic balance. Built of red Sikri sandstone with marble-necked domes and architraves, they contrast in both colour and texture with the mausoleum’s white marble. The garden is set out along classical Mughal lines—a square quartered by long watercourses (pools)—with walking paths, fountains, and ornamental trees. Enclosed by the walls and structures of the complex, it provides a striking approach to the mausoleum, which can be seen reflected in the garden’s central pools.

The southern end of the complex is graced by a wide red sandstone gateway with a recessed central arch two stories high. White marble paneling around the arch is inlaid with black Qurnic lettering and floral designs. The main arch is flanked by two pairs of smaller arches. Crowning the northern and southern facades of the gateway are matching rows of white chattris (chhattris; cupola-like structures), 11 to each facade, accompanied by thin ornamental minarets that rise to some 98 feet (30 metres). At the four corners of the structure are octagonal towers capped with larger chattris Two notable decorative features are repeated throughout the complex: pietra dura and Arabic calligraphy. As embodied in the Mughal craft, pietra dura (Italian: “hard stone”) incorporates the inlay of semiprecious stones of various colours, including lapis lazuli, jade, crystal, turquoise, and amethyst, in highly formalized and intertwining geometric and floral designs. The colours serve to moderate the dazzling expanse of the white Makrana marble. Under the direction of Amānat Khan alShīrāzī, verses from the Qurʾān were inscribed across numerous sections of the Taj Mahal in calligraphy, central to Islamic artistic tradition. One of the inscriptions in the sandstone gateway is known as Daybreak (89:28–30) and invites the faithful to enter paradise. Calligraphy also encircles the soaring arched entrances to the mausoleum proper. To ensure a uniform appearance from the vantage point of the terrace, the lettering increases in size according to its relative height and distance from the viewer. 13

WAZIR KHAN MOSQUE:

The Wazir Khan Mosque is 17th century mosque located in the city of Lahore, capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab. The mosque was commissioned during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as part of an ensemble of buildings that also included the nearby Shahi Hammam baths. Construction of Wazir Khan Mosque began in 1634 C.E., and was completed in 1641. Considered to be the most ornately decorated Mughal-era mosque, Wazir Khan Mosque is renowned for its intricate faience tile work known as kashi-kari, as well as its interior surfaces that are almost entirely embellished with elaborate Mughal-era frescoes. The mosque has been under extensive restoration since 2009 under the direction of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture and the Government of Punjab, with contributions from the governments of Germany, Norway, and the United States

The mosque is located in the Walled City of Lahore along the southern side of Lahore's Shahi Guzargah, or "Royal Road," which was the traditional route traversed by Mughal nobles on their way to royal residences at the Lahore Fort. The mosque is situated approximately 260 metres west of the Delhi Gate, where the mosque's Shahi Hammam is located. The mosque also faces a town square known as Wazir Khan Chowk, and the Chitta Gate. The mosque contains the tomb of the Sufi saint Syed Muhammad Ishaq Gazruni, also known as Miran Badshah. The mosque houses several shops in what is known as the "Calligrapher's Bazaar." The mosque was commissioned by the chief physician to the Mughal Court, Ilam-ud-din Ansari, who was widely known as Wazir Khan.Wazir Khan later became the subedar, or Viceroy of Punjab, and commissioned several monuments in Lahore. Wazir Khan owned substantial amounts of property near the Delhi Gate, and commissioned the Wazir Khan mosque in 1634 in order to enclose the tomb of Miran Badshah, an esteemed Sufi saint whose tomb now lies in the courtyard of the mosque. Prior to construction of the Wazir Khan Mosque, the site had been occupied by an older shrine to the saint.

The mosque's interior was richly embellished with frescoes that synthesize Mughal and local Punjabi decorative traditions, while the exterior of the mosque was lavishly decorated with intricate Persianstyle kashi-kari tile work. Wazir Khan's mosque superseded the older Maryam Zamani Mosque as the Lahore main mosque for congregations Friday prayers.

