Historia Do Mundo

This unbroken stretch of land north of the mountains, reaching from the Pacific in the east to the Atlantic in the west, means that the boundary between Asia and Europe is a somewhat vague concept. Indeed Europe is really the western peninsula of the much larger mass of Asia. In the south there is a natural barrier, long accepted as a dividing line formed by the waters of the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Black Sea. North from here the boundary is notional. In recent times it has been accepted as passing east from the Black Sea to the Caspian and then stretching north from the Caspian along the eastern slopes of the Ural mountains. Out of Africa: more than a million years ago Homo erectus is the variety of human who moves out of the continent of Africa, to spread through much of Asia and Europe. This move from Africa is usually dated to about a million years ago, but this may be too recent. First reports of two skulls found in 1999 at Dmanisi, in South Georgia, describe them as 1.8 million years old. Fossil remains of this kind have been found as far afield as Java in southeast Asia (the first to be discovered, in 1891), Beijing in northern China, and within Europe in Greece, Germany and England - in addition to numerous sites in Africa. The European skulls differ from the Asian in various ways (larger brains, smaller teeth), causing some anthropologists to classify them not as Homo erectus but as an archaic version of our own species, Homo sapiens.

Out of Africa: more than a million years ago Homo erectus is the variety of human who moves out of the continent of Africa, to spread through much of Asia and Europe. This move from Africa is usually dated to about a million years ago, but this may be too recent. First reports of two skulls found in 1999 at Dmanisi, in South Georgia, describe them as 1.8 million years old. Fossil remains of this kind have been found as far afield as Java in southeast Asia (the first to be discovered, in 1891), Beijing in northern China, and within Europe in Greece, Germany and England - in addition to numerous sites in Africa. The European skulls differ from the Asian in various ways (larger brains, smaller teeth), causing some anthropologists to classify them not as Homo erectus but as an archaic version of our own species, Homo sapiens. The spread of our species: from 60,000 years ago After Homo erectus has spread through the linked central land mass of our planet (Africa and Eurasia), he is succeeded within that region by varieties of Homo sapiens - the Neanderthals and then modern humans. It is modern humans who take the next step in colonizing the habitable earth. The dates are still uncertain and much disputed. But at some time after 60,000 years ago people cross from southeast Asia to Borneo, the Philippines, New Guinea and Australia. And at some time after 30,000 years ago humans make the short but difficult leap from northeast Asia to northwest America.

The spread of our species: from 60,000 years ago After Homo erectus has spread through the linked central land mass of our planet (Africa and Eurasia), he is succeeded within that region by varieties of Homo sapiens - the Neanderthals and then modern humans. It is modern humans who take the next step in colonizing the habitable earth. The dates are still uncertain and much disputed. But at some time after 60,000 years ago people cross from southeast Asia to Borneo, the Philippines, New Guinea and Australia. And at some time after 30,000 years ago humans make the short but difficult leap from northeast Asia to northwest America. The unsettling and the settled: from 8000 BC Only nomads can live on the steppes north of Asia's mountain ranges, moving with their flocks of animals to survive together on the meagre crop of grass. It is a tough life, and the steppes have bred tough people - pioneers in warfare on horseback. From the Indo-European tribes of ancient times to the Mongols and Turks of more recent history, the people of the steppes descend frequently and with devastating suddeness upon their more civilized neighbours. There are many tempting victims. Beneath the mountain ridges Asia offers ideal locations for civilized life

The unsettling and the settled: from 8000 BC Only nomads can live on the steppes north of Asia's mountain ranges, moving with their flocks of animals to survive

together on the meagre crop of grass. It is a tough life, and the steppes have bred tough people - pioneers in warfare on horseback. From the Indo-European tribes of ancient times to the Mongols and Turks of more recent history, the people of the steppes descend frequently and with devastating suddeness upon their more civilized neighbours. There are many tempting victims. Beneath the mountain ridges Asia offers ideal locations for civilized life. The regions bordering the Asian shores of the Mediterranean are where mankind appears first to have settled in villages and towns - a development requiring at least the beginnings of agriculture. Two of the earliest settlements to deserve the name of towns are Jericho in Palestine and Catal Huyuk in Anatolia. For the emergence of a more developed society, justifying the name of civilization, history suggests that there is one incomparable advantage, indeed almost a necessity - the proximity of a large river, flowing through an open plain. In several places Asia provides this.

The regions bordering the Asian shores of the Mediterranean are where mankind appears first to have settled in villages and towns - a development requiring at least the beginnings of agriculture. Two of the earliest settlements to deserve the name of towns are Jericho in Palestine and Catal Huyuk in Anatolia. For the emergence of a more developed society, justifying the name of civilization, history suggests that there is one incomparable advantage, indeed almost a necessity - the proximity of a large river, flowing through an open plain. In several places Asia provides this. On a map showing the fertile plains of Asia, between the mountains and the sea, three such areas stand out: Mesopotamia, watered by the Tigris and the Euphrates; the valley of the Indus; and the plains of north China, from the Hwang Ho (or Yellow River) down to the Yangtze. Other waterways, such as the Ganges or the Mekong, are in areas too heavily forested to make agriculture easy. But in Mesopotamia, western India and northern China, great rivers flow through open plains, providing ample flood water for the nurturing of crops. These regions of Asia become the sites of three of the early civilizations. On a map showing the fertile plains of Asia, between the mountains and the sea, three such areas stand out: Mesopotamia, watered by the Tigris and the Euphrates; the valley of the Indus; and the plains of north China, from the Hwang Ho (or Yellow River) down to the Yangtze. Other waterways, such as the Ganges or the Mekong, are in areas too heavily forested to make agriculture easy. But in Mesopotamia, western India and northern China, great rivers flow through open plains, providing ample flood water for the nurturing of crops. These regions of Asia become the sites of three of the early civilizations. Indo-Europeans: from 2000 BC

Tribes speaking Indo-European languages, and living as nomadic herdsmen, are well established by about 2000 BC in the steppes which stretch from the Ukraine eastwards, to the regions north of the Black Sea and the Caspian. Over the coming centuries they steadily infiltrate the more appealing regions to the south and west - occasionally in something akin to open warfare, and invariably no doubt with violence. But the process is much more gradual than our modern notions of an invading force.

Indo-Europeans: from 2000 BC Tribes speaking Indo-European languages, and living as nomadic herdsmen, are well established by about 2000 BC in the steppes which stretch from the Ukraine eastwards, to the regions north of the Black Sea and the Caspian. Over the coming centuries they steadily infiltrate the more appealing regions to the south and west - occasionally in something akin to open warfare, and invariably no doubt with violence. But the process is much more gradual than our modern notions of an invading force. India-Europeans in Asia: from 1800 BC In Asia the first significant movement of this kind is by the Hittites, who establish themselves in Anatolia. Subsequently the Medes and the Persians become the dominant tribes on the Iranian plateau. These Indo-Iranians are related in language and culture to the Aryans who move down into India, profoundly influencing the subcontinent. Their tribal religion contributes largely to Zoroastrianism in

Persia and Hinduism in India.

