Group 6 Term Paper (intro).docx

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An Analysis of Classroom Activities in the Second Language Class

GROUP 6: Cognitive, Behaviorist and Social-Interactionist Theories

Submitted by: Casta, Catherine Deliganzo, Xerille Sean Marasigan, Eli-May Maque, Mary Joy Medina, Valerie Tansiongco, John Kyle

Submitted to: Ms. Wilma Jacela Balon

9-1 BSED ENG

INTRODUCTION PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES BEHAVIORIST THEORY Behaviorism stems from the work of B.F. Skinner and the concept of operant conditioning. Behaviorism theorists believe that knowledge exists independently and outside of people. They view the learner as a blank slate who must be provided the experience. Behaviorists believe that learning actually occurs when new behaviors or changes in behaviors are acquired through associations between stimuli and responses. Thus, association leads to a change in behavior. Learning process The learning process is based on objectively observable changes in behavior. Behavior theorists define learning simply as the acquisition of a new behavior or change in behavior. The theory is that learning begins when a cue or stimulus from the environment is presented and the learner reacts to the stimulus with some type of response. Consequences that reinforce the desired behavior are arranged to follow the desired behavior (e.g. study for a test and get a good grade). The new behavioral pattern can be repeated so it becomes automatic. The change in behavior of the learner signifies that learning has occurred. Teachers use Behaviorism when they reward or punish student behaviors. Examples and applications of behaviorist learning theory:      

Drill / Rote work Repetitive practice Bonus points (providing an incentive to do more) Participation points (providing an incentive to participate) Verbal Reinforcement (saying “good job”) Establishing Rules

Unfortunately, Behaviorism instruction does not prepare the learner for problem solving or creative thinking. Learners do what they are told and do not take the initiative to change or improve things. The learner is only prepared for recall of basic facts, automatic responses or performing tasks. Links Types Behavioral Learning Operant Conditioning COGNITIVE THEORY Cognitive information processing is based on the thought process behind the behavior. The theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli (i.e. that think about what is happening). The changes in behavior are observed, but

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only as an indicator to what is going on in the learner’s head. The learner’s mind is like a mirror from which new knowledge and skills will be reflected. Cognitive information processing is used when the learner plays an active role in seeking ways to understand and process information that he or she receives and relate it to what is already known and stored within memory. Cognitive learning theories are credited to Jean Piaget. Learning process Cognitive learning theorists believe learning occurs through internal processing of information. Unlike behaviorism, cognitive information processing is governed by an internal process rather than by external circumstance. The cognitive approach to learning theory pays more attention to what goes on inside the learner’s head and focuses on mental processes rather than observable behavior. Changes in behavior are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner’s mind. Learning involves the reorganization of experiences, either by attaining new insights or changing old ones. Thus, learning is a change in knowledge which is stored in memory, and not just a change in behavior. Examples and applications of cognitive learning theory:         

Classifying or chunking information Linking Concepts (associate new content with something known) Providing Structure (organizing your lecture in efficient and meaningful ways) Real world examples Discussions Problem solving Analogies Imagery / providing pictures Mnemonics SOCIAL INTERACTIONIST THEORY

Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)”.[2] THE MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER (MKO) The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older

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adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers. THE ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD) The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone. Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences[3]. According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills. IMPORTANCE OF CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Studies show that meaningful classroom activities help students emotionally connect to things that they are already know. These connections then help them build even more connections that they can store in their brain. Looking back at your own childhood, can you remember thinking why you had to learn algebra, for instance? It probably wasn’t until you started thinking about a career did you understand that doctors, engineers, architects, and teachers need to know algebra for their jobs. Maybe if your teacher had tried to make a real-world connection back then, you would have put in a little more effort. The learning process has to be successful in order to make an engagement between the students and the language, actually is quite difficult to find how active students are in the learning process and how thoroughly they take responsibility for knowledge construction have been linked to learning, to favorable learning experiences, and to students’ attitudes. The truth is that as junior high school teachers we have to deal with students that are passing into a difficult stage, so we must attract them into our subject, especially foreign language, in this case: English. The majority of those students are always complaining about the lack of ideas into the classroom, they said that it is implemented the same routine without allow any creative idea. Students engaged in active, deep learning are not passively taking in information from instructors but are reading, writing, discussing, and problem solving. Active learning may be either self-directed or groupdirected and is a process consistent with the social constructivist approach in higher learning (Chermak & Weiss, 1999; Prince, 2004).

