Crime Hsc Notes.pdf

HSC​ ​Legal​ ​Studies​ ​2017 Crime

Table​ ​of​ ​Contents

Crime The​ ​Nature​ ​of​ ​Crime

4 5

The​ ​Meaning​ ​of​ ​Crime

5

Strict​ ​Liability​ ​Offence

6

Causation

6

Categories​ ​of​ ​Crime

6

The​ ​Elements​ ​of​ ​Crime

5

Summary​ ​and​ ​Indictable​ ​Offences

10

Factors​ ​Affecting​ ​Criminal​ ​Behaviour

11

Parties​ ​to​ ​a​ ​Crime

10

Crime​ ​Prevention

11

Police​ ​Powers

13

Investigating​ ​A​ ​Crime

13

Criminal​ ​Investigation​ ​Process

13

Reporting​ ​A​ ​Crime

13

Arrests

14

Bail​ ​and​ ​Remand

15

Detention​ ​and​ ​Interrogation:​ ​Rights​ ​of​ ​Suspects

16

Court​ ​Jurisdiction

17

Legal​ ​Personnel​ ​in​ ​Criminal​ ​Trial

18

Legal​ ​Aid​ ​NSW

19

Criminal​ ​Trial​ ​Process

17

Adversary​ ​System

18

Plea​ ​and​ ​Negotiation

19

Burden​ ​and​ ​Standard​ ​of​ ​Proof

20

Defences​ ​to​ ​Criminal​ ​Trial

20

Use​ ​of​ ​Evidence​ ​(inc.​ ​Witnesses)

20

Role​ ​of​ ​Juries

21

Statutory​ ​and​ ​Judicial​ ​Guidelines

22

Factors​ ​Affecting​ ​Decision

22

Types​ ​of​ ​Penalties

23

Sentencing​ ​and​ ​Punishment

22

Purpose​ ​of​ ​Punishment

22

Role​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Victim​ ​in​ ​Sentencing

23

Alternative​ ​Methods​ ​of​ ​Sentencing

26

Post​ ​Sentencing​ ​Considerations

26

Age​ ​of​ ​Criminal​ ​Responsibility

27

Young​ ​Offenders

Rights​ ​of​ ​Children​ ​when​ ​questioned/arrested

27 28

Children’s​ ​Court:​ ​Procedures​ ​and​ ​Operations

28

Alternatives​ ​to​ ​Court

28

Categories​ ​of​ ​International​ ​Crime

29

Penalties​ ​for​ ​Children International​ ​Crime

Dealing​ ​with​ ​International​ ​Crime

28 28 29

HSC​ ​Legal​ ​Studies Crime Principal focus: Through the use of a range of contemporary examples, students investigate criminal law, processes and institutions and the tension between community interests and individual rights and freedoms. Themes​ ​and​ ​challenges​ ​to​ ​be​ ​incorporated​ ​throughout​ ​this​ ​topic: ➢ The​ ​role​ ​of​ ​discretion​ ​in​ ​the​ ​criminal​ ​justice​ ​system ➢ Issues​ ​of​ ​compliance​ ​and​ ​non-compliance​ ​in​ ​regard​ ​to​ ​criminal​ ​law ➢ The​ ​extent​ ​to​ ​which​ ​law​ ​reflects​ ​moral​ ​and​ ​ethical​ ​standards ➢ The​ ​role​ ​of​ ​law​ ​reform​ ​in​ ​the​ ​criminal​ ​justice​ ​system ➢ The​ ​extent​ ​to​ ​which​ ​the​ ​law​ ​balances​ ​the​ ​rights​ ​of​ ​victims,​ ​offenders​ ​and​ ​society ➢ The​ ​effectiveness​ ​of​ ​legal​ ​and​ ​non-legal​ ​measures​ ​in​ ​achieving​ ​justice.