In Asia the first significant movement of this kind is by the Hittites, who establish themselves in Anatolia. Subsequently the Medes and the Persians become the dominant tribes on the Iranian plateau. These Indo-Iranians are related in language and culture to the Aryans who move down into India, profoundly influencing the subcontinent. Their tribal religion contributes largely to Zoroastrianism in Persia and Hinduism in India. At a much later date, one of the Indo-European tribal groups in India makes a further move south. They are the Sinhalese. They settle in Sri Lanka, probably in the 6th century BC. In doing so, they isolate themselves from the Indo-Europeans of north India, for they move to the south of a different linguistic group - the Dravidians, whose origin is unknown but whose language has no links with IndoEuropean. After another lengthy gap, in about the 11th century AD, members of the largest Dravidian community, the Tamils, move into Sri Lanka from southern India and settle in the north of the island.

At a much later date, one of the Indo-European tribal groups in India makes a further move south. They are the Sinhalese. They settle in Sri Lanka, probably in the 6th century BC. In doing so, they isolate themselves from the Indo-Europeans of north India, for they move to the south of a different linguistic group - the Dravidians, whose origin is unknown but whose language has no links with IndoEuropean. After another lengthy gap, in about the 11th century AD, members of the largest Dravidian community, the Tamils, move into Sri Lanka from southern India and settle in the north of the island. Western Asia: from 1000 BC The great civlizations of south and east Asia - India and China - are relatively isolated by the accidents of geography. But western Asia, and in particular the Mediterranean coast, is vulnerable to invaders from all sides. By about 1000 BC the Hebrews are established in Palestine. The Phoenicians are their neighbours to the north. These desirable territories will be a continuous battleground, first in a triangular rivalry between Egypt, Mesopotamia and Anatolia; and later, when strong rulers control the Iranian plateau, in a prolonged struggle between the Persian empire to the east and Greece and Rome to the west. Western Asia: from 1000 BC The great civlizations of south and east Asia - India and China - are relatively isolated by the accidents of geography. But western Asia, and in particular the Mediterranean coast, is vulnerable to invaders from all sides. By about 1000 BC the Hebrews are established in Palestine. The Phoenicians are their neighbours to the north. These desirable territories will be a continuous battleground, first in a triangular rivalry between Egypt, Mesopotamia and Anatolia; and later, when strong rulers control the Iranian plateau, in a prolonged struggle between the Persian empire to the east and Greece and Rome to the west. Between India and China: 1st century BC - 8th century AD Cultural influence in southeast Asia comes at first either from India or China. In the 1st century BC Indian traders penetrate Burma. Further east, in Vietnam, Bronze Age culture infiltrates gradually from China at some time before the 3rd century BC. With these exceptions, the region is still occupied at this time by neolithic communities. Between India and China: 1st century BC - 8th century AD Cultural influence in southeast Asia comes at first either from India or China. In the 1st century BC Indian traders penetrate Burma. Further east, in Vietnam, Bronze Age culture infiltrates gradually from China at some time before the 3rd century BC. With these exceptions, the region is still occupied at this time by neolithic communities. The development of more advanced cultures in the region derives largely from the spread of India's two great religions, Hinduism and Buddhism. Both travel east by sea in the early centuries of the Christian era. The Indians at this time are adventurous seafarers. Merchants gradually spread the two religions and their related architectural traditions along coastal regions on the way towards the South China Sea. This religious and cultural imperialism from India, combined with political and military pressure from China (particularly in Vietnam) gives southeast Asia its lasting character.

The development of more advanced cultures in the region derives largely from the spread of India's two great religions, Hinduism and Buddhism. Both travel east by sea in the early centuries of the Christian era. The Indians at this time are adventurous seafarers. Merchants gradually spread the two religions and their related architectural traditions along coastal regions on the way towards the South China Sea. This religious and cultural imperialism from India, combined with political and military pressure from China (particularly in Vietnam) gives southeast Asia its lasting character. At a slightly later date Buddhism spreads also from China, which it has reached along the Silk Road from India. After becoming well established in Korea, Buddhist monks bring the faith during the 6th century to Japan. Buddhism reaches Tibet in the 8th century from two directions - from China and from Nepal, the original birthplace of the religion in India.

At a slightly later date Buddhism spreads also from China, which it has reached along the Silk Road from India. After becoming well established in Korea, Buddhist monks bring the faith during the 6th century to Japan. Buddhism reaches Tibet in the 8th century from two directions - from China and from Nepal, the original birthplace of the religion in India. Western Asia: 1st millennium AD At the start of the Christian era western Asia is part of the Roman empire which confronts, to the east, a Persian empire of varying size and complexion. The region will remain an uneasy border between these two blocks until the 4th century, when the adoption of Christianity begins to transform the western antagonist from the Roman into the Byzantine empire. The balance nevertheless remains much the same until it is violently and rapidly upset by the emergence of Islam in the 7th century. For the last centuries of the period western Asia, with the exception of Anatolia, is Muslim. Western Asia: 1st millennium AD At the start of the Christian era western Asia is part of the Roman empire which confronts, to the east, a Persian empire of varying size and complexion. The region will remain an uneasy border between these two blocks until the 4th century, when the adoption of Christianity begins to transform the western antagonist from the Roman into the Byzantine Empire.

The balance nevertheless remains much the same until it is violently and rapidly upset by the emergence of Islam in the 7th century. For the last centuries of the period western Asia, with the exception of Anatolia, is Muslim. East Asia: 1st millennium AD India and China, the two ancient civilizations of east Asia, are large enough to follow their own course at this stage without much influence from outside. It is instead their influence which spreads outwards, profoundly affecting the development of Sri Lanka, Korea and Japan - all of which develop their own local and lasting characteristics during this period. North of the mountain ranges the nomads exert pressure southwards from time to time. For the most part they are easily contained. Early in the next millennium their turn will come, first with minor groups gaining territory in northern China and then with the violent eruption of the Mongols. Western Asia: 1st millennium AD At the start of the Christian era western Asia is part of the Roman empire which confronts, to the east, a Persian empire of varying size and complexion. The region will remain an uneasy border between these two blocks until the 4th century, when the adoption of Christianity begins to transform the western antagonist from the Roman into the Byzantine Empire. The balance nevertheless remains much the same until it is violently and rapidly upset by the emergence of Islam in the 7th century. For the last centuries of the period western Asia, with the exception of Anatolia, is Muslim. East Asia: 1st millennium AD India and China, the two ancient civilizations of east Asia, are large enough to follow their own course at this stage without much influence from outside. It is instead their influence which spreads outwards, profoundly affecting the development of Sri Lanka, Korea and Japan - all of which develop their own local and lasting characteristics during this period. North of the mountain ranges the nomads exert pressure southwards from time to time. For the most part they are easily contained. Early in the next millennium their turn will come, first with minor groups gaining territory in northern China and then with the violent eruption of the Mongols. Western Asia: 1st millennium AD At the start of the Christian era western Asia is part of the Roman empire which confronts, to the east, a Persian empire of varying size and complexion. The region will remain an uneasy border between these two blocks until the 4th century, when the adoption of Christianity begins to transform the western antagonist from the Roman into the Byzantine Empire. The balance nevertheless remains much the same until it is violently and rapidly upset by the emergence of Islam in the 7th century. For the last centuries of the period western Asia, with the exception of Anatolia, is Muslim. East Asia: 1st millennium AD India and China, the two ancient civilizations of east Asia, are large enough to follow their own course at this stage without much influence from outside. It is instead their influence which spreads outwards, profoundly affecting the development of Sri Lanka, Korea and Japan - all of which develop their own local and lasting characteristics during this period. North of the mountain ranges the nomads exert pressure southwards from time to time. For the most part they are easily contained. Early in the next millennium their turn will come, first with minor groups gaining territory in northern China and then with the violent eruption of the Mongols. Turks and Mongols: AD 1000-1517