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Even it is important to establish that according to the official program we must follow a communicative approach, which refers to use activities that must emphasize develop skills into their context. Also teachers must have to apply the constructivism methodology and obviously, that allows to students to construct their own knowledge. The social constructivist approach maintains that knowledge is constructed as one interacts with one’s environments through processes of discourse, negotiation, and consensus building. To make each student an active player in the learning process, an environment must be created in which there are opportunities for students to join in doing tasks. In- and out-of-class exercises that include problems for solving or questions for answering are important for prompting students to use language cognitively and develop thinking skills.

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|5 BODY Review of the Related Literature This section of this paper presents a writing of different personalities which has relevance to the current study. It involves quotations and citations from books and writings of different authors, and other reference material that may serve as a basis for the development of the proposed study. II. A. Behaviorist Theory Behaviorism is a learning theory that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts any independent activities of the mind. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior based on environmental conditions. The behaviorist theory came into common use in the 1950’s and 60’s after research from Lado (1945), Skinner (1957), and Weinreich (1953) demonstrated operant conditioning as a way that humans learn language (Larsen-Freeman). Behaviorists theorize that language acquisition is basically a stimulus-response conditioning method, a mechanistic process that requires the student to give the correct response to a given stimulus with immediate feedback to the student. Chomsky (1959), amongst other researchers, has refuted the behaviorist theory because the process does not explain how the student is able to make the cognitive leap past the trained responses into the unknown. There are three main stages to language acquisition; understanding, drill, and application (Chastain, 1970). The behaviorist theory deals with the first two stages, but not the third. At the high school level, students are expected to be able to answer critical thinking questions. They are expected to take what material they have already learned and extend it further. However, just because the theory does not develop all three stages of language development, it can still be useful. At the high school level students need to practice phonology and drilling, so the stimulus-response method will be very helpful

Mikami et al. (2011) studied how the behavior and interactions of teachers who attend to professional development for creating positive learning environments affect students’ relationships. For traditional students, with no high disruptive patterns in their classroom experiences, the positive attitude of a teacher created improvement in peer interactions. The data from the Mikami et al.(2011) research showed that even in secondary school, students who had positive environments and interactions with teachers in the

classroom will also have improved communication with peers. Unfortunately, students who have negative patterns in school and a history of disruption appeared to decline even more in peer relationships when classmates had more positive interactions with the teacher and peers. Moore et al. (2010) found inclusive environments promoted more equitable learning and strengthened competencies with diversity in a culture. Small group dialogues, exploring others perspectives, learning new knowledge, varied educational strategies, and respect for learning experiences out of the classroom also fostered a welcoming collaborative environment. Scantlebury, (2008) based on years of teaching in four countries, emphasized the factors for establishing a welcoming classroom should include: respect for individual opinions, opportunities to share opinions, the importance of sharing, recognizing students can learn with and from one another, and establishing an environment where expectations are clear. Clinton and Higbee (2011) examined the role of language in fostering a welcoming and positive environment. Words have power. Words can inspire, stimulate, and encourage, or not. Clinton and Higbee reinforced the need to consider people when creating a socially safe and empowering learning situation. Many other articles provide insight into creating environments that are welcoming, and Bang and Montgomery (2010) showed that even an appreciative attitude, compassion, and care demonstrated by a teacher can vary in interpretation and effect as that teacher is observed in foreign cultures. Teachers who expect to work in a foreign culture would do well to consider the priorities and values in a study such as Bang and Montgomery, (2010) and to know as much as possible about the culture they will enter. According to cultural mores, the actual physical proximity in welcoming people into a classroom may vary, but learning names, discovering interests that can blend into classroom content and activities. An energetic presentation, enthusiasm for the subject, varied approaches for differing learning styles, and obvious desire to help class members succeed will establish a welcoming environment. SimplyPsychology.com defines behaviorism as a psychological approach which emphasizes scientific and objective methods of investigation. The approach is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors, and states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment According to soda.ustadistancia.edu, Behaviorist theory is the habit formation of teaching and learning, reminding us the learning of structural grammar. Language learning concerns us by “not problem-solving but information and performance habit”. In other words language learning is mechanical process leading the learners to habit formation whose underlying scheme is the conditioned reflex. Thus it definitely true that language is controlled by the consequences of behavior.