The​ ​Nature​ ​of​ ​Crime The​ ​Meaning​ ​of​ ​Crime Crime: An act or omission against the community at large, punishable by a recognised criminal sanction upon proof of guilt in a criminal proceeding initiated by officers of the crown or its agencies. However, Crime is can be defined differently within various societies, due to factors such as culture, history, legal traditions, social attitudes and religious beliefs. Criminal cases attempt to redress an injustice​ ​against​ ​a​ ​specific​ ​individual(s)​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​against​ ​the​ ​standards​ ​of​ ​the​ ​community. ➢ Criminal law aims to achieve justice through balancing the rights of the victim, the accused and​ ​the​ ​community​ ​at​ ​large,​ ​and​ ​is​ ​concerned​ ​with​ ​disputes​ ​within​ ​the​ ​state​ ​(society). ➢ Aim is to prosecute an offender in a court of law to obtain a sanction/punishment on behalf of the​ ​victim​ ​and​ ​the​ ​community. ➢ Cases are brought forward by the crown (Director of Public Prosecutions, or DPP) in an adversarial court of law, where two parties present their case to an impartial mediator (judge) and​ ​a​ ​jury. ➢ Burden of proof lies with the crown, which must prove guilt to a high standard (beyond reasonable​ ​doubt) The​ ​Elements​ ​of​ ​Crime Actus​ ​Reus:​ ​latin​ ​for​ ​‘guilty​ ​act’ ➢ Refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​physical​ ​conduct​ ​of​ ​the​ ​criminal​ ​act. ➢ Must​ ​be​ ​a​ ​voluntary​ ​action​ ​(or​ ​lack​ ​thereof) ➢ Must​ ​be​ ​proven​ ​that​ ​the​ ​individual(s)​ ​actually​ ​carried​ ​out​ ​the​ ​act. ➢ Often​ ​easy​ ​to​ ​prove,​ ​based​ ​on​ ​physical​ ​evidence​ ​and​ ​witness​ ​testimonies. Mens​ ​Rea:​ ​latin​ ​for​ ​‘guilty​ ​mind’ ➢ Refers to the mental state of the accused (person's intent). Requires someone to have the mental​ ​capacity​ ​to​ ​have​ ​intent​ ​to​ ​commit​ ​the​ ​crime. ➢ The prosecution must prove that the defendant was (at least somewhat) aware of their actions and​ ​their​ ​consequences ➢ There are three tiers of mens rea, with differing degrees which must be proved for different crimes: ○ Intention: A clear, malicious or wilful intention to commit the crime - highest and most difficult level of mens rea for the prosecution to prove. (e.g the accused murders an​ ​ex-partner) ○ Recklessness: When the accused was aware that the action could lead to crime being committed- chose to take the course of action anyway. (e.g the accused kills the victim​ ​after​ ​speeding​ ​and​ ​crashing​ ​into​ ​their​ ​car) ○ Negligence: This is when the accused fails to see the danger present in their actions leading​ ​to​ ​the​ ​death​ ​or​ ​injury​ ​of​ ​others.

CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​R​ ​v​ ​Thomas​ ​Sam,​ ​R​ ​v​ ​Manju​ ​Sam,​ ​2009​ ​(NSW​ ​Supreme​ ​Court) Criminal​ ​Negligence; ➢ The​ ​victim​ ​(a​ ​nine​ ​month​ ​old​ ​girl)​ ​passed​ ​away,​ ​after​ ​her​ ​parents​ ​failed​ ​to​ ​provide conventional​ ​medical​ ​treatment​ ​for​ ​her​ ​serious​ ​eczema ➢ The​ ​court​ ​found​ ​that​ ​the​ ​risks​ ​related​ ​to​ ​the​ ​young​ ​girl’s​ ​condition​ ​would​ ​have​ ​been obvious​ ​to​ ​any​ ​reasonable​ ​person,​ ​and​ ​that​ ​as​ ​educated​ ​adults,​ ​her​ ​parents​ ​should​ ​have recognised​ ​these​ ​risks​ ​and​ ​sought​ ​medical​ ​treatment ➢ Because​ ​they​ ​failed​ ​to​ ​do​ ​so,​ ​the​ ​parents​ ​were​ ​found​ ​guilty​ ​of​ ​manslaughter​ ​and imprisoned.