The first half of our own millennium is dominated, in Asia, by the movement of Turks and Mongols. Almost every part of the continent (southern India and southeast Asia are the exceptions) is invaded or occupied in this period by conquerors whose own roots lie in the steppes north of the mountain ranges. The first is Mahmud of Ghazni who raids into India from the year 1000, beginning a long Turkish presence in the north of the subcontinent. Later in the 11th century the Seljuk Turks rule from Afghanistan west to the Mediterranean.

Turks and Mongols: AD 1000-1517 The first half of our own millennium is dominated, in Asia, by the movement of Turks and Mongols. Almost every part of the continent (southern India and southeast Asia are the exceptions) is invaded or occupied in this period by conquerors whose own roots lie in the steppes north of the mountain ranges. The first is Mahmud of Ghazni who raids into India from the year 1000, beginning a long Turkish presence in the north of the subcontinent. Later in the 11th century the Seljuk Turks rule from Afghanistan west to the Mediterranean. In the 13th century the Mongols emerge from the steppes to seize a vast and virtually instant empire; by the time of Kublai Khan almost the whole habitable continent is theirs, except Palestine and Syria in the west and India, southeast Asia and Japan in the east. In the 15th century Timor almost repeats their great feat of conquest, but the effect is only to place his Turkish descendants on thrones previously held by Mongols - except for the imperial throne in China, by now returned to a native dynasty (the Ming). In the 15th century a new Turkish power, that of the Ottomans, wins control of Anatolia.

In the 13th century the Mongols emerge from the steppes to seize a vast and virtually instant empire; by the time of Kublai Khan almost the whole habitable continent is theirs, except Palestine and Syria in the west and India, southeast Asia and Japan in the east. In the 15th century Timur almost repeats their great feat of conquest, but the effect is only to place his Turkish descendants on thrones previously held by Mongols - except for the imperial throne in China, by now returned to a native dynasty (the Ming). In the 15th century a new Turkish power, that of the Ottomans, wins control of Anatolia. The first two decades of the 16th century bring renewed upheaval in two areas. A native ruler, the first of the Safavids, wins power in Persia. And in 1517 the Ottoman Turks extend their rule round the eastern Mediterranean and down into Egypt and Arabia. The resulting situation remains the status quo for some time. The Ottoman empire includes the whole of southwest Asia. Persia is in Persian hands. Much of India is ruled by Muslims of Turkish origin. The steppes remain the province of Turkish and Mongol nomads, though this region and Siberia will increasingly attract Russia.

The first two decades of the 16th century bring renewed upheaval in two areas. A native ruler, the first of the Safavids, wins power in Persia. And in 1517 the Ottoman Turks extend their rule round the eastern Mediterranean and down into Egypt and Arabia. The resulting situation remains the status quo for some time. The Ottoman empire includes the whole of southwest Asia. Persia is in Persian hands. Much of India is ruled by Muslims of Turkish origin. The steppes remain the province of Turkish and Mongol nomads, though this region and Siberia will increasingly attract Russia. The involvement of Europeans: 16th - 19th century AD In 1498 a Portuguese ship reaches Calicut in southern India. Its captain, Vasca da Gama, sails away again after three months. But this European visit to Asia is very different from the overland journeys made by Marco Polo and others in previous centuries. Europeans now have new maritime skills and ocean-going ships. Over the coming centuries their command of the seas will give them a massive presence in Asia. The spice islands, dominated by the Dutch from the 17th century, are the first part of Asia to attract European attention. India, fought over by French and English in the 18th century, is the next focus of colonial attention. The involvement of Europeans: 16th - 19th century AD In 1498 a Portuguese ship reaches Calicut in southern India. Its captain, Vasca da Gama, sails away again after three months. But this European visit to Asia is very different from the overland journeys made by Marco Polo and others in previous centuries. Europeans now have new maritime skills and ocean-going ships. Over the coming centuries their command of the seas will give them a massive presence in Asia. The spice islands, dominated by the Dutch from the 17th century, are the first part of Asia to attract European attention. India, fought over by French and English in the 18th century, is the next focus of colonial attention. China retains a dignified isolation until brutally subdued by Britain in the two Opium Wars of the 19th century. Meanwhile China is acquiring a European neighbour to the north, with the expansion of the Russian empire to the Pacific. And the French win control of the part of southeast Asia, which becomes known as Indo-China. By the mid-19th century the European presence in Asia is so all pervasive that wars in Afghanistan derive from imperial rivalries between Russia to the north and the British in neighbouring India. Not till the unscrambling of imperialism in the 20th century are the historic regions of Asia fully restored to Asian control. Japan, only briefly intruded upon by Europe, has been an independent exception. China retains a dignified isolation until brutally subdued by Britain in the two Opium Wars of the 19th century. Meanwhile China is acquiring a European neighbour to the north, with the expansion of the Russian empire to the Pacific. And the French win control of the part of southeast Asia which becomes known as Indo-China. By the mid-19th century the European presence in Asia is so all-pervasive that wars in Afghanistan derive from

imperial rivalries between Russia to the north and the British in neighbouring India. Not till the unscrambling of imperialism in the 20th century are the historic regions of Asia fully restored to Asian control. Japan, only briefly intruded upon by Europe, has been an independent exception. This History is as yet incomplete. The mountain ranges of Europe and Asia. When the great land masses of Africa and India collide with Europe and Asia, about 100 million years ago, they cause the crust of the earth to crumple upwards in a long almost continuous ridge of high ground - from the Alps, through Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan to the Himalayas. This barrier will have a profound influence on human history. To the south and east of the mountain range are various fertile regions, watered by great rivers flowing from the mountains. By contrast, north of the mountain range is a continuous strip of less fertile grasslands - the steppes, on which a horseman can ride almost without interruption from Mongolia to Moscow. This unbroken stretch of land north of the mountains, reaching from the Pacific in the east to the Atlantic in the west, means that the boundary between Asia and Europe is a somewhat vague concept. Indeed Europe is really the western peninsula of the much larger mass of Asia. In the south there is a natural barrier, long accepted as a dividing line - formed by the waters of the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Black Sea. North from here the boundary is notional. In recent times it has been accepted as passing east from the Black Sea to the Caspian and then stretching north from the Caspian along the eastern slopes of the Ural mountains.

