Gregory Rodocker's Study Guide For Test #3 Histology @ Nsu

I. The Respiratory System: Lungs and a ventilatory mechanism to move air into and out of the lungs A. Lung are composed of the: 1. Conducting portions: (1)-Conduct air (2)-Condition air 2. Respiratory portion: (1)-alveoli *1*. Picture below- the 2 main divisions of the respiratory tract: note that the respiratory bronchiole is really shorter (transition) structure.

*A*. Pathway. A. Nasal orifice/Nares/Nostrils B. Vestibule: this is where we see a transition to Respiratory Epithelium C. Fossae: Lined mostly with Respiratory Epithelium 1. Uppermost reaches: lined with Olfactory Epithelium *B*. Respiratory Epithelium: (Contents)--Pseudostratifed ciliated columnar epithelium A. Goblet (mucous) cells: make the mucous B. Brush cells: many microvilli on their apex, these have afferent nerve endings on their basal side. C. Basal cells: small rounded cells on the basal lamina but DON’T extend to the luminal surface of the epithelium. D. Small granule cells: resembles a basal cell but this has more/many granule. *C*. Olfactory Epithelium: (Contents) A. Supportive cells: cells junction to olfactory and have a yellow pigment that’s responsible for mucous color. B. Basal cells: small and at the basal surface. C. Olfactory cells: are bipolar and have 6-8 cillia, non-motile respond to odoriferous substances. 1. Sensory cells & Non-motile cilia: D. Bowman glands: found in the lamina propria of the olfactory epithelium, they secrete the environment that the cilia are in. ((making the acces of new odoriferous sugbstances)). II. Respiratory epithelium “in detail”: Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium, 1. Rich with mucous goblet cells: collectively known as the respiratory epithelium A. Also contains: ….

1. Basal cells: -regenerative 2. Brush cells: - sensory B. picture showing the main components of the Respiratory Epithelium: PT stain high mag.

III. Trachea: “the air tube” A. Mucosa composed of typical respiratory epithelium: 1. Also--is an underlying set of…… a. C-shaped cartilage rings: structure and Function b. Seromucous glands: that produce a more watery mucous. B. Open portion closed by: (1)-smooth muscle (2)-fibroelastictissue Figure 17—6. Section of trachea showing the respiratory epithelium with goblet cells and columnar ciliated cells. Also shown are serous glands in the lamina propria and hyaline cartilage. The mucous fluid produced by the goblet cells and by the glands forms a layer that permits the ciliary movement to propel foreign particles out of the respiratory system. PT stain. Medium magnification.

IV. Bronchi: A. There are a pair of primary bronchi 1. Each one branches dichotomously 9-12 times B. Cartilage network keeps the lumen open for airflow. *A*. Picture (left): pg 347.- Micrograph showing the layers in the wall of a large bronchus. *B*. Picture (right): pg 346. -

V. Bronchiole: starts on page 349.  1. Airways less than 5 mm. goblet cells

2. No cartilage

3. No glands other than

*. No submucosal glands A. Respiratory bronchiole and alveolus: region of transition from conducting to respiratory portions 1. Alveoli: 200 um in diameter and Arranged along and around alveolar ducts and sacs 2. picture belolw-Left: section of a Terminal Bronchiole w/small portion of respiratory bronchiole continuous w/an alveolar duct and many alveoli. 3. Picture below-right: alveolar sacs

4. Picture below-: diagram of portion of bronchial tree—note that the smooth muscle in the alveolar duct disappears in the alveoli. 5. Picture below-right: pulmonary alveoli showing the structure of the interalveolar septum.

6. Picture below- part of the interalveolar septum showing the blood—air barrier a. Mechanism of gassous exchange: to reach the RBC, O2 traverses the surface lining, the alveolar epitheliumcytoplasm, and the plasma. In some locationsm, there is loose interstitial tiddue between the epithelium and endothelium.