Strict​ ​Liability​ ​Offence ➢ The​ ​element​ ​of​ ​actus​ ​rea​ ​will​ ​need​ ​to​ ​be​ ​shown​ ​in​ ​such​ ​offences. ➢ No mens rea will need to be proven i.e speeding offences; police must show that the person breached​ ​laws,​ ​not​ ​whether​ ​they​ ​intended​ ​to​ ​do​ ​so. ➢ Assist​ ​in​ ​dealing​ ​with​ ​everyday​ ​offences. ➢ Defence​ ​to​ ​strict​ ​liability​ ​possible​ ​if​ ​accused​ ​can​ ​prove​ ​it​ ​was​ ​a​ ​reasonable​ ​mistake. ➢ Administrative​ ​advantages,​ ​reduces​ ​strain​ ​on​ ​court​ ​hierarchy ➢ Places​ ​a​ ​greater​ ​onus​ ​on​ ​society​ ​to​ ​comply​ ​with​ ​certain​ ​laws Causation ➢ The act that was performed must be the ‘operative and substantial’ cause of the crime, meaning​ ​that​ ​the​ ​actions​ ​were​ ​the​ ​primary​ ​reason​ ​for​ ​the​ ​offence. ➢ Causation links to Actus Reus: The prosecution is required to prove a substantial link between the​ ​act​ ​and​ ​the​ ​crime. CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​R​ ​v​ ​Munter​ ​(2009) ​ ​Causation​ ​can​ ​be​ ​established​ ​due​ ​to​ ​the​ ​link​ ​between​ ​the​ ​assault​ ​and​ ​the​ ​death​ ​of​ ​the​ ​victim; ➢ The​ ​accused,​ ​Todd​ ​Munter,​ ​punched​ ​and​ ​then​ ​kicked​ ​a​ ​66​ ​year​ ​old​ ​victim​ ​following​ ​a dispute​ ​over​ ​water​ ​restrictions ➢ The​ ​victim​ ​later​ ​died​ ​of​ ​a​ ​heart​ ​attack​ ​as​ ​a​ ​direct​ ​result​ ​of​ ​the​ ​blows​ ​inflicted​ ​by​ ​the accused. ➢ The​ ​accused​ ​was​ ​convicted​ ​of​ ​manslaughter​ ​and​ ​imprisoned.

Categories​ ​of​ ​Crime Offences Against a Person: ​Acts which cause physical harm or injury to another individual. Divided into​ ​three​ ​distinct​ ​areas: Homicide Murder: The unlawful killing of a Deliberate killing of another person. The prosecution must prove person. The judge must either determine that there is a

‘causal relationship’ between the​ ​actus​ ​rea​ ​and​ ​mens​ ​rea.

➢ The accused intended to kill the victim or inflict grievous bodily​ ​harm ➢ The act was committed with reckless indifference to human life ➢ The​ ​act​ ​was​ ​done​ ​while​ ​committing​ ​another​ ​serious​ ​crime Manslaughter: The killing of a person in a manner considered to be less intentional than​ ​murder.​ ​There​ ​are​ ​five​ ​types: ➢ Voluntary manslaughter: Occurs when the accused kills someone with intent, but there are mitigating circumstances involved​ ​(e.g​ ​provocation,​ ​self​ ​defence). ➢ Involuntary Manslaughter: Occurs when the accused acted in a reckless or negligent way, without intent to kill the person. ➢ Constructive Manslaughter: Occurs when the accused kills the victim while performing another unlawful act (e.g assault). ➢ Infanticide: A special case of manslaughter, occurs when a mother’s actions cause the death of her child when they are less​ ​than​ ​12​ ​months​ ​old. ➢ Dangerous driving causing death: A special case of manslaughter, where the accused driving in a reckless way causes​ ​the​ ​death​ ​of​ ​the​ ​victim.

Assault Causing physical harm or threatening to cause physical harm to another person. The law makes no distinction between the threat and actual application​ ​of​ ​force.

Common​ ​assault: Involves an assault where no physical harm is inflicted upon the victim. Physical​ ​assault: A direct act in which force is applied to another person unlawfully and​ ​without​ ​their​ ​consent​ ​(punishable​ ​by​ ​5-7​ ​years​ ​imprisonment.

Sexual​ ​Offences Sexual​ ​assault: Offences against the person When someone is forced into sexual intercourse without their involving​ ​a​ ​sexual​ ​element. consent. Sexual assault cases revolve around the consent of the victim. Aggravated​ ​sexual​ ​assault: Sexual assault involving aggravating factors, including the victim being​ ​under​ ​16,​ ​or​ ​if​ ​violence​ ​is​ ​used Indecent​ ​assault: A sexual offence not involving sexual intercourse, but other acts of indecency Aggravated​ ​sexual​ ​assault​ ​in​ ​company: Sexual assault conducted by multiple individuals, punishable by life​ ​in​ ​prison.

CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​R​ ​v​ ​Boughey​ ​(1986) ➢ ​ ​The​ ​accused​ ​strangled​ ​his​ ​wife​ ​during​ ​a​ ​‘sex​ ​game’ ➢ The​ ​court​ ​found​ ​that​ ​Boughey’s​ ​actions​ ​constituted​ ​reckless​ ​indifference​ ​to​ ​human​ ​life,​ ​that he​ ​should​ ​have​ ​known​ ​much​ ​better,​ ​and​ ​there​ ​was​ ​a​ ​good​ ​chance​ ​of​ ​harm. ➢ Boughey​ ​was​ ​convicted​ ​of​ ​murder:​ ​The​ ​accused​ ​was​ ​convicted​ ​of​ ​murder​ ​because​ ​it​ ​was deemed​ ​that​ ​he​ ​acted​ ​with​ ​reckless​ ​indifference​ ​to​ ​human​ ​life. CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​R​ ​v​ ​AEM​ ​(Snr);​ ​R​ ​v​ ​KEM;​ ​R​ ​v​ ​MM​ ​[2002] ➢ ​ ​The​ ​accused​ ​(three​ ​family​ ​members)​ ​lured​ ​two​ ​16​ ​year​ ​old​ ​girls​ ​into​ ​one​ ​of​ ​the​ ​offender’s homes​ ​and​ ​sexually​ ​assaulted​ ​them​ ​over​ ​several​ ​hours. ➢ Violence​ ​and​ ​death​ ​threats​ ​were​ ​utilised​ ​by​ ​the​ ​offenders ➢ The​ ​men​ ​were​ ​originally​ ​sentenced​ ​to​ ​less​ ​than​ ​10​ ​years​ ​imprisonment. ➢ Public​ ​outcry​ ​led​ ​to​ ​the​ ​introduction​ ​of​ ​a​ ​new​ ​type​ ​of​ ​offence,​ ​aggravated​ ​sexual​ ​assault​ ​in company,​ ​into​ ​the​ ​Crimes​ ​Act​ ​1900​ ​(NSW) ➢ This​ ​case​ ​was​ ​the​ ​catalyst​ ​for​ ​law​ ​reform​ ​in​ ​this​ ​area​ ​of​ ​law. Offences​ ​Against​ ​the​ ​Sovereign: Against​ ​Sovereign In which the accused is targeting the state (government).

Treason: Commission of acts aimed at bringing down the government. Undermining the government by passing on information to other governments​ ​etc. Sedition: The inciting of public unrest with the aim of bringing down the government; the act of encouraging hatred or contempt for the government.

Economic​ ​Offences: Crimes​ ​Against​ ​Property

Larceny: Where​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​intentionally​ ​takes​ ​the​ ​victim’s​ ​property without​ ​their​ ​consent. Robbery: Where​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​uses​ ​force​ ​to​ ​steal​ ​property.​ ​The​ ​use​ ​of​ ​a weapon​ ​constitutes​ ​armed​ ​robbery. Break​ ​and​ ​enter:​ ​Intentionally​ ​trespassing​ ​with​ ​the​ ​intention​ ​of committing​ ​another​ ​criminal​ ​offence

White​ ​Collar​ ​Crimes Embezzlement: Involves non-violent crimes Where​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​misappropriates​ ​property​ ​entrusted​ ​to​ ​them​ ​by associated with business another professionals. Tax​ ​Evasion: Where​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​uses​ ​various​ ​means​ ​to​ ​avoid​ ​paying​ ​taxes​ ​to​ ​the government.

Insider​ ​Trading: Where​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​obtains​ ​confidential​ ​information​ ​regarding​ ​the share​ ​value​ ​of​ ​a​ ​public​ ​company,​ ​and​ ​utilises​ ​this​ ​information​ ​to their​ ​advantage​ ​in​ ​the​ ​stock​ ​market. Computer​ ​Offences Involves the unauthorised access or modification of computer​ ​data

Fraud: Where​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​acts​ ​deceitfully​ ​or​ ​dishonestly​ ​for​ ​their​ ​own personal​ ​gain.​ ​Fraud​ ​is​ ​becoming​ ​more​ ​prevalent​ ​as​ ​technology advances,​ ​and​ ​hackers​ ​discover​ ​new​ ​avenues​ ​of​ ​identity​ ​theft​ ​and credit​ ​card​ ​fraud.​ ​Internet​ ​piracy​ ​is​ ​another​ ​serious​ ​offence​ ​which​ ​is increasing​ ​in​ ​its​ ​prevalence.