The first Europeans: 500,000 - 10,000 years ago Early man - of the species Homo erectus - penetrates to the western extremity of Europe by about 500,000 years ago. Fossil remains from this time are known as far west as England. From about 230,000 years ago the human inhabitants of Europe, descendants of Homo erectus, are sufficiently different in brain size and physique to be classed as an early form of Homo sapiens. Known as Neanderthal man, this species prospers for many thousands of years. But the Neanderthalers leave little trace of themselves other than their stone tools, their bones and the bones of their animal prey (though a recently discovered flute suggests some cultural life). They are extinct by about 35,000 years ago.

Modern man - anatomically similar to humans today - arrives relatively late in Europe. But the continent does provide the most extensive evidence of the early culture of our own species of Homo sapiens. The Venus of Willendorf (about 25,000 years ago) and the cave paintings of Altamira and Lascaux (some 15,000 years ago) are merely the most famous examples of a vigorous palaeolithic art found in many parts of Europe. Similarly the exposed plains of eastern Europe contain traces of the earliest known free-standing dwellings - circular semi-sunken huts, with stones or tusks supporting some form of superstructure.

From villages to towns in Europe: 7000 - 2000 BC The Neolithic Revolution - introducing village life, the cultivation of crops and the rearing of animals - arrives in Greece in about 7000 BC from its region of origin in the Middle East. It will take about 3000 years to spread to the Atlantic coast and Britain, pushing back the way of life of the huntergatherers at an average rate of slightly more than a mile a year. This slow rate of progress may partly reflect a reluctance of the huntergatherers to settle down to the hard labour of agriculture. But it is due also to the fact that here the labour is indeed hard. Europe, unlike the Middle East, is heavily forested. Clearing the ground for crops, with stone tools, is a massive undertaking.

In the Atlantic coastal regions, the transition to Neolithic village settlement is marked by the world's most striking tradition of prehistoric architecture. In most of Europe Neolithic communities live in villages of timber houses, often with a communal longhouse as the central feature (one, discovered at Bochum in Germany, is some 65 metres in length). But along the entire Atlantic coast, from Spain to Britain and Denmark, the focus of village life is a communal tomb, around which simple huts are clustered. The tomb chambers of these regions introduce the tradition of stonework that includes passage graves, megaliths and the very solid domestic architecture of Skara Brae. By the time the whole of Europe has entered the Neolithic age, the eastern Mediterranean - where Africa joins Asia is literate and civilised. Like farming, civilization spreads by contagion from Asia to Europe. The point where the two continents meet, round the Aegean Sea, becomes from around 2000 BC the site of Europe's first civilization that of Minoan Crete. Minoan civilization, after several centuries, yields to an incoming group, which eventually provides nearly all the peoples of Europe - the Indo-Europeans

Indo-Europeans: from 2000 BC Tribes speaking Indo-European languages, and living as nomadic herdsmen, are well established by about 2000 BC in the steppes which stretch from the Ukraine eastwards, to the regions north of the Black Sea and the Caspian. Over the coming centuries they steadily infiltrate the more appealing regions to the south and west - occasionally in something akin to open warfare, and invariably no doubt with violence. But the process is much more gradual than our modern notions of an invading force.

Indo-Europeans in Europe: from 1800 BC In Europe the first Indo-European tribes to make significant inroads are the Greeks. They move south into Greece and the Aegean from the 18th century BC. Gradually other tribes speaking Indo-European languages spread throughout Europe. From an early date Germans are established in Denmark and southern Sweden. Balts settle along the southern and eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. Tribes using an Italic group of languages descend into Italy. Across the centre of Europe the Celts move gradually west through Germany into France, northern Spain and Britain.

Rome's private sea: 1st century BC - 6th century AD The gap between the establishment of Rome's first province outside mainland Italy (Sicily in 241 BC) and Roman control of the entire Mediterranean is little more than two centuries. With the annexation of Egypt in 30 BC, the Mediterranean becomes for the first time one political unit - a large lake within a single empire. This situation lasts for four centuries, until Germanic tribes move round the western Mediterranean in the 5th century AD. This most historic of seas will continue to play a central role in human history, but never again under unified control. Tribal pressure from the north has been gradually building up throughout the heyday of Rome.

Germans on the move: from the 2nd century BC In the 2nd century BC, Germanic tribes move south and east from Scandinavia. The Goths and the Vandals drive the Balts east along the coast of the Baltic. Other Germans press south along the Rhine as far as the Danube, forcing the Helvetii - a Celtic tribe - to take refuge among the swiss mountains. Two German tribes, the Teutones and the Cimbri, even strike so far south as to threaten Roman armies in southern France and northern Italy. They are finally defeated and pressed back in 101 BC. But from the Roman point of view a long-term threat has been identified - that of the German barbarians whose territory is now the region beyond the Rhine and the Danube. The lull before the storm: 3rd century AD By the 3rd century AD various German tribal confederations, all of whom will leave a lasting mark on European history, are ranged along the natural borders of the Roman empire. They have settled in the territories east of the Rhine and north of the Danube and Black Sea. From here, in the great upheavals of the 4th and 5th century (known as the Völkerwanderung, 'migration of the peoples'), they will move throughout western Europe. In the northwest, beyond the lower reaches of the Rhine, are the Franks. Further south, around the Main valley, are the Burgundians. East of the Alps, near the Tisza river, are the Vandals. Beyond them, occupying a far greater range of territory than the others, are the Goths.

New dispensations: 6th century AD By the year 500 the map of Europe has settled into a new pattern. The centre of the Roman empire is now unmistakably in the east, at Constantinople. The only parts of the empire to have survived with any degree of continuity are southeast Europe (the Balkans and Greece) and western Asia (on round the Mediterranean to Egypt). The rest is in new hands. Italy, the old centre of gravity, is now ruled by Ostrogoths. The Visigoths are in Spain and southwest France. The Burgundians are in southeast France and the Franks are in the north. In Britain a struggle is beginning between the Celtic inhabitants and invading Angles and Saxons.

The change from the heyday of the Roman empire could hardly seem greater, yet time will reveal strong hidden continuities. For a millennium, from 500 BC, there have been two influential cultures in Europe - Greece in the east and Rome in the west. In a different guise, for another 1000 years, the same two influences prevail. For each has its own primacy in relation to Christianity, the religion which now shapes Europe. Constantinople is founded in AD 330 as the great Christian imperial city. But Rome, the earlier imperial city, has its own different and prior claim - as the place where St Peter is believed to have been martyred, and the seat of his successors as pope. Constantinople never falters as the centre of eastern Christianity. Rome has its ups and downs, but it gradually imposes on the barbarians its own idea of the Christian religion and, with it, the authority of the pope. Latin and Greek were the political and cultural languages of the classical centuries. Now they become the cult languages of the Christian era. The old European pattern, disturbed though it is by the barbarian incursions, reasserts itself. The most profound difference after the 5th century is that Germanic peoples from the north begin to play a major role in western Europe, while new Slavonic communities establish themselves in the east.

The Franks in western Europe: 6th - 10th century AD The Franks are the first of the Germanic peoples to develop a large and stable kingdom in northwest Europe. Clovis, pressing south from the modern region of Belgium, extends his rule in the early 6th century to the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean. Three hundred years later, in the reign of Charlemagne, the Frankish empire reaches east over the Rhine, up to the Baltic in the north, as far as Austria in the east, and beyond the river Po in Italy. Europe has a new Christian empire as extensive in the west as the original Roman example - but one, which will prove more short-lived.