*A*. Cells composing an alveolus: A. Type I alveolar cell aka:  Squamous alveolar cell B. Type II alveolar cell: Serve as basal cells to replace themselves and type I cells

*1*. Electron Micrograph of Type II cell: protruding in the alveolar lumen. a. Arrows: indicate lamellar bodies containing newly synthesized pulmonary surfactant. **. Note: the microvilli of the Type II cell and the Junctional complexes (JC) that are connected to type I epithelial cell.

1. Produce surfactant: a mix of phospholipids and proteins. a. Functions: to coat the alveolar surfaces of the lung made and secreted by type II pneumocytes and prevents alveolar collapse at the end of expiration by reducing surface tension.

C. Alveolar macrophages: Dust cells 1. picture below pg. 354—Observe in the interalveolar septum 3 laminar structures-(arrow heads) a. Arrow Heads constituted by a central basement membrane and 2 very thin cytoplasmic layers. **. These layers are formed by the cytoplasm of epithelial cell type 1 and the cytoplasm of capillary endothelial cells.

VI. Pathology – Emphysema: is an actual loss of lung tissue caused by chronic irritation and/or pollutants, lack of ά1-Anti-trypsin

A. Emphysema victims are referred to as fighters: as they adopt strategies that allow continued successful ventilation long into the disease process. B. Barrel Chest caused by Emphysema: (((?))) *A*. 2 types of Emphysema: classically of two types by region of tissue destroyed. A. Centrilobular or centroacinar B. Panlobular or panacinar *B*. Gross Emphysematous Lung: note the open appearance of the lung tissue. A. Emphysematous lung section –(left picture): (((?)))

*C*. Certain genetic or reactive abnormalities are associated with impaired Ciliary function: (ciliary dyskinesia syndromes), and may predispose patients to sinusitis, bronchiectasis, and male infertility (immotile sperm)

1. (relating to picture above) Chronic irritation of the respiratory mucosa produces hyperplasia: of these glands (increased Reid ratio) and an increased ratio of mucus-secreting to serous cells

================================================END==THE=RESPIRT ORY=SYSTEM=============================

A. Largest and heaviest single organ of the body: 1.2-2.3 m2 surface area B. Consist of: 1. Outer epidermis 2. Lower dermis 3. Underlying hypodermis: (which is not actually considered part of the skin)

I. Epidermis: Stratified squamous epithelium 1. Cells called keratinocytes A. Also contains: 1. Melanocytes: Produce melanin 2. Langerhans cells: 3. Merkel’s cells: B. Thin vs. thick skin: What varies is the thickness of the epidermis 1. Thick skin or non-hairy: Palms and soles 2. Thin skin or hairy: Found everywhere else *1*. Picture below: Thin skin

II. Epidermal layers A. Stratum basale: Single layer of columnar to cuboidal cells on basement membrane 1. Desmosomes and hemidesmosomes: 2. Intense mitotic activity: (every 15-30 day replacement) 3. Produce keratin B. Stratum spinosum: Cuboidal to flattened cells 1. Spiny, studded appearance 2. Thicker in areas of wear and tear 3. Provides resistance to abrasion C. Stratum granulosum: 3-5 layer of flattened polygonal cells 1. Cells release lipid material that seals the cell layer D. Stratum lucidum: More obvious in thick skin 1. Translucent and Flattened cells: Dying and dead cells E. Stratum corneum: 15-20 layers (in thick skin) 1. Flattened, non-nucleated keratinized cells 2. Cells dead: Cells lost to wear and tear III. Melanocytes: Produce melanin 1. Eumelanin – dark brown 2. Pheomelanin – reddish A. Racial and individual differences in skin color result from the amount of melanin and not: the # of melanocytes 1. picture below: of Melanocyte and surrounding cells

B. Protection by melanin: Note that the melanin granules are around the nucleus to protect it from solar radiation 1. Skin color caused by melanin, blood vessels and blood flowing