Other​ ​Types​ ​of​ ​Offences: Drug​ ​Offences The​ ​main​ ​types​ ​of​ ​offences​ ​are: Relates to acts involving ➢ Possession​ ​of​ ​a​ ​prohibited​ ​drug restricted​ ​or​ ​prohibited​ ​drugs ➢ Use​ ​of​ ​a​ ​prohibited​ ​drug ➢ Supply​ ​of​ ​a​ ​prohibited​ ​drug ➢ Cultivation/creation​ ​of​ ​a​ ​prohibited​ ​drug ➢ Less serious drug offences are punished with rehabilitation in mind, while suppliers and cultivators are dealt with more​ ​severely. Relevant legislation includes: - Drug Misuse and Trafficking Act 1985​ ​(NSW)​ ​ ​&​ ​ ​Customs​ ​Act​ ​1901​ ​(Cth) Driving​ ​Offences

Offences​ ​include: ➢ Exceeding​ ​the​ ​speed​ ​limit ➢ Driving​ ​under​ ​the​ ​influence​ ​of​ ​alcohol​ ​or​ ​drugs ➢ Reckless​ ​or​ ​negligent​ ​driving​ ​occasioning​ ​bodily​ ​harm ➢ Disobeying​ ​road​ ​rules Included in the Road Transport (Safety and Traffic Management) Act 1999 (NSW), and managed by the RMS. Most offences are summary​ ​offences,​ ​and​ ​are​ ​offenders​ ​are​ ​normally​ ​strictly​ ​liable.

Public​ ​Order​ ​Offences

Affray: Where an individual utilises/threatens violence in a public setting, Included in the Summary in​ ​such​ ​a​ ​way​ ​that​ ​a​ ​reasonable​ ​person​ ​would​ ​fear​ ​for​ ​their​ ​safety Offences Act 1988 NSW). Acts which violate the public Riot: order, which are note socially Where a group of 12 or more individuals utilise/threaten violence acceptable Most offences are in a public setting for a common purpose, in such a way that a summary offences, and are reasonable​ ​person​ ​would​ ​fear​ ​for​ ​their​ ​safety offenders are normally strictly​ ​liable. Preliminary​ ​Offences Acts which precede the commission​ ​of​ ​a​ ​crime.

Attempt: Where an individual attempts to commit a crime but fails or was prevented,​ ​though​ ​intended​ ​to​ ​complete​ ​the​ ​crime. Conspiracy:

Most preliminary offences Where​ ​a​ ​group​ ​of​ ​individuals​ ​attempt​ ​to​ ​commit​ ​a​ ​crime. are punished as it the crime was successful, except for some exceptions (attempted murder). Regulatory​ ​Offences

➢ Set​ ​out​ ​in​ ​delegated​ ​legislation. ➢ Minor offences with lesser penalties, usually strict liability offences. ➢ Enforced​ ​by​ ​local​ ​law​ ​officers​ ​or​ ​government​ ​officers. ➢ Examples​ ​may​ ​include: ○ Violating​ ​water​ ​restrictions​ ​or​ ​fire​ ​bans. ○ Traveling​ ​on​ ​public​ ​transport​ ​without​ ​a​ ​ticket.

Summary​ ​and​ ​Indictable​ ​Offences Many indictable offences can be tried summarily: The accused can elect to have the case heard by a magistrate.​ ​This​ ​can​ ​be​ ​much​ ​quicker​ ​and​ ​cheaper​ ​than​ ​a​ ​lengthy​ ​court​ ​process. Summary​ ​Offence ➢ Less​ ​severe​ ​offences. ➢ Heard​ a​ nd​ ​sentenced​ ​by​ ​a​ ​magistrate​ ​in a​ ​Local​ ​Court. ➢ Less​ ​severe​ ​penalties​ ​such​ ​as​ ​fines. ➢ Prosecutor​ ​is​ ​normally​ ​a​ ​police​ ​officer

Indictable​ ​Offence ➢ More​ ​serious​ ​offences. ➢ Tried by a judge and jury (not guilty plea) or sentenced by a judge (guilty plea). ➢ Committal hearing is held in a local court to determine whether the prosecution’s evidence is sufficient to go​ ​to​ ​trial.

Parties​ ​to​ ​a​ ​Crime A ‘party,’ is someone involved in the crime in any way. The punishment they receive is determined by their​ ​level​ ​of​ ​involvement. The​ ​Principal​ ​in​ ​the​ ​First Degree.

The principal offender, the person who is directly responsible for the​ ​crime​ ​and​ ​commits​ ​the​ ​act

The​ ​Principal​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Second Degree.