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Wazir Khan's mosque was part of a larger complex that included a row of shops traditionally reserved for calligraphers and bookbinders, and the town square in front of the mosque's main entrance.

Wazir Khan Mosque features South Asia's first example of a purpose-built Central Asian charsu bazaar, or four-axis bazaar - although in the Wazir Khan Mosque adaptation, two of the four axis are aligned as the mosque's entryway, while the other two form the Calligrapher's Bazaar.

In addition to the row of shops that formed the "Calligrapher's Bazaar," the mosque also rented space to other types of merchants in the mosque's northern and eastern façades, and also ran the nearby Shahi Hammam.Revenues from these sources were meant to serve as a waqf, or endowment, for the mosque's maintenance. Construction of the mosque began under the reign of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in either 1634 or 1635, and was completed in approximately seven years. In the late 1880s, John Lockwood Kipling, father of Rudyard Kipling, wrote about the mosque and its decorative elements in the former Journal of Indian Art. The British scholar Fred Henry Andrews noted in 1903 that the mosque had fallen into disrepair. The Shah Jahan Mosque also known as the Jamia Masjid of Thatta is a 17th-century building that serves as the central mosque for the city of Thatta, in the Pakistani province of Sindh. The mosque is considered to have the most elaborate display of tile work in South Asia and is also notable for its geometric brick work - a decorative element that is unusual for Mughalperiod mosques. It was built during the reign of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, who bestowed it to the city as a token of gratitude, and is heavily influenced by Central Asian architecture - a reflection of Shah Jahan's campaigns near Samarkand shortly before the mosque was designed. The mosque is located in eastern Thatta - the capital of Sindh in the 16th and 17th centuries before Sindh's capital was shifted to nearby Hyderabad. It is located near the Makli Necropolis, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The site is approximately 100 kilometres from Karachi.

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Aurangzeb and later Mughal architecture Bibi Ka Maqbara:   

In Aurangzeb's reign (1658–1707) squared stone and marble was replaced by brick or rubble with stucco ornament. Srirangapatna and Lucknow have examples of later Indo-Mughal architecture. He made additions to the Lahore Fort and also built one of the thirteen gates which was later named after him (Alamgir).

Badshahi Masjid The Badshahi Masjid in Lahore, Pakistan was commissioned by the sixth Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Constructed between 1671 and 1673, it was the largest mosque in the world upon construction. It is the third largest mosque in Pakistan and the seventh largest mosque in the world. The mosque is adjacent to the Lahore Fort and is the last in the series of congregational mosques in red sandstone. The red sandstone of the walls contrasts with the white marble of the domes and the subtle intarsia decoration. Aurangzeb's mosque's architectural plan is similar to that of his father, Shah Jahan, the Jama Masjid in Delhi; though it is much larger. It also functions as an idgah. The courtyard which spreads over 276,000 square feet, can accommodate one hundred thousand worshippers; ten thousand can be accommodated inside the mosque. The minarets are 196 feet (60 m) tall. The Mosque is one of the most famous Mughal structures, but suffered greatly under the reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In 1993, the Government of Pakistan included the Badshahi Mosque in the tentative list for UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Additional monuments Additional monuments from this period are associated with women from Aurangzeb's imperial family. The construction of the elegant Zinat al-Masjid in Daryaganj was overseen by Aurangzeb's second daughter Zinat-al-Nissa. Aurangzeb's sister Roshan-Ara who died in 1671. The tomb of Roshanara Begum and the garden surrounding it were neglected for a long time and are now in an advanced state of decay. Bibi Ka Maqbara was a mausoleum built by Prince Azam Shah, son of Emperor Aurangzeb, in the late 17th century as a loving tribute to his mother, Dilras Bano Begam in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. The Alamgiri Gate, built in 1673, is the main entrance to the Lahore Fort in present-day Lahore. It was constructed to face west towards the Badshahi Mosque in the days of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Another construction of the Mughal era is Lalbagh Fort (also known as "Fort Aurangabad"), a Mughal palace fortress at the Buriganga River in the southwestern part of Dhaka, Bangladesh, whose construction started in 1678 during the reign of Aurangzeb. 16

Mughal gardens The Shalimar Gardens, Lahore are among the most famous Mughal gardens.Mughal gardens are gardens built by the Mughals in the Islamic style of architecture. This style was influenced by Persian gardens and Timurid gardens. Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens. The famous gardens are the Char Bagh gardens at Taj Mahal, gardens at Humayun's Tomb Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, Delhi and Kashmir as well as Pinjore Garden in Haryana.