IV. Langerhans and Merkel’s cells. A. Langerhans cells are the APC’s of the skin B. Merkel’s cells may be sense organs for: mechanoreception or serve a neuroendocrine role V. Dermis: CT that supports the epidermis and connects it to the hypodermis *A*. Two layers 1. Papillary layer: that is thickest in wear and tear areas 2. Reticular layer: A. Contains…. 1. Hair follicles 2. Sebaceous glands 3. Sweat glands: All of epidermal origin 4. Sympathetic but no parasympathetic innervations: to skin structures 5. Rich blood and lymph supply 6. Sensory structures a. Pacinian corpuscles: b. Meissner’s corpuscles: c. Free nerve endings:

*a*. Meisner’s Corpuscles:

VI. Hair follicles. 1. Hair is found everywhere except: Palms, Soles, Lips, Glans penis, Clitoris, Labia minora

VII. Sebaceous glands: 1. Acinar glands 2. 100 glands/cm2 : 400-900 glands/cm2 on face, forehead and shoulders A. Produce sebum: Lipids including triglycerides, waxes squalene and cholesterol 1. Squalene : (aka spinicene or supraene)

VIII. Sweat gland: Everywhere but in the glans penis A. Functions to Produce sweat: Water, sodium chloride, urea, ammonia ad uric acid B. ducts lined by: stratified cuboidal epithelium

IX. Skin Cancer: One third of all cancers are skin cancers

A. Three types: 1. Squamous cell carcinoma 2. Basal cell carcinoma 3. Malignant melanoma B. Picture of Squamous and basal cell Carcinoma.

C. Merkel Cell Carcinoma: Merkel cell carcinoma is a rare type of skin cancer that usually appears as a flesh-colored or bluish-red nodule, often on your face, head or neck. Like other types of skin cancers, the incidence of Merkel cell carcinoma is increasing worldwide. 1. Also called Neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin: 2. Asociated with: Older people , Long-term sun exposure, Weak immune system =================================END===CHAPTER===ON====SKIN===== ================================== A. Consists of the…. 1. Kidneys 2. Ureters 3. Urinary bladder 4. Urethra B. Job of the Urinary System: 1. Filtration 2. Active reabsorption: uses the atpases

3. Passive reabsorption 4. Secretion 5. Also, releases Renin(BP control):

6. Produces erythropoietin: to stimulate RBC

production. 7. Monitors/regulates salt and water: balance for the body I. Kidneys: paired organs located retroperitoneal in the abdominal cavity *(retroperitoneal meaning means behind the abdominal cavity. –(below the peritioneal lining)1. Right kidney: lower than the left due to the large liver on the right side 2. theKidney has unique visual appearance when sliced in a frontal plane A. picture below: showing that is the kidneys are indeed “retroperitoneal”

II. Renal corpuscle: “little body” A. Nephron begins in the glomerulus (a tuft of capillaries) surrounded by a: glomerular capsule or Bowman’s capsule B. The two collectively represent the renal corpuscle *A*. Figure 19-3: below: afferent arteriole is always larger.

A. Function of the glomerulus: this is the site of the process of filtration 1. 1.2 - 1.3L of blood feeds the kidneys every minute a. All of the blood in the body passes through the kidneys every 4-5 minutes II. Filtration: Body doesn’t know---what is bad and good so we secrete everything and reabsorbed what is good. A. The two kidneys produce about 125 ml of filtrate/minute B. 123-124 ml/minute is reabsorbed 1. Leaving 1-2 ml/min of urine produced

a. About 1500 ml urine/day is produced III. Structural and functional unit – the Nephron

A. Structure of the glomerulus:

IV. Nephron: sturctrual and functional unit… A. Consists of the …. 1. Glomerulus 3. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) 5. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) 2. Bowman’s capsule 4. Loop of Henle 6. Collecting duct V. Overview of kidney - Cortex

A. picture below: Higher Magnification of Cortex

VI. Macula densa: Special regulatory structure “Name means dense spot” 1. Part of the Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA): 2. Composed of tightly packed cells in the wall of the DCT

A. picture below: Macula densa

VII. Juxtaglomerular apparatus: Specialized cells in the wall of the afferent arteriole 1. Cytoplasm full of granules 2. Renin: an enzyme that converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I, which when converted to angiotensin II serves as a potent vasoconstrictor