A​ ​person​ ​present​ ​during​ ​the​ ​crime​ ​(physically​ ​or otherwise),​ ​who​ ​encouraged​ ​or​ ​assisted​ ​the​ ​offender.

Accessory​ ​Before​ ​the​ ​Fact.

A person who has helped in planning or preparation before the act is​ ​carried​ ​out.

Accessory​ ​After​ ​the​ ​Fact.

A​ ​person​ ​who​ ​has​ ​assisted​ ​the​ ​principal​ ​after​ ​the​ ​act​ ​is​ ​carried out.

Factors​ ​Affecting​ ​Criminal​ ​Behaviour Criminology: The scientific study of crime and criminal behaviour. All crimes are committed for different​ ​reasons​ ​and​ ​are​ ​influenced​ ​by​ ​a​ ​combination​ ​of​ ​factors: Psychological​ ​Factors

➢ Extremely​ ​relevant​ ​to​ ​mens​ ​rea​ ​aspects​ ​of​ ​trial. ➢ May​ ​constitute​ ​a​ ​mitigating​ ​circumstance​ ​if​ ​mental​ ​illness is​ ​involved ➢ Punishments​ ​will​ ​have​ ​a​ ​focus​ ​on​ ​psychological rehabilitation

Social​ ​Factors

➢ Attitudes​ ​towards​ ​crime​ ​and​ ​acceptable​ ​behaviour​ ​are influenced​ ​by​ ​one’s​ ​relationships. ➢ Previous​ ​experiences​ ​may​ ​influence​ ​the​ ​behaviour​ ​of potential​ ​criminals. ➢ Some​ ​situations​ ​may​ ​constitute​ ​a​ ​mitigating​ ​circumstance.

Economic​ ​Factors

➢ People​ ​from​ ​disadvantaged​ ​backgrounds​ ​are​ ​more​ ​likely​ ​to commit​ ​crimes ➢ Poor​ ​education​ ​and​ ​lack​ ​of​ ​skills​ ​leads​ ​individuals​ ​to commit​ ​economic​ ​offences​ ​to​ ​improve​ ​their​ ​financial situations ➢ One​ ​third​ ​of​ ​male​ ​and​ ​one​ ​half​ ​of​ ​female​ ​criminals​ ​in​ ​NSW receive​ ​welfare​ ​payments

Genetic​ ​Factors

➢ Studies​ ​have​ ​been​ ​conducted​ ​attempting​ ​to​ ​link​ ​criminal behaviour​ ​to​ ​a​ ​genetic​ ​abhorrence ➢ No​ ​conclusive​ ​evidence​ ​yet​ ​exists

Political​ ​Factors

➢ Offences​ ​against​ ​the​ ​sovereign​ ​or​ ​public​ ​order​ ​offences may​ ​have​ ​a​ ​political​ ​factor​ ​involved ➢ An​ ​extreme​ ​example​ ​of​ ​such​ ​an​ ​offence​ ​is​ ​terrorism

Self​ ​Interest​ ​Factors

➢ Most​ ​crimes​ ​are​ ​committed​ ​in​ ​the​ ​interest​ ​of​ ​the​ ​offender(s) ➢ White​ c​ ollar​ ​crimes​ ​are​ ​a​ ​good​ ​example​ ​of​ ​crimes motivated​ ​by​ ​personal​ ​greed,​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​external​ ​factors

Crime​ ​Prevention Situational​ ​Crime​ ​Prevention ➢ Measures which make it more difficult or​ ​less​ ​rewarding​ ​to​ ​commit​ ​crimes ➢ May include installation of security systems, anti virus software, or avoiding poorly​ ​lit​ ​environments ➢ i.e Greater number of police in areas such as King's Cross were majority of drunken, one punch assaults occur; Use of UV lights in bathrooms in order to

Social​ ​Crime​ ​Prevention ➢ Measures which attempt to address the underlying social factors which may lead to criminal behaviour, including a lack of skills or socioeconomic disadvantage. ➢ May include youth programs or educational​ ​workshops. ➢ The most common strategy to encourage young people away from crime is the use of diversionary

stop individuals from injecting substances​ ​harder​ ​to​ ​see​ ​veins.

programs that provide a venue for alternative activities, such as sporting groups, the Police Citizens Youth Clubs and​ ​drop-in​ ​centres.