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Based on Funderstanding.com “Behaviorism”, experiments by behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioral pattern. The first one is the Classic conditioning. It occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. We are biologically “wired” so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. One of the more common examples of classical conditioning in the educational environment is in situations where students exhibit irrational fears and anxieties like fear of failure, fear of public speaking and general school phobia. Next is the Behavioral or Operant conditioning. This occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley. According to seattlepi.com “How Will I Apply Behaviorist Philosophy in Clasroom?”, in applying behaviorist theory in classroom set up, the teacher should always remember the following: 1. Compliment Good Behavior- The simplest way in which to apply positive reinforcement is to praise a student when she behaves well or successfully completes a task. You could employ a system of giving gold stars that result in a small prize when enough have been earned. Take advantage of the effectiveness of simple statements of praise. When offering praise, however, opt for a specific statement such as, "you really showed mature insight right there" as opposed to a vague statement such as "nice work." The fact is that students can sense when praise is generic or disingenuous. Reserve such comments for when you really mean them, so your students won't take them as empty words 2. Support Praise With Evidence - Saying nice things to your students will work fine for a while, but they might stop believing you unless you can show them exactly why their behavior warrants praise in the first place. Whenever possible, show them the proof: point out the specific act and explain why it was so important. Another way to provide concrete examples of good behavior is to have them keep their work in portfolios for you to review regularly. The routine of reviewing keeps you from appearing as though you've gone out of your way to issue some praise, and having their work right in front of you gives you the opportunity to cite specific, concrete examples of their accomplishments. 3. Utilize Negative Reinforcement- Negative reinforcement isn't punishment. Rather, it's when reward good behavior by taking away something your students see as negative. For example, your class clown always makes inappropriate comments during health lessons and disrupts the class. He also really doesn't like writing book reports because the writing is boring. You could offer to let him do his book report another way, perhaps as a diorama, on the condition he behaves appropriately during health lessons. By removing something he sees as negative, you've reinforced a separate, positive behavior.

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4. Apply Unpleasant Consequences When Necessary - Sometimes punishment is necessary to discourage undesirable behavior, but you must be careful not to go too far and embarrass your students. And just as there are positive and negative reinforcement for good behavior, two methods are appropriate for applying punishment. Presentation punishment is the type we are most familiar with: a student misbehaves and you act by adding a punishment like a detention or time-out. Removal punishment is similar to negative reinforcement: you remove something the students see as good because they have behaved badly. For example, if they refuse to stop encouraging your class clown's inappropriate comments, you could threaten to cancel an upcoming field trip, or an upcoming class party. According to teoclass.com “Teaching Strategies”, behaviorist approach to language learning was connected with structural linguistics to form the teaching approach audio-lingual method (ALM). The structural linguistics portion compared the native language and the foreign language being learned. Since mental processes were disregarded, the emphasis was on the teacher to “drill” problematic areas and correct errors as they happened. Pronunciation and sentence structure are two problematic areas of concentration during instruction. Example of Teaching Teacher: I want a hamburger. (holding a picture of a hamburger) Students: I want a hamburger. Teacher: hot dog. (holding a picture of a hot dog) Students: hot dog. Teacher: No! (emphasis) I want a hot dog. Students: I want a hot dog. Teacher: Good job! II. B. Cognitive Theory The Cognitive Learning Theory explains why the brain is the most incredible network of information processing and interpretation in the body as we learn things. This theory can be divided into two specific theories: the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), and the Cognitive Behavioral Theory (CBT). The cognitive theory of learning views second language acquisition as a conscious process of thinking. This theory contrasts the behaviorist theory, which sees language as an unconscious, automatic process. Jean Piaget, along with others, developed a child language study focusing on the relationship of cognitive development to first language acquisition (Brown, pp. 33).