VIII. Ureters: Drain the urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder

IX. Urinary bladder A. Bladder lined by transitional epithelium B. Multiple layers of smooth muscle in bladder wall running in many directions

==================================END=Urinary system=CHAPTER======================================= I. Endocrine organs: produce hormones in small amounts –(Chemical signals)1. Secrete into the bloodstream 2. Distributed throughout the body 3. Affects target cells/organs where ever they are in the body a. What determines what the targets are?: if they have the receptors or not . II. Hypophysis: Pituitary gland A. located: in the sella turcica B. Derived from oral ectoderm (Rathke’s pouch) and nervous tissue growing together

*A*. Actually composed of two glands A. The anterior pituitary/lobe or the adenohypophysis or the pars distalis 1. Pars tuberalis and pars intermedia B. The posterior pituitary/lobe or the neurohypophysis or the pars nervosa 1. Infundibulum/neural stalk

*B*. Difference between lobes A. The anterior lobe actually synthesizes: the hormones that it releases B. The posterior lobe simply releases the hormones that are produced by neurons in the brain (the hypothalamus) 1. Essentially the pars nervosa is releasing __________. III. Anterior Pitutary aka-Adenohypophysis A. 3 cells types are apparent 1. Chromophobes 2. Chromophiles: (1)-Acidophils (2)-basophils

IV. Neurohypophysis: Composed of 100k neurons that arise in the paraventricular (oxytocin) & supraoptic (vasopressin) nuclei A. Cells end on a neurohemal organ: a structure where neurons end on blood vessels not other neurons, muscles or glands

V. Actions of the hormones: The pituitary gland affects more organs and tissues than any other organ in the body, hence The Master Gland

VI. Other glands A. Adrenals 1. Medulla 2. Cortex B. Islets of Langerhans C. Thyroid D. Parathyroids *A*. Adrenals: besides the standard location of the adrenals (on top of the kidneys) adrenal tissue is sometimes also found in other locations in the abdomen.

A. Adrenal medulla: essentially a sympathetic ganglion where the postganglionic cells have lost their axons and dendrites 1. They store epinephrine (80%) and norepinephrine: which is released upon sympathetic stimulation

*1*. Epi vs Norepi cells 1. Epinephrine secreting cells: have smaller granules that are less electron dense and fill the vacuoles 2. Norepinephrine secreting cells have larger granules that are more electron dense and are irregularly shaped. *B*. Islets of Langerhans of Pancreas: The endocrine part of the pancreas A. Alpha cells -> glucagons-B. Beta cells -> insulin-C. Delta cells -> somatostatin--

*C*. Thyroid: Peculiar organ structurally 1. Composed of follicles: a. Follicles filled with colloid: thyroglobulin 2. Parafollicular cells produce another hormone: a. Calcitonin: increase blood calcium and stimulates osteogenesis A. picture below: Colloid contains thyroglobulin which when needed for secretion is converted to T3 and T4 forms of thyroxin.

*D*. Parathyroid A. Chief cells produce: Parathormone-(Raises blood calcium and stimulates osteoclastic activity)

=========================================END==OF==ENDOCRINE==SYST EM================================ I. Conpossed of: A. Testis: which produce Spermatozoa and Hormones B. Ducts: C. Glands: D. Penis: *A*. Testis: surrounded by a dense CT layer called the tunica albuginea 1. This tunica continues into the testis and divides each testis into 250 lobules a. Each lobule contains: 1-4 seminiferous tubules and interstitial (Leydig) cells

A. Seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells:

1. Seminiferous tubules: carrying, containing, or producing semen a. Composed of two cell types… 1. Sertoli (nurse/sustentacular) cells: a cell, found in large numbers lining the semen-producing

tubules of the testis, that provides support and nourishment for developing sperm 2. Spermatogenic cells: which carry out spermatogenesis- Including spermiogenesis a. Spermiogenesis: the stage of spermatogenesis during which a spermatid is transformed into a spermatozoon

*a. Sertoli Cells for the blood-testis barrier (picture) below..