Criminal​ ​Investigation​ ​Process Police​ ​Powers ➢ Responsibility​ ​to​ ​enforce​ ​criminal​ ​law​ ​in​ ​their​ ​relative​ ​jurisdiction. ➢ Role is to investigate crime, interrogate witnesses, gather evidence and make arrests. To prevent crime through maintaining a public presence and acting as a deterrent, and to investigate​ ​criminal​ ​activities​ ​and​ ​assist​ ​in​ ​the​ ​prosecution​ ​of​ ​those​ ​charged​ ​with​ ​offences. ➢ Challenge lies in the balance between civil liberties and police powers, which violate the individual​ ​rights​ ​of​ ​citizens. Powers are granted by the Law Enforcement (Power and Responsibilities) Act 2002 (NSW). Such powers​ ​include; ➢ Questioning suspects, detaining suspects, search and seizure, all with the use of reasonable force. ➢ May​ ​need​ ​a​ ​warrant​ ​to​ ​utilise​ ​certain​ ​powers ➢ NSW​ ​Police​ ​force​ ​adheres​ ​to​ ​a​ ​code​ ​of​ ​practice​ ​which​ ​ensures​ ​the​ ​rights​ ​of​ ​suspects. ➢ Since 2002, amendments to LEPRA have increased police powers in NSW. New powers have been​ ​introduced​ ​to​ ​assist​ ​in​ ​criminal​ ​investigation​ ​process. Role​ ​of​ ​Discretion​ ​for​ ​Police: ➢ Areas​ ​to​ ​patrol ➢ Decisions made by individual officers; i.e let an offender go without caution, investigate certain​ ​behaviour,​ ​charge​ ​suspect ➢ Whether​ ​to​ ​handle​ ​with​ ​force ➢ Draw​ ​a​ ​gun Reporting​ ​A​ ​Crime ➢ Victims​ ​and​ ​witnesses​ ​use​ ​their​ ​discretion​ ​to​ ​discern​ ​whether​ ​or​ ​not​ ​to​ ​report​ ​crimes ➢ Citizens​ h​ ave​ ​role​ ​of​ ​reporting​ ​crime​ ​in​ ​justice​ ​system ➢ May be hesitant for several reasons, including reluctance to be involved, administrative burdens,​ ​or​ ​fear​ ​of​ ​reprisal ➢ Some crimes are more widely reported than others: Sexual Assault is rarely reported. 50% of women​ ​do​ ​not​ ​report​ ​DV​ ​(BOCSAR ➢ Police​ ​do​ ​not​ ​see​ ​most​ ​crimes:​ ​Only​ ​respond​ ​to​ ​reports ➢ The police rely on members of the public to report crimes. Community-based programs such as Crime Stoppers and Neighbourhood Watch are designed to create a sense of teamwork between the police and the community. These programs reinforce the fact that, without information from the public, the police would have difficulty in solving (and preventing) crime. Investigating​ ​A​ ​Crime Gathering​ ​Evidence

➢ Evidence​ ​is​ ​gathered​ ​to​ ​support​ ​a​ ​charge​ ​in​ ​court.​ ​May include​ ​witness​ ​statements,​ ​forensic​ ​analysis.

➢ Must​ ​be​ ​collected​ ​according​ ​to​ ​the​ ​Evidence​ ​Act​ ​1995 (NSW)​ ​to​ ​be​ ​admissible​ ​in​ ​court. ➢ Evidence​ ​collected​ ​at​ ​crime​ ​scene​ ​‘in​ ​situ’​ ​(in​ ​the​ ​place). Ensures​ ​the​ ​rights​ ​of​ ​individual​ ​citizens​ ​during​ ​investigation process. Use​ ​of​ ​Technology

➢ Surveillance technology has provided more evidence for use in criminal investigations; for e.g. the installations of cameras in major public spaces has assisted in identifying criminals. ➢ Must be extremely reliability for admissible evidence. In NSW there are strict rules about the use of DNA evidence and its collection, contained in the Crimes (Forensic Procedures)​ ​Act​ ​2000​ ​(NSW). ➢ DNA EVIDENCE: Genetic material that can be used to link a​ ​suspect​ ​with​ ​a​ ​crime​ ​scene. ➢ Suspect​ ​must​ ​consent​ ​to​ ​taking​ ​of​ ​DNA​ ​samples. ➢ Crimes​ ​(Forensic​ ​Procedures)​ ​Act​ ​2000​ ​(NSW)