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Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory proposed that children pass through certain stages at different rates. He developed a model and outlined how children progress through these stages and the course of their intellectual development. According to Brown, the stages include the following periods of development: “Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years old), Preoperational (ages 2 to 7), Operational (ages 7- 16 years), Concrete operational (ages 7 to 11), and Formal operational (ages 11 to 16)” (pp. 65). High School aged children can typically be found in the Formal operational period. The Formal operational period begins about age 11 and lasts into adulthood. During this time abstract thinking is developed. Skills such as deductive reasoning and logical thought processes emerge which high school students are often required to utilize in mathematics and science courses. There is a critical stage when considering the effects of age on second language acquisition. Piaget asserts this happens at around puberty or age 11 (Brown, pp. 65). It is during the formal operational period, when abstract thinking occurs. The cognitive theorists make the argument that there is a critical period of language acquisition and a connection between language acquisition and the concrete/formal operational stages. However, others argue that children learn second languages without the benefit of formal operational thought. Research has confirmed that the linguistic and cognitive learning of second languages in young children are similar to first language processes (Brown, pp.73). Because of this similarity, teachers can better teach second language learners of a high school age, simply by being aware of the language learning process as dictated by cognitive theory. In addition, high school students can utilize the first language to facilitate their second language acquisition.

One of the theories under Cognitive theory is the theory of Jean Piaget. According to SimplyPsychology.com, Piaget's theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment. According to British Council Teaching English, A cognitive theory of learning sees second language acquisition as a conscious and reasoned thinking process, involving the deliberate use of learning strategies. Learning strategies are special ways of processing information that enhance comprehension, learning or retention of information. This explanation of language learning contrasts strongly with the behaviourist account of language learning, which sees language learning as an unconscious, automatic process. According to study.com, Cognitive theory helps the learners in three ways. The first one is it enhances the memory skills. The second one is it promotes problem solving and lastly it applies proven method in classroom such as chunking method and observational learning.

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II. C. Social Interactionist Theory Social interactionist theory is an explanation of language development emphasizing the role of social interaction between the developing child and linguistically knowledgeable adults. Over the years, social interaction theory has evolved and now encompasses multiple perspectives. While this approach accepts alternative viewpoints and embraces aspects of other theories, in essence, it promotes that social influences play a definite role in the development of language. Author Nick Lund (2003) stated: “The social interaction theory stresses the importance of language in communication and suggests that language is acquired through using language whilst interacting with others” (p. 63). The evolution of this theory stems from the groundwork generated from Jean Piaget, who actualized the Developmental Cognitive Theory, and Lev Vygotsky, who constructed the Socio-cultural Theory. From these theoretical foundations, social interactionists have developed a theory based on the fundamental concept that language is developed through interaction. With Piaget’s work we realized that cognitive constructs impact developmental capabilities. Vygotsky emphasized that environmental influences contribute to the process of learning. Brown (2007) highlighted, “One of the most popular concepts advanced by Vygotsky was the notion of a zone of proximal development (ZPD) in every learner: the distance between learner’s existing developmental state and their developmental potential” (p. 13). Vygotsky suggested that learners could acquire new skills and advance their potential more quickly through the support of a mediated interaction with a skilled individual. Is exposure to language enough? This question stirs up challenges, as contestants would refer to countries where the parent-child dyad lacks interaction. Harley (2001) conveyed that: “It is clearly not enough to be exposed to language; something more is necessary.” Language development requires interaction with people. When dialogue occurs it stimulates growth. While trying to engage in conversation a language learner is challenged to contextually apply the language. This pragmatic phoneme plays a significant factor in encouraging first and second language learners to acquire the skills necessary to communicate effectively. In the high school setting, students place high value on social acceptance. Wherefore, second language learners in high school are eager to learn the language that will empower them with a sense of belonging. In The Handbook of Language Acquisition (2003) the authors conveyed that, “With regard to the impact of socialization on language, development of linguistic competence is an outcome of the language varieties he or she is encouraged implicitly or explicitly to learn…” (Ochs & Schieffelin, 1995; Doughty & Long 2003). Frankly, socializing is oftentimes one of the most