The region united by Charlemagne includes, in modern terms, northeast Spain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, much of Germany, Switzerland, Austria and north Italy. In 840, on the death of Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious, war breaks out between his three sons over their shares of this inheritance. A division between the brothers is finally agreed, in 843, in a treaty signed at Verdun. The dividing lines drawn on this occasion prove of lasting and dark significance in the history of Europe. Three slices of Francia: AD 843 Two facts of European geography (the Atlantic coast and the Rhine) dictate a vertical division of the Frankish empire, known in Latin as Francia. The three available sections are the west, the middle and the east - Francia Occidentalis, Francia Media and Francia Orientalis. It is clear that Francia Occidentalis will include much of modern France, and that Francia Orientalis will approximate to the German-speaking areas east of the Rhine. Francia Media, an ambiguous region between them, is the richest strip of territory. Allotted to Charlemagne's eldest son, Lothair I, it stretches from the Netherlands and Belgium down both sides of the Rhine to Switzerland and Italy. This central Frankish kingdom is in subsequent centuries, including our own, one of the great fault lines of Europe. The northern section becomes known as Lotharingia (the territory of Lothair) and thus, in French, Lorraine; between it and Switzerland is Alsace.

As power grows or decreases to the west or the east, in the great regions emerging slowly as France and Germany, these Rhineland provinces frequently change hands. So, for many centuries, do the Low Countries, Burgundy and northern Italy.

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The Slavs in eastern Europe: from the 6th century AD. The Slavs are first referred to by this name in AD 518 when they press into the Roman empire across the Danube, though they have been settled for more than a millennium in the region to the north (between the Vistula and Dnieper rivers). After the collapse of the empire of the Huns, in the 5th century, the Slavs begin to expand their territory. They move west into what are now the Czech republic and Slovakia and south towards the Adriatic and Aegean - where their separate regional and religious development as Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Macedonians and Bulgarians later makes the Balkan peninsula one of the most politically complex regions on the face of the earth.

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The Slavs in eastern Europe: from the 6th century AD The Slavs are first referred to by this name in AD 518 when they press into the Roman empire across the Danube, though they have been settled for more than a millennium in the region to the north (between the Vistula and Dnieper rivers). After the collapse of the empire of the Huns, in the 5th century, the Slavs begin to expand their territory. They move west into what are now the Czech republic and Slovakia and south towards the Adriatic and Aegean - where their separate regional and religious development as Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Macedonians and Bulgarians later makes the Balkan peninsula one of the most politically complex regions on the face of the earth.

The Slavs in eastern Europe: from the 6th century AD The Slavs are first referred to by this name in AD 518 when they press into the Roman empire across the Danube, though they have been settled for more than a millennium in the region to the north (between the Vistula and Dnieper rivers). After the collapse of the empire of the Huns, in the 5th century, the Slavs begin to expand their territory. They move west into what are now the Czech republic and Slovakia and south towards the Adriatic and Aegean - where their separate regional and religious development as Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Macedonians and Bulgarians later makes the Balkan peninsula one of the most politically complex regions on the face of the earth.

The Magyars have been living for several centuries near the mouth of the Don, as vassals of the Khazars. From 889 they spend a few years in the Balkans in the service of the Byzantine emperor, but soon they move on to the northwest, through the Carpathian mountains. Since 890 their leader has been Arpad, elected prince by the chieftains of the seven Magyar tribes. His people number no more than 25,000, but together they subdue (within the space of a few years) the scattered population of the region now known as Hungary. So Arpad becomes the founder of a nation which somehow - in all the upheavals of central Europe - retains its identity and its language down through the centuries. Clashes in central Europe: 9th - 10th century AD Central and eastern Europe, northwards from the Adriatic and the Aegean, is the arena in which many conflicting forces confront each other in the 9th and 10th centuries. Germans, pressing towards the east, meet onslaughts from Slavs and Magyars moving westwards. Missionaries from

Rome confront their rivals from Constantinople, competing for pagan souls with their rival brands of Christianity. The rulers of new kingdoms, emerging in this region at this period, decide which alliance and which religion to adopt. The frontiers established in these conflicts remain sensitive throughout European history. Roman Catholic kingdoms: 9th - 10th century AD The earliest large kingdom in central Europe is Moravia, the realm of a Slav dynasty which by the second half of the 9th century also controls Bohemia and adjacent parts of modern Poland and Hungary. The struggle between Roman and Byzantine Christianity crystallizes here. The district is first evangelized by Roman missionaries from Bavaria, but the king of Moravia, resenting German pressure, wants his people to receive the faith in their own Slavonic tongue. He sends to Constantinople for missionaries, and receives (in 863) the brothers Cyril and Methodius. They introduce a Slavonic liturgy. It is later outlawed by German clerics, who in association with Rome impose the Latin rite on the region. In neighbouring Hungary there are similar swings of faith, though here the Magyar royal family takes the opposite line. The Magyars, established in Hungary from about 896, overwhelm the Moravian kingdom soon after 900 and become a major threat to the Germans until defeated near the Lech river in 955. By that time many of their chieftains are Greek Orthodox Christians. But the Hungarian king (Gezá, a greatgrandson of Arpad) prefers to look westwards. In 975 he and his family are baptized in the Roman Catholic faith, initiating a lasting link between Hungary and Rome.

An even closer link with Rome is forged by Mieszko, the founder of the Polish kingdom. Deciding that his best hope of security lies in a western alliance, he adopts Roman Catholic Christianity in 966 and makes subtle use of the feudal system to win himself powerful protection. He accepts the German emperor Otto I as his feudal lord, and shortly before his death goes one step better - placing Poland directly under the authority of the pope in Rome.

A much disputed border between Roman and Greek influence falls within the region known for much of the 20th century as Yugoslavia. Croatia, in the west, is Roman Catholic. Christian from the 7th century, it is an established duchy by 880; in 925 a Croatian ruler receives his crown directly from the pope. By contrast the ruler of Serbia, in the east, adopts the Greek Orthodox faith. In about 880 he invites disciples of Cyril and Methodius to educate his people. This ancient division between two closely linked groups of Slavs is evident in their writing. Their shared language (called in recent times Serbo-Croatian) is written in the Roman script by the Croatians and in Cyrillic by the Serbians.