II. Spermiogenesis: making of sperm cells

A. Spermatogensis vs. Spermiogensis 1. Spermatogenesis the process: by which male spermatogonia develop into mature spermatozoa. 2. Spermiogenesis is the final stage of spermatogenesis which sees the maturation of spermatids into mature, motile spermatozoa. *1*. Sertoli cells: Support, protect and nurture the developing spermatozoa 1. Phagocytosis of residual bodies as sperm shed excess cytoplasm 2. Secrete fluids to carry the spermatozoa down tubule also Androgen binding protein called: inhibin (which feeds back to suppress FSH) B. Blood-Testis Barrier: for two reasons below… 1. Haploid cells are “genetically” different: that ret of cells and blood contains the immune system. 2. Haploid cells are compromised so that they need to be protected from toxins in the bloodstream

C. Testes Infertility Maturation Arrest: Note the obvious spermatogonia and the rest are Sertoli cells

III. Factors affecting spermatogenesis: A. Androgen-binding protein: binds testosterone and carries it into the lumen of the tubule to stimulate sperm development B. Proper temperature: 1. Pampiniform plexus: The spermatic veins emerge from the back of the testis, and receive tributaries from the epididymis: they unite and form a convoluted plexus, the plexus pampiniformis, which forms the chief mass of the cord. 2. Cremaster muscles: Its function is to raise and lower the scrotum in order to regulate the temperature of the testis and promote spermatogenesis. 3. Scrotal sweating: works just like any other sweating mechanism.

IV. Varicocele: a swelling of the veins in the spermatic cord of the scrotum. It may cause only slight discomfort but can affect fertility, so that surgical correction is required.

V. Hydrocele: an accumulation of watery liquid in a body cavity, especially in the sac around the testes. It is a painless condition that can be treated surgically by draining the fluid.

=============================END====MALE==REPRODUCTIVE==SYSTEM==C HAPTER============================= I. The Eye: Complex, highly developed photosensitive organ 1. Form 2. Light intensity 3. Color

A. External Layer: Tunica Fibrosa 1. Sclera: tough, white opaque layer of dense CT with few fibroblasts on five sixths of the eyeball exterior 2. Cornea: colorless, transparent multilayered structure that allows light to enter. a. Fibers oriented differently then sclera: to allow light in and transparency b. Notice the transition: btwn sclera and cornea. B. Middle or Vascular Layer: actually contains the following structures… a. Choroid b. Ciliary body c. Iris 1. Choroid-(Nutrient Layer): highly vascularized loose CT filled layer containing fibroblasts, macrophages, lymphocytes, mast cells, plasma cells, collagen fibers and elastic fibers a. Choroid houses the blood supply for the eye. 1*. Melanocytes: also present giving the layer its characteristic black coloration 2. Ciliary body: support the lens a. Anterior extension of the choroid

b. Contains several sets of muscles that function in visual accommodation

*2*. Ciliary processes: “Finger-like projections”

1. Loose CT core 2. Fenestrated capillaries 3. Produces the aqueous humor: which is….. a. More on Aqueous Humor: similar to plasma but with 0.1 % protein compared to 7% in plasma *. A. Humor travels through: pupil to anterior chamber and drains via canal of Schlemm 4. Anchors lens in place via Zonular Fibers: set of fibers attaching the ciliary body in the eye to the lens 3. Iris: (the color part of the eye) 1. Extension of choroid 2.Contains the round opening called the Pupil 3. Loose CT, Fibroblasts and melanocytes 4. Dilator and sphincter pupillae muscles: papillae meaninga. Dilator: open the iris b. Sphincter: closes iris

4. Lens: consist of ……. a. Lens capsule b. Subcapsular Epithelium c. Lens fibers *^*. Picture below: *. Capsule: secreted by subcapsalar e.t. ? *. Lens fibers: in pic. the cells that are elongated and lost their nucli. *. Artifactual Damage: is the white streak in the lens fibers.