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influential factors environment.

driving

someone

to

learn

the

language

of

their

According to sites.google.com “Language Acquisition and Development”, Social Interactionist Theory stresses the functional basis of communication. Children are social beings who acquire language in service of their needs to communicate. Early language is like any other biologically based attachment behavior (smiling, following the parent, crying if parent leaves, e.t.c.). It serves the social and affective needs of both infants and their parents. Based from brighthubeducation.com, Interactionists believe that children are born with brains that predispose them to the ability to pick up languages as well as with a desire to communicate. Some Interactionists even argue that babies and children cue their parents and other adults into giving them the linguistic exposure they need to learn a language. The Interactionist Theory posits that children can only learn language from someone who wants to communicate with them. According to learning-theories.com, Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)”. According to Soomro (2018) Language, according to social interactionists, develops through interaction with other human being, which leads to input modification i.e. adjusting it to the capacity of the learner. Additionally, interactionists claim that no ‘critical period’ for language acquisition exists as the process of interaction is not dependent on biological or cognitive development. Social interactionists do not deny the existance of neuropsychological factors affecting language acquisition; however, they claim that biological factors are not sufficient. They also do not accept placing language as just one more element of cognitive development.

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CONCLUSION Classroom Activities A. Behaviorist Theory

Activity 1 Title: Student-Generated Questions/Application Cards

Instructional Strategy: Critical Thinking/Connections to Prior Knowledge Purpose: This is an activity to help students recognize the applications that psychology concepts can have in classroom situations. Objectives: 

Apply abstract information to real situations.

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Develop applications students may use in their own classrooms.

Student Activity: Provide each student with an index card and ask the students to do the following: 1. Identify an important - and clearly applicable - concept from chapter seven. 2. Write down two or three applications of the concept. Make sure to come up with your own "fresh" applications, and avoid repeating applications presented in the text. 3. Have students present the concepts and their applications. Look for themes in the students' responses. Variations: 1. Break students into groups based on similarity of concepts that they selected. Have each group write up a recommendation plan for a teacher that incorporates the applications that they originally created. 2. Develop applications into viable techniques and share them with the class, via brief verbal or poster presentation. 3. Write down difficult or confusing words in small groups of three to four. The instructor collects these cards and passes them to different groups who must come up with applications or examples for each word. Activity 2 Title: Getting to Know Skinner Instructional Strategy: Creative/Critical Thinking Purpose: Often students have a difficult time recognizing that there are real people behind the theories they are learning. This is an activity to help students

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bring theory to life. Objectives: 

Apply abstract information to real situations.



Adopt a particular perspective and maintain it throughout the activity.



Preview or review chapter material in an alternative format.