Greek Orthodox kingdoms: 9th - 10th century AD The two great Slav kingdoms within the Greek Orthodox fold are Bulgaria and Russia. The rulers of both, according to tradition, weigh up the attractions of Rome and Constantinople. They choose the glories of the east. The Bulgarian decision appears to be primarily political. The ruler, Boris I, is baptized in the Greek Orthodox church in 865, but for the next five years he plays Rome and Constantinople off against each other. In 870, when it is plain that Rome will not accept an independent Bulgarian patriarch, he brings his mainly pagan nation within the Byzantine fold (which allows greater independence to provincial churches). The decision of the Russian ruler to embrace Greek Orthodoxy is presented in the traditional account as aesthetic rather than political. In about 987 the prince of Kiev, Vladimir, commissions a report which persuades him of the attractions of Byzantine Christianity. It is a decision of profound importance for Orthodox Christianity, which in Russia finds its third great empire. Constantinople, the Christian seat of the Roman empire, becomes thought of as the second Rome. After its fall to the Turks, in 1453, Moscow is in place to take on the sacred mantle - describing itself proudly as the third Rome. Northwest Europe: 9th - 12th century AD During the 9th and 10th century Scandinavia sends out the last great marauding group of Europeans, the Vikings. But the same period also sees the first settled kingdoms in the region. By 811 Denmark has a king powerful enough to make a treaty with the Franks, and in the following century a Danish king, Harald Bluetooth, becomes the first Scandinavian ruler to convert to Christianity. He is baptized in about 960. A few years later a Norwegian king, Olaf I, takes the same step - between 995 and 999. Iceland becomes Christian in about 1000.

Denmark and Norway, linked in the 11th century in the empire of Canute, are by this time unshakably Christian kingdoms. But in the forests of Sweden the twin processes unification and the defeat of paganism - begin later and take longer. The first ruler of any part of Sweden to be baptized is Olaf, king of Götaland in the south, in about 1010. He and his successors struggle for more than a century against pagan rulers, whose most famous and jealously defended shrine is at Uppsala. Not until Uppsala is established as an archbishopric, in 1164, can Sweden be securely classified as Christian. Feudal Europe: 10th - 15th century Although feudalism develops as early as the 8th century, under the Carolingian dynasty, it does not prevail widely in Europe until the 10th century - by which time virtually the entire continent is Christian. For the next 500 years, great accumulations of power and landed wealth pass between a few favoured players as if in a vast board game. The rules are complex, and to an outside eye deeply mysterious. But certain actions and qualifications bring a distinct advantage.

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The top players in feudal Europe come from a small group of people - an aristocracy, based on skill in battle, with a shared commitment to a form of Christianity (at once power-hungry and idealistic) in which the pope in Rome has special powers as God's representative on earth. As a great feudal lord with moral pretensions, holding the ring between secular sovereigns, the pope can be seen as Europe's headmaster. Bishops and abbots are part of the small feudal aristocracy, for they are mostly recruited from the noble families holding the great fiefs. Indeed bishops can often be found on the battlefield, fighting it out with the best.

As in any other context, the strongest argument in feudalism - transcending the niceties of loyalty - is naked force. The Normans in England or in Sicily rule by right of conquest, and feudal disputes are regularly resolved in battle. But feudalism also provides many varieties of justification for force. And the possession of a good justification is almost as reassuring to a knight as a good suit of armour.

One excellent excuse for warfare is the approval of the church. In 1059 the pope virtually commands the Normans to attack Sicily, by giving them feudal rights over territory not as yet theirs. Similarly Rome lets it be known that the Holy See is on the side of William when he invades England in 1066. Another important form of justification is a dynastic claim to a territory. Generations of marriages, carefully arranged for material gain, result in an immensely complex web of relationships - reflected often in kingdoms of very surprising shape on the map of Europe. A simple example is the vast swathe of land ruled over in the 12th century by Henry II. Stretching from Northumberland to the south of France, it has been brought together by a process of inheritance and dynastic marriage. More complex, but equally typical of Christian feudalism, is the case of Sicily. In the 11th century the Normans seize it by invitation of the pope. In the 12th century the island is joined to distant Germany because the German king marries a Sicilian princess. And in the 13th century it is linked with France because the pope, intervening again, is now opposed to the Germans.

European prosperity: 12th - 14th century The period differs profoundly from the previous five centuries in that it is no longer the people of Europe who are on the move. Since the declining years of the Roman empire, the Germanic tribes of the north have been jostling for space. Now they are settled. It is their leaders who are still restless for power, wealth and glory - within Europe but also to the east, where successive popes send them on crusade. This change brings two contrasting results - a volatile scene of politics and warfare, with an underlying increase in stablity.

The shifting pattern of feudal alliances in medieval Europe is a process of surface adjustment. Corrections are made in long spasmodic conflicts, such as the Hundred Years War. Occasional victories between small numbers of heavily armed men redraw the map for succeeding generations. Meanwhile the people of Europe are busy with matters of more basic importance - agriculture, crafts, trade and the development of commerce in towns of increasing wealth. Beneath the savage glitter of feudal Europe lies the steady growth of a continent capable once again of mighty achievements - evident, for example, in the spectacular Christian architecture of the period. Intruders from the east: 13th - 14th century AD The Russian steppes have long been vulnerable to invading groups of nomads, such as the Kipchak Turks. But from the 13th century Europe suffers much more violent incursions from the east. In the long run the most successful intruders will be the Ottoman Turks, who first move into Europe through Gallipoli in 1354. But an earlier and more devastating destruction comes in the previous century with the arrival of the Mongols. They enter Russia in 1236. They sack Moscow in 1238 and Kiev in 1240. In 1241 they move further west and south. on the east: 13th - 14th century AD The Russian steppes have long been vulnerable to invading groups of nomads, such as the Kipchak Turks. But from the 13th century Europe suffers much more violent incursions from the east. In the long run the most successful intruders will be the Ottoman Turks, who first move into Europe through Gallipoli in 1354. But an earlier and more devastating destruction comes in the previous century with the arrival of the Mongols. They enter Russia in 1236. They sack Moscow in 1238 and Kiev in 1240. In 1241 they move further

west and south. One army from the Mongol horde advances into Poland in 1241. They defeat a joint force of German and Polish knights at Legnica in April. In the same month another Mongol army wins a crushing victory over the Hungarians at Mohi. The tribesmen spend that summer on the plains of Hungary, grasslands similar to their own steppes. Eastern Europe is ill equipped to dislodge these fierce nomads. But a faraway event resolves the issue. News comes in December that the great khan, Ogadai, has died in Karakorum. The leader of the horde, Batu, and other Mongol nobles must attend the quriltai which will elect his successor. Batu withdraws from Hungary, returning the horde to its grasslands around the Volga. Ups and downs in the economy: 12th - 14th century AD Throughout Europe the period from about 1150 to 1300 sees a steady increase in prosperity, linked with a rise in population. There are several reasons. More land is brought into cultivation - a process in which the Cistercians play an important part. Rich monasteries, controlled by powerful abbots, become a significant feature of feudal Europe. In tandem with the improvement in rural wealth is the development of cities thriving on trade, in luxury goods as well as staple products such as wool. Prominent among the trading centres of the 13th century are the coastal Italian cities, whose merchants ply the Mediterranean; Venice is particularly prosperous after the opportunities presented by the fourth crusade. In a similar way the cities of the Netherlands are well placed to profit from commerce between their three larger neighbours England, France and the German states. And the Hanseatic towns handle the trade from the Baltic. Together with this increase in trade goes the development of banking. Christian families, particularly in the towns of northern Italy, begin to amass fortunes by offering the financial services which have previously been the preserve of the Jews. In the 14th century this economic prosperity falters. Land goes out of cultivation, the volume of trade drops. There are various possible reasons. There is an unusual run of disastrously bad harvests in many areas in the early part of the century. And social structures are painfully adjusting, as the old feudal system of obligations crumbles. The final straw is the Black Death, which not only kills a third of Europe's population in 1348-9; it also ushers in an era when plague is a recurrent hazard. The 14th century is not the best in which to live. But in the 15th century - the time of the Renaissance in Europe, and the age of exploration - economic conditions improve again. The economic troubles of the 14th century are reflected in disorder and unrest throughout much of Europe. This is true both at a grassroots level, in a series of peasants' revolts, and among great institutions of state. The papacy is unsettled, in exile in Avignon. France and England are engaged in the futile rivalry of the Hundred Years' War. The condottieri wreak havoc in Italy. Bohemia is an exception, enjoying a period of stability under Charles IV. But the most significant political development, from the later part of the 14th century, is the accumulation of territory in the hands of the dukes of Burgundy. The duchy of Burgundy: AD 1369-1491 Ever since the creation of Francia Media, Burgundy has been an important realm at the heart of western Europe sometimes within the German empire, sometimes linked to the French kingdom, sometimes split between the two. From the late 10th century the western part of Burgundy, lying to the west of the Saône river, is held as a dukedom by a junior line of the French royal family - first the Capetians and then, from 1363, the Valois. Burgundy's rise to the status of a major European power begins in 1369 when the first Valois duke of Burgundy, Philip the Bold, marries Margaret, heiress to the county of Flanders. The couple come into their Flemish inheritance in 1384. They and their descendants steadily increase their territories, aiming particularly to bridge the gap between Burgundy and the Netherlands with acquisitions such as Luxembourg (in 1443).