1. Accommodation: (due to lens) a. When looking at distant objects: Lens is stretched by elasticity of ciliary body b. To focus closer in: the Ciliary muscles contract-(Zonular fiber tension is relieved and the lens thickens) II. Retina: the Innermost layer of the eye 1. Posterior photosensitive portion and 2. Anterior part covering ciliary body and iris A. Layers of photosensitive portion: photoreceptors are not immediately behind the lens therefore, retina stops before it reaches the lens. 1. Pigmented epithelium: a natural substance in plant or animal tissue that gives it its color 2. Neural portion: where all the nerves are that innervate the eye.

=====New Structure====== I. The Ear. A. Internal Ear: the hearing part. B. Membranous labyrinth: vestibular-balance part.. 1. Cochlea: a spiral structure in the inner ear that looks like a snail shell and contains tiny hair cells whose movement is interpreted by the brain as sound 2. Utricle: the larger of two fluid-filled sacs in the labyrinth of the inner ear, into which the semicircular canals open 3. Saccule: the smaller of two sacs in the vestibule of the inner ear 4. Semicircular canals: each of three tubes in the inner ear, semicircular in shape and set at right angles to one another, that help to maintain balance.

*A*. Receptor hair cells: each has 40-80 rigid stereocilia (microvilli) and one cilium (kinocilium)

===================================END==Chapter on Special Strucutures==================================== This System is Composed of the: *2 ovaries *2 oviducts *The uterus

*The vagina

*External

genitalia

I. The Ovaries: 1. Outermost germinal epithelium: Simple squamous or cuboidal epithelium 2. Tunica albuginea: dense CT 3. Cortical region: background stroma containing follicles with oocytes 4. Medullary region: rich blood supply in loose CT a. No clear separation from cortical region

II. Embryonic and Fetal development of the oocytes A. One Month: primordial germ cells migrate to the ovaries and become oogonia. B. Second month: population at 600,000 oogonia C. Fifth month: 7 million oogonia that at the third month began the first meiotic division arresting in prophase *. These are the primary oocytes which become surrounded by follicular cells.

*A*. Atresia: oocytes diing off. 1. Degenerative loss of oocytes 2. Throughout childhood and then at puberty only about 300,000 oocytes remain 3. At menopause only about 8,000 still remain

III. Follicular development: 1. Primordial follicles become 2. Unilaminar primary follicles become 3. Multilaminar primary follicles become 4. Secondary or antral follicles become mature, preovulatory or graafian follicles.

IV. Follicular atresia: 1. Follicles and their contained oocytes undergo atresia on an ongoing basis: dead follicles are phagocytosed A. While a continuous process, atresia is particularly intense during: just after birth, during puberty and pregnancy 1. In short during Times of intense hormonal changes

V. Ovulation: the releasing of the egg. A. High LH in response to high estrogen from the follicle cells B. Increased blood flow to ovaries C. Local release of: PGs, histamine, vasopressin and collagenase,

D. Granulosa cells produce hylauronidase and loosen E. Increased follicular fluid pressure and weakened follicle wall leads to ovulation

VI. Corpus luteum: the follicle that has just ovulated becomes a corpus luteum:“pale/white body.” A. An endocrine gland that produces steroid to maintain early development of the embryo B. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum collapses and becomes a corpus albicans

VII. Oviducts: wall composed of three layers… A. Inner mucosa: ciliated columnar cells and Non-ciliated columnar secretory cells B. Middle muscularis of smooth muscle: 1. Inner circular or spiral 2. Outer longitudinal C. Outer serosa of visceral peritoneum:

VIII. Uterus: wall formed by three layers A. Outer serosa or adventitia B. Middle myometrium 1. Smooth muscle in 4 poorly defined layers 2. Shows hyperplastic and hypertrophic growth during pregnancy… a. Also, produce collagen at this time returning: to near normal after pregnancy C. Inner endometrium: 1. Deeper basalis: that remains unchanged through cycles 2. Apical functionalis: that changes drastically throughout the menstrual cycling

IX. Mammary Glands: 1. 15-25 lobes separated from each other by Dense CT and adipose tissue 2. Each with own excretory lactiferous duct 3. Each nipple has from 15-25 duct openings A. Picture of a Lactating Mamary Gland:

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