Data Colection Types

DATA COLLECTION Dimensions of Data Collection Approaches 2. Structure 3. Quantifiability 4. Researcher Obtrusiveness 5. Objectivity

Major Types of Data Collection

Self

Reports Observation Biophysiologic Measures

Identifying Data Needs: Quantitative Study

Data Requirements for the following: 2.Testing

hypotheses or addressing the research questions 3.Describing sample characteristics 4.Controlling extraneous variables 5.Analyzing potential biases 6.Understanding subgroup effects 7.Interpreting results 8.Checking the manipulation 9.Obtaining administrative information

Types of Data Collection: Qualitative Unstructured Interviews  An oral self-report in which the

researcher asks a respondent questions without having a predetermined plan regarding the content or flow of information to be gathered  Conversational and interactive  Mode of choice when researchers do not have a clear idea of what it is they do not know

Types of Data Collection: Qualitative Research contd Semistructured Interviews An interview in which the researcher has listed topics to cover rather than specific question to ask  Interviewers are guided by a topic guides the discussion according to a written set of questions or topics to be covered 

Joint Interviews An interview where two or more people are

interviewed simultaneously, typically using structured or unstructured interview

Types of Data Collection: Qualitative Research contd.  Life Histories Are narrative self-disclosures about individual life experiences Encourage respondents to narrate, in chronological sequence, their life experiences  Oral Histories Focus on describing important themes rather than individuals Used in order to gather personal recollections of events and perceived causes and consequences  Critical Incidents Method of gathering information about people’s behaviors by examining specific incidents relating to the behavior under investigation

Types of Qualitative Reports contd.

 Diaries and Journals Respondents are asked to maintain daily records about some aspects of their lives

 Think-Aloud Method Used to collect data about cognitive processes such as thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making

 Photo Elicitation Interviews Involves an interview stimulated and guided by photographic images.

Self-Report Narratives on the Internet Involves narrative self-reports from a potentially rich data source, where data is directly solicited from a large audience of Internet users

Gathering Qualitative Self-Report Data

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Purpose: To enable researchers to construct reality in ways that are consistent with the construction of the people being studied.

 Goal: Requires researchers to take steps to overcome communication barriers and to enhance the flow of meaning.

Gathering Qualitative Self-Report Data

 Steps: Preparing for the Interview Conversational but purposeful

which requires thought and preparation Researcher + respondent = common vocabulary TIP: 1. Memorize the central questions to maintain eye contact 2. Use high-quality tape

Conducting the Interview Prepare the respondents by putting them

at ease  Close rapport with respondents provides access to richer information and to personal, intimate details of their stories  Be a good listener  Be prepared for strong emotions  Potential interview crises

Conducting the Interview contd

Post interview Procedures

 Tape recording interviews are listened and checked for audibility and completeness soon after the interview is over

Evaluation of Qualitative Approaches 1. Qualitative

interviews are of greatest utility when a new era of research is being explored

3. An

unstructured approach may allow investigators to ascertain what the basic issues or problems are, how sensitive or controversial the topic is, how easy it is to secure respondents’ cooperation in discussing issues, how individuals conceptualize and talk about the problems , and what range of opinions or behaviors exist relevant to the topic.

Evaluation of Qualitative Approaches 

Qualitative interviews are extremely timeconsuming and demanding of researchers’ skills in analyzing and interpreting the resulting data.

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They do not lend themselves to the rigorous testing of hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships.

Quantitative Self-Report Instruments Open-ended Question  Allow respondent to answer in their

own words, in narrative fashion

Closed-ended Question

 Or fixed-alternative  Offer respondents alternative replies,

from which subjects must choose the one that most closely matches the appropriate answer

Quantitative SelfReport Instruments Questionnaires Self-administered questionnaires

can be distributed in person, by mail, or over the internet Advantages: less costly and require less time and energy to administer, offer the possibility of complete anonymity, and absence of interviewer ensures no interviewer bias

Quantitative SelfReport Instruments Interviews Advantages outweigh those of

questionnaires in terms of response rates, audience, clarity, depth of questioning, missing information, order of questions, sample control, supplementary data

Using and Preparing Structured Self-Report Instruments  Dichotomous questions

Require respondents to make a choice between alternatives.  Multiple-choice questions

This offer more than two response alternatives.

Using and Preparing Structured Self-Report Instruments  Cafeteria questions

These are a special type of multiple question that asks respondents to select a response that most corresponds to their view.  Rank-order questions These questions ask respondents to rank target concepts along a continuum, such as the most to least important.

Using and Preparing Structured Self-Report Instruments 

Forced-choice questions Require respondents to choose between two statements that represent polar positions or characteristics.

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Rating questions Ask respondents to evaluate something along an ordered dimension.

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Checklists Encompass several questions that have the same response format.

Using and Preparing Structured Self-Report Instruments 

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Calendar questions These questions are used to obtain retrospective information about the chronology of different events and activities in people’s lives. Visual analogue scales These are used to measure subjective experiences, such as pain.

LIKERT SCALES/ SUMMATED RATING SCALES Named after Rensis Likert  Most widely used scaling technique  Steps in Constructing Likert-type Scale:  Develop a large pool of items 



that state different position on an issue. Total score is computed by summing the item scores

COMPOSITE SCALES 

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE Technique for measuring psychosocial

trait Respondents are asked to rate a concept on a series of bipolar adjectives 2 Considerations to Guide Selection: ○ Adjective pairs should be

appropriated for the concept being used and for the information being sought. ○ The extent to which the adjective measure the same dimension of the

Existing Self-Report Scales and Psychological Measures

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CINAHL database includes information on the scales used in research studies

Response Biases Tendency of respondents to distort their responses Response sets Extreme response Acquiescence response set

Development of structured self report instrument Once data needs have been identified cluster them into separate modules or areas of questioning Sequence modules to an order that is psychologically meaningful and encourages candor and cooperation The schedule should begin with questions that are interesting and non sensitive, Before questioning you must read about the introductory comments but most often incorporated into an informed consent form Introduction should be pleasant and tastefully structured since it is the first contact with the potential participants When first instrument draft is already in order critically discuss with experts or peer reviewers in your area of interest It should also be reviewed with individuals who have the technical expertise to detect problems

Development of structured self report instrument contd

Introduction should be pleasant and tastefully structured since it is the first contact with the potential participants When first instrument draft is already in order critically discuss with experts or peer reviewers in your area of interest It should also be reviewed with individuals who have the technical expertise to detect problems Revision based on feedback Pretesting

Tips for Developing Structured Self-Report Instruments Tips for Wording Questions: Clarity Ability of Respondents to Give Information Bias Sensitive Information

Tips for Developing Structured Self-Report Instruments  State the question in the affirmative  Avoid long sentences or phrases, and avoid

technical terms  Avoid “double-barreled” question that contain two distinct ideas.  Do not assume that respondents will be aware of, or informed about, issues or questions in which you are interested.  Avoid leading questions that suggest a particular kind of answer

Tips for Developing Structured Self-Report Instruments contd State a range of alternatives within the

question itself when possible For questions that deal with controversial opinion or socially unacceptable behavior close-ended question may be preferred. Impersonal wording of a question is sometimes useful in minimizing embarrassment and encouraging honesty.

Tips for Preparing Response Alternatives Alternatives should be mutually exclusive There should be an underlying rationale for ordering alternatives Response alternatives should not be too lengthy

Tips for Formatting an Instrument  Set

off the response options from the question or stem itself  Give special care to formatting filter questions  Avoid forcing all respondents to go through inapplicable questions in SAQ