Use​ ​of​ ​Warrants

➢ A legal document issued by a court authorizing the use of particular​ ​police​ ​powers ➢ Ensures police powers are only used in appropriate circumstances:​ ​Judicial​ ​regulation ➢

Search​ ​and​ ​Seizure

➢ The Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Act 2002 (NSW); procedures for police to follow when conducting​ ​personal​ ​search​ ​or​ ​strip​ ​search;​ ​respect​ ​dignity. ➢ Mandated​ ​by​ ​LEPRA​ ​2002​ ​(PART​ ​4) ➢ Controversial:​ ​Invasion​ ​of​ ​Privacy ➢ Police must reasonably believe the person is carrying an illegal​ ​article​ ​or​ ​an​ ​item​ ​connected​ ​to​ ​a​ ​crime​ ​(discretion) ➢ Governed​ ​by​ ​strict​ ​regulations​ ​to​ ​protect​ ​individual​ ​rights ➢ LEPRA Amendment (Search Powers) Act 2009 allows covert​ ​searches​ ​for​ ​serious​ ​indictable​ ​offences.

Arrests Arrest

LEPRA​ ​(2002)​ ​governs​ ​conditions​ ​of​ ​arrest ➢ The​ ​suspect​ ​is​ ​seen​ ​committing​ ​an​ ​offence ➢ It is believed on reasonable grounds the suspect has/may commit​ ​an​ ​offence ➢ A​ ​warrant​ ​is​ ​possessed​ ​for​ ​the​ ​suspects’​ ​arrest ➢ Arrest is supposed to be a last resort, but critics say it has become​ ​simply​ ​a​ ​means​ ​of​ ​investigation. ➢ Reasonable​ ​force​ ​may​ ​be​ ​used ➢ Police​ ​must​ ​state​ ​the​ ​reasons​ ​for​ ​the​ ​arrest

Charge

➢ After max detention period, suspect must be released unconditionally,​ ​or​ ​charged​ ​with​ ​an​ ​offence

➢ Extensions​ ​can​ ​be​ ​applied​ ​for Summon

➢ A legal document summoning a suspect to court on a specific​ ​date ➢ Witnesses​ ​are​ ​summoned​ ​by​ ​a​ ​subpoena

CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​Dietrich​ ​v.​ ​The​ ​Queen​ ​(1992) Dietrich, who had been charged with drug offences, was denied legal aid after he refused to plead guilty. Legal aid took the view that the evidence against Dietrich was so overwhelming that his case had​ ​no​ ​merit;​ ​that​ ​is,​ ​it​ ​was​ ​pointless​ ​for​ ​him​ ​to​ ​plead​ ​not​ ​guilty. Dietrich represented himself and was convicted. He appealed his conviction to the High Court arguing that he did not get a fair trial, as he had no legal representation. The High Court agreed that it was probably that Dietrich did not get a fair trial but noted that there was no automatic right to legal representation. This ruling meant that individuals who are not eligible for legal aid and cannot afford their own lawyer may not have legal representation during court proceedings and police interrogations. Bail​ ​and​ ​Remand Bail: ➢ The temporary, conditional release of an accused person awaiting trial. Applied for in a bail hearing​ ​(local​ ​court). ➢ Limits​ ​or​ ​restrictions​ ​to​ ​activities​ ​may​ ​apply:​ ​Accused​ ​is​ ​carefully​ ​monitored. ➢ Monetary​ ​bonds​ ​may​ ​be​ ​paid​ ​as​ ​surety:​ ​Ensures​ ​accused​ ​returns​ ​to​ ​court ➢ Conditions​ ​outlined​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Bail​ ​Act​ ​1978​ ​(NSW) ➢ Changes​ ​have​ ​made​ ​obtaining​ ​bail​ ​more​ ​difficult:​ ​Stricter​ ​conditions ➢ Greater protection for community, but undermine individual right for presumption of innocence ➢ NSW​ ​LRC​ ​Report​ ​(2012)​ ​suggested​ ​onus​ ​should​ ​lie​ ​with​ ​prosecution​ ​for​ ​all​ ​offences ➢ For more serious offences, particularly serious drug offences such as those contained within the Drug Misuse and Trafficking Act 1985 (NSW) and the Customs Act 1901 (Cwlth), there is a presumption against bail. Serious crimes against persons, such as homicide, have a similar presumption. In these cases bail will not be granted unless there are exceptional circumstances. ➢ Factors​ ​considered​ ​include: ○ Seriousness​ ​of​ ​the​ ​offence ○ Likelihood​ ​of​