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CONCLUSION: The already existing style of architecture in India, before the advent of Muslim rulers was quite different in nature. It was a simple trabeated style consisting of lintel and pillars and sometimes corbelled arches and domes. Local building had decorated brackets supporting the beams, simple jaliwork, Chattris etc.

The Muslims who invaded India brought with them the idea of arches and domes. It was an arcuated system. The arched doorways and gateways, the domes (with or without drum) created with the help of squinches were a completely foreign style for Indian builders. It was an extension of Persian and Central Asian architectural style in India having Iwan, high platforms, courtyards, minars, squinches, geometrical designs, arabesque, calligraphy, inlay work, etc. They also brought with them the concept of Charbagh, the water channels, dividing the garden into squares. Initially the two styles were different and could be easily distinguished but with the passage of time, especially during the period of Mughal architecture, a full groom bloomed style merged with the amalgamation of the two styles, popularly known as ”Indo-Islamic Architecture”.

The indo-islamic structures brought with them the buildings which were beautiful and fully lighted with openings and jali work They were not mysterious buildings, nor were they dark. Even the tombs were full of light and ventilation, with openings and jails. The building had the following popular features: Iwan. gateways, arched clotsters, chattris, brackets, pavilions, glazed tiles, coloured marble, painted plaster work, domes, etc. Indo-Islamic architecture literally means an architecture created by combining the elements of Indian and Islamic architecture. The initial year of Islamic architecture in India witnessed structures created from the remains of hindu structures.The craftsmen in India were not aware of the style of Islamic buildings. so it took some time to adopt the architectural style. There was migration of trained people from Persia and Central Asia to india.With the passage of time the craftsmen in India also got trained and the style developed.

In a trabeated construction, the lintel is in tension and is likely to bend in the centre.On the contrary ,in an arch made up of blocks of stones, compression is in action. The weight of wall above the arch exerts pressure on the arch and compresses each element in it. The arches were constructed with small blade of stones whereas lintel needed huge massive pieces of stone. The domes which were used were not corbelled, most of the time,and were constructed with the help of squinches. During the Mughal period, the style became more Persian in nature. The influence of Rajput buildings increased in the Ina Mughal periods. A new style developed which was more delicate in nature. There 18

was more emphasis on inlay work Iii surface decoration. The Mughals also found new technique of placing domes on roof. The ribs were used to frame each 8d: and they were extended upwards, to meet the framing of other arches. This new pattern came to be known as "arch nettmg”. This methodology gradually converted into what a known as ”arch vaulting”, which covered the entire calm; This k a style of "muqarnas”, the technique of ceiling decoration. Different types of domes were employed by the rulers of Islamic period like the “Onion dome" at Humayun's but More and more bulbous end ornamented domes were mud With the passage of time. The “double domes” were introduced by Mughal. The Inner dome was shallower than the upper dome.As the dome was elevated above the main roof, the proportions in the Inner side needed to be corrected.Double domes were introduced in order to eliminate the vision of a huge dark space below the dome.

Other features which gained importance in the later Indo- Islamic period were cusped arches, curved roofs and bulbous columns. The curved roof were adopted form the provincial Bengal architecture. Before the invasion of Muslim rulers in India, the usage of lime was limited as a building material. The Muslim mm used lime for plaster work on the surface, so that decorative works could be done on smooth surfaces. The lime mortar was prepared by mixing of gypsum, surkhi (brick), reed glue, urad dal and hemp (a plant that is used for making ropes).

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