By 1470 their great-grandson Charles the Bold rules a vast territory stretching from Burgundy and Franche-Comté in the south through Alsace up to Friesland in the extreme north and then down the Atlantic coast as far as Calais. In name Charles rules only a duchy. In reality he has an empire. But he has no son. The heir to these vast possessions is a daughter, Mary. As Europe's greatest marital prize she falls to a family, the Habsburgs, whose specialization is advantageous marriages. The Habsburgs bring dignity rather than territory. The head of their house, Frederick III, is the Holy Roman emperor.

From 1473 secret negotiations are undertaken between the Holy Roman emperor and Charles the Bold. The proposed bargain is that Frederick III will raise Burgundy from the status of a duchy to that of a kingdom, in return for which Charles's daughter Mary will marry Frederick's son Maximilian. When Charles dies in battle in January 1477, neither plan has come to fruition. But it suits Burgundy to clinch this imperial alliance as security against its neighbour, France. The marriage plans are hurried through. Maximilian weds Mary by proxy in March and in person in August.

The French king, Louis XI, makes strenuous efforts to recover the part of the Burgundian inheritance which has been most closely linked to the French crown - the duchy of Burgundy to the west of the river Saône. He also covets the Franche-Comté ('free county' of Burgundy) to the east of the river, historically linked to the German empire but recently French. The betrothal of his son to a Habsburg princess promises to secure both these territories for Louis. But in 1491 a different marriage is arranged for his son - bringing another prize, that of Britanny. The result is that only the duchy of Burgundy is merged with France, leaving everything east of the Saóne to the Habsburgs. Western Europe: early 16th century AD The Habsburg marriages of Maximilian in 1477 and of his son Philip I in 1496 have the eventual effect of bringing Burgundy, Austria and Spain under a single ruler - the Holy Roman emperor, Charles V. Geographically this is a most unwieldy inheritance, reminiscent of the patchwork quilt of territories owing allegiance to feudal monarchs such as Henry II. But Charles to some extent rationalizes his vast estate in 1522. He gives control of Austria and other German-speaking Habsburg territories to his brother, Ferdinand I.

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This still leaves Charles with an awkward clutch of territories in western Europe. He rules Spain, Burgundy and much of Italy, including the north. His possessions flank the kingdom of France on almost all its land boundaries - a circumstance unwelcome to Francis I, the king of France. The struggle between Charles and Francis, or the houses of Habsburg and Valois, is a recurrent theme of the first half of the 16th century. With the increasing trend towards strong nations, ruled by absolute monarchs, this Habsburg-Valois rivalry evolves into enduring conflicts between Spain and France and subsequently Austria and France (until the famous Diplomatic Revolution of 1756).

The third nation of western Europe, England, also has a strong ruler in the early 16th century, but he is as yet a minor player in this league. Henry VIII may be a useful ally for Francis or Charles against the other (as the Field of Cloth of Gold suggests) but on his own he is not a match for either. All three kingdoms - Spain, France and England - also compete in another context, across the Atlantic. This new dimension shifts Europe's centre of gravity to the west during the 16th century. Subsequently it brings increasing power and wealth to England and to her nearest neighbours, the Dutch, through a blend of overseas trade, the planting of colonies and general pugnacity at sea. Eastern Europe: early 16th century AD Two events on the eastern extremes of Europe, during the second half of the 15th century, set the pattern for the future. The fall of Constantinople in 1453, bringing to an end the Byzantine empire, completes the Turkish dominance of the Balkans. Henceforth there is a hostile boundary between Muslim and Christian territory in southeast Europe, frequently adjusted by warfare - with the Hungarians in the front line for Christianity. Meanwhile a great new power is emerging in northeast Europe which will replace to some extent (at least in its own self-image) the lost Byzantine empire. From the reign of Ivan the Terrible, beginning in 1462, Moscow emerges as the powerful centre of an expanding Russia. This is now the most powerful kingdom practising Orthodox Christianity. Russia begins to present herself as the new Christian empire, ruled by a tsar - the third Rome. By 1500 the power blocs are in place around Europe which will dominate the continent during the next three centuries - the Russian empire, the Turkish or Ottoman empire, the Habsburg empire, and the kingdoms of France and England. Reformation: 16th - 17th century AD The conflicts of Europe in the early 16th century (Spain against France in the west, Christians against Muslims in the east) are further complicated by a most violent dispute within the Christian community itself. The spark of the Reformation, struck by Luther in 1517, blazes for a century and a half across the whole of western Europe. From martyrdom of Protestants in one place and Catholics in another, through sudden massacres (as on St Bartholomew's Day in France) to prolonged warfare (the Thirty Years' War), the prevailing mood of the continent becomes one of religious intolerance and frenzy, often usefully put to the service of politics. Not till the late 17th century does national interest transcend religious fervour. Nations at war: AD 1700-1721 By the last decades of the 17th century the dominant European power is France, brought to a pinnacle of prestige by