Student Activity: The instructor will provide some brief biographical information about Skinner. You have to become an "expert" of operant conditioning theory. Use information from the text, additional articles, books, Internet sources, etc. You have two days to prepare for this role. Conduct a class discussion to identify the characteristics of operant conditioning theory. Discuss classroom issues and how well the theory addresses these issues. Variations: 1. Press conferences: Experts provide a brief summary of operant conditioning in a short press conference (5-10 minutes); time may be allowed for questions. Additional students may be assigned roles as reporters, using thought questions to generate questions for theorists. Press conferences may be utilized to preview or review chapter material. 2. Case study: Use operant conditioning to provide an interpretation of the following case. Denise is a conscientious and good student, although she is a bit unsure of herself. She is typically very attentive in class, and her classmates regard her as someone who will usually be able to answer questions. One day, Mr. Halvern, her American history teacher, was conducting a question and answer session, and Denise jerked when she heard her name called, suddenly realizing that she hadn't heard the question. A couple of the boys giggled as Mr. Halvern stared at her. Her stomach clenched, and she felt her face turn red. She started to stammer, then fell silent. Michelle also felt uncomfortable since she was not paying attention to Mr. Halvern either. Denise is now uneasy whenever Mr. Halvern starts calling on students in class. In addition she doesn't like geometry as well as she used to, because she never knows when Mrs. Davis might call on her. She's relieved when she's in the safe confines of Spanish class, where Mr. Lopez always calls on students in order, up and down each row.

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| 15 B. Cognitive Theory Activity 1 Title: Getting to Know Social Cognitive Theory Instructional Strategy: Creative/Critical Thinking Purpose: This is an activity to help students better understand social cognitive theory and the main researchers in this area. Objectives: 

Apply abstract information to real situations.

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Become more familiar with social cognitive theory.



Preview or review chapter material in an alternative format.

Student Activity: Select one of the following social cognitive researchers: Albert Bandura, Barry Zimmerman, Dale Schunk. The students' responsibility is to become an "expert" on their researcher's contributions to social cognitive theory. The students will have two days to prepare for their roles, using information from the text, additional articles, books, Internet sources, etc. Conduct a class discussion to determine the similarities and differences between and across the two theorists by having students point out the characteristics of each theory. Discuss classroom issues and how well the theories address these issues. Variations: 1. Press conferences: Experts provide a brief summary of their researcher in a short press conference (5-10 minutes); time may be allowed for questions. Additional students may be assigned roles as reporters, generating various questions for the researchers. Press conferences may be utilized to preview or review chapter material. 2. Case study: Researchers may serve as experts in providing interpretations of the following case. Denise is a conscientious and good student, although she is a bit unsure of herself. She is typically very attentive in class, and her classmates regard her as someone who will usually be able to answer

questions. One day, Mr. Halvern, her American history teacher, was conducting a question and answer session, and Denise jerked when she heard her name called, suddenly realizing that she hadn't heard the question. A couple of the boys giggled as Mr. Halvern stared at her. Her stomach clenched, and she felt her face turn red. She started to stammer, then fell silent. Michelle also felt uncomfortable since she was not paying attention to Mr. Halvern either. Denise is now uneasy whenever Mr. Halvern starts calling on students in class. In addition she doesn't like geometry as well as she used to, because she never knows when Mrs. Davis might call on her. She's relieved when she's in the safe confines of Spanish class, where Mr. Lopez always calls on students in order, up and down each row. Activity 2 Title: The Impact of Self-Efficacy Instructional Strategy: Creative/Critical Thinking Purpose: This activity is designed to have students reflect on their own self-efficacy with respect to various school subjects, as well as determine possible ways to increase self-efficacy in their areas of expertise. Objectives: 

Identify causes and effects of high and low efficacy.



Generate possible solutions for increasing student self-efficacy.

Student Activity: Students will answer the following questions as homework. 1. What school subject do you have low self-efficacy in? What do you believe were the causes of this low efficacy? 2. What school subject do you have high self-efficacy in? What do you believe were the causes of this high efficacy? 3. Assume it is your subject area that someone has written for low selfefficacy, what would you do to increase a student's self efficacy. The next class period, have a discussion about the students' answers. Generate a list of all of the possible causes of high and low efficacy. Ask students how this information might impact their future teaching. Then