that most absolute of monarchs, Louis XIV. The main concern of France's neighbours and rivals is to keep this mighty force in check. But to the north and east of the continent powerful forces are stirring too. Russia is flexing her muscles, against the Swedish empire to the west (for control of the Baltic) and against the Ottoman empire to the southeast (for access to the Black Sea). Events in the very first year of the new century lead to major conflicts on both fronts. Between February and August in 1700 the armies of Denmark, Saxony and Russia successively invade different parts of Sweden's empire, launching a war which last for twenty-one years - usually referred to as the Northern War. And in November the king of Spain, Charles II, dies. Charles II of Spain has no children. In recent years there has been much effort by Europe's diplomats to influence his choice of an heir. The general fear is that the wealth of Spain (particularly that which derives from its Spanish colonies) will upset the balance of European power if added in its entirety to the existing hand of any one of the major players. When it is discovered that the king of Spain has left everything to a grandson of the king of France, the War of the Spanish Succession becomes inevitable. When the dust has settled on the first two European wars of the century, the chief territorial gain has been Russia's. Peter the Great now has access to the Baltic, having taken from Sweden the site on which his magnificent new capital of St Petersburg is already under construction. Further down the coast he has also acquired territories corresponding to modern Estonia and Latvia. In the Mediterranean there have been changes of ownership in the patchwork quilt of Italy, and Britain has been ceded by Spain two useful strategic bases - Gibraltar and Minorca. But the War of the Spanish Succession has also had one major effect in central Europe - not yet perhaps as evident as the territorial changes. In 1701 the Austrian emperor, Leopold I, needing the allegiance of Prussia in the forthcoming war, has allowed the elector of Brandenburg to call himself king in Prussia, as Frederick I. In the treaties of 1713, at the end of war, the other European nations acknowledge this new royal status. In this same year Frederick is succeeded by his son, Frederick William I. He will turn Prussia's administration and army into the most efficient in Europe, bequeathing to his own son, Frederick II, a military machine which will have much influence in the coming years. Prussia, Austria and others: AD 1740-1748 The next bout of war between the continental powers follows the accession in 1740 of two young monarchs on central European thrones. In May the 28-year-old Frederick II succeeds to the throne of Prussia; in October the 23year-old Maria Theresa inherits the crowns of Austria and Hungary. The first woman in the Habsburg imperial line inevitably provokes an international crisis, and Frederick seizes his opportunity. In December Frederick marches into the Austrian province of Silesia, starting the War of the Austrian Succession. Eight years later the conflict is finally settled with few changes to the map of Europe - except that the youthful aggressor is allowed to retain Silesia in the peace agreed at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.

Another wave of migrating Indo-European peoples follows on behind, pressing westwards from Asia. The Slavs move into the region of Poland and western Russia, between the Vistula and Dnieper rivers. The Scythians establish themselves in the area to the north of the Black Sea. Any map will oversimplify patterns of tribal migration, for it must attempt to separate groups, which in reality intermingle and overlap. If there is not too much pressure on the available territory, different tribes often coexist within a region. Even so, in broad terms, the tribes mentioned here from the great majority of Europeans at the time when Greece and Rome dominate the Mediterranean region.

The Mediterranean colonized: 8th - 3rd century BC The Mediterranean is the chief arena of European development from the 8th century BC. The focus at first is on the Aegean Sea. Here Greek civilization develops; from here Greek colonists move west to Italy and Sicily. Phoenician and Carthaginian settlements also become established in the western Mediterranean. By the 3rd century Rome is firmly in control of central and southern Italy. Greeks, Carthaginians and Romans are all involved in the Sicilian hostilities which in 264 provoke the first Punic War and which lead, eventually, to the dominance of Rome throughout the region. The Mediterranean colonized: 8th - 3rd century BC The Mediterranean is the chief arena of European development from the 8th century BC. The focus at first is on the Aegean Sea. Here Greek civilization develops; from here Greek colonists move west to Italy and Sicily. Phoenician and Carthaginian settlements also become established in the western Mediterranean. By the 3rd century Rome is firmly in control of central and southern Italy. Greeks, Carthaginians and Romans are all involved in the Sicilian hostilities which in 264 provoke the first Punic War and which lead, eventually, to the dominance of Rome throughout the region. The loss of Silesia remains a very sore point with Maria Theresa, and much of her policy is now directed towards its recovery. Reforms in Austria's government and army are one part of her plan. Another is the achieving of a diplomatic realignment before the next conflict. France and Austria (the Bourbon and Habsburg dynasties) have been Europe's chief rivals for nearly two centuries. Maria Theresa and her chancellor, von Kaunitz, now plan to change this alignment - in a previously unimaginable

reversal which becomes known as the Diplomatic Revolution. They achieve the impossible. A defensive alliance between Austria and France is signed at Versailles in May 1756. In addition to her new alliance with France, Maria Theresa has a more active pact with Russia. The empress Elizabeth offers, in April of this year, to send 80,000 Russian troops to support an attack on Prussia. An Austrian move to recover Silesia is clearly in preparation, when it is suddenly thwarted by the most decisive ruler in Europe. Prussia, Austria and others: AD 1756-1763 Frederick II of Prussia precipitates war on the continent of Europe in 1756 just as he has in 1740 (in the War of the Austrian Succession). On that occasion his motive was to seize the rich territory of Silesia, and the peace of Aix-laChapelle has allowed him to keep it. This time, knowing Austria's burning desire to win it back, he is interested more in a pre-emptive strike. On 29 August 1756 Frederick marches with 70,000 Prussian soldiers into Saxony (lying between Prussia and Austria). This act of aggression surprises the Saxons and launches the new war. It will last for seven years, merging with an existing imperial conflict between France and Britain, before peace is finally restored The peace treaty between Prussia and Austria maintains the recent status quo in central Europe. Frederick the Great, twice the aggressor, is again allowed to keep Silesia. This conclusion strengthens the influence of Prussia within the German empire and reduces that of the official imperial power, Habsburg Austria. It also leaves Poland flanked by two increasingly powerful neighbours, Prussia and Russia, who since 1762 have been in alliance. The development does not bode well for Poland's future. Austria too attends the feast, when it begins in 1772. Eastern turmoil: AD 1768-1795 In the last few decades of the 18th century the main unrest in Europe is in the eastern part of the continent. Previously European friction has centred on Germany: within the German empire itself (particularly in the Thirty Years' War); on the western borders of Germany, in France's attempts to expand towards the Rhine; and to the north of Germany, in struggles for the Baltic. This pattern remains true even in the Seven Years' War, with the majority of the battles fought on German soil. It is in the aftermath of that war that the focus shifts east, when the region from the Baltic down to the Black Sea is flanked by four major powers. Two of the four, Austria and Turkey, are ancient powers now slightly past their prime. The other two, Prussia and Russia, have grown greatly in strength during the 18th century. The quartet is made up of two profoundly hostile couples - Prussia and Austria (competing to lead the German world), and Russia and Turkey (rivals for control of the Black Sea). In the middle, almost as if placed there as a victim, is a large but weak nation, Poland. Prussia and Austria have fought two wars between 1740 and 1763. Russia and Turkey fight two between 1768 and 1791. Poland is devoured in three stages, between 1772 and 1795, in a process sufficiently enticing to tempt even the hostile powers into brief cooperation. French upheavals: AD 1789-1815 Western Europe is unusually peaceful during the quarter century leading up to the French Revolution. But for the next twenty-six years, from 1789, the continent is convulsed by ideas and armies emanating from France. During the first three years of the French Revolution, while the ambitious middle classes compete to overthrow the ancien régime, the turmoil is confined within the borders of France. But in 1792 the country is invaded by guardians of the old order, a joint army of Austrians and Prussians.