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generate a list of possible solutions for students with low efficacy. Variation: 1. Have students interview K-12 students about their efficacy, using ageappropriate questions, to compare the similarities and differences of various age groups. C. Social Interactionist Theory 1. Speaking and Listening For Critical Analysis and Evaluation Evaluating, Judging, Having an Opinion Storytelling encourages empathy and a respect for different points of view. Personal Taste: Ask students to listen to several folktales read out loud or retold from an anthology of folktales found in the 398.2 section of the library. Have students choose, from those read, a story they would enjoy retelling themselves. Some "point of view" discussion topics: What about the folktale chosen attracted the student? With which character did he or she identify most? Would he or she behave differently or the same as the characters in the tale who find themselves in a predicament. Understanding Public Opinion: Ask students to develop a list of generally accepted standards of communal behavior such as co-operation, honesty, and sharing etc. that encourage people to live together in a peaceful, productive way. Have students find an ancient folktale that expresses a useful societal value that might still be relevant today. Relativity Of Standards Listen to or read folktales from other times and places. Have students evaluate a folktale from its historical context. Discuss for example: At the time that the tale was told or collected were customs different from today? Listen to or read folktales from ancient times and places. Decipher and discuss a useful bit of wisdom that the plotline preserved for future generations. If a folktale in a published anthology offers a printed moral, ask students if they agree with the summation. Could they suggest a different moral for the same story? 2. Listening and Speaking For Social Interaction

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Speaking and listening skills are essential to participating in adult culture. The ability to articulate thoughts, feelings, and needs can contribute to academic, interpersonal, and professional success. For safety's sake, children need to be able to express their thoughts and feelings so that they can ask for help and get what they need from adults. Good listeners learn more efficiently. Listening For Social Interaction Ask students to develop a list of attributes of a good listener. Discuss the list. Listen to each other's comments on the art of listening! Ask students to offer encouragement to a speaker by showing in non-verbal terms with their eyes, facial expression, and body stance that they are listening. This social courtesy creates an atmosphere where speakers will generously speak. Ask students to assess their own listening skills. Do they always pay complete mental attention to speakers or do they observe their mind straying to other irrelevant thoughts. Only the student can assess his or her own concentration patterns. Listening Skills Rubric Speaking For Social Interaction Public Speaking Activities Practicing the Art of Conversation Public Speaking Activities Have students orally share stories: by retelling folktales or reading a folktale out loud with expression. Have students give an oral book report. Have students create and present a first person monologue pretending to be a famous figure out of history or herstory. Have students design a radio show for the school intercom system that includes: a school news report, live interviews of teachers or students, the reading of poetry, essays, or reports, announcements of world headline news. Practice and Stage Fright Coaching Beginner Storytellers Practicing the Art of Conversation Have students work with a conversation buddy during class time to discuss, one-on-one, a particular issue raised in class. Have students become aware of their ability to take turns speaking and listening.

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Have students gather in small discussion groups to develop a group project such as a short skit based on a folktale. Have students speak to each other about experiences in their lives that resemble incidents in a folk or fairytale. Have students become sensitized to whenever a speaker is interrupted by others before a communication has been completed. A long pause during a speaker's statement does not constitute an opportunity for another student to cut in and speak. Have students interview elders in their family to explore collecting family stories. Telephone Skills: Practice using a mock telephone in front of the class: Would the speaker of the following calls speak differently? How? 

Call and ask to talk to a friend.



Call a business and ask for information.



Call an emergency number or police for medical help.

Discuss the social courtesies expected in answering a phone: 

at home.



as if student worked as a receptionist at a business.

Have two students engage in a mock phone call. Without looking at each other, have students practice listening and speaking, attentively waiting for an appropriate pause to hold up their end of the conversation. Do we listen more attentively to tone of voice, if we cannot see the facial expressions of our conversation partner? Taking Turns Talking: To prevent anyone from interrupting a speaker, use any object, such as a stick, a ball, a stone etc. and place it in the middle of a small discussion group. Then, take turns reaching for the object. Only the one who is holding the item can speak. When that speaker is finished speaking, the item is placed in the middle of the circle again for another to hold. This forum gives a moment of silence between comments in the discussion. Have a Salon: a conversation party Arrange a time when an invited group of friends gathers socially to discuss an interesting topic. The first meeting of the salon could be to develop a good list of discussion topics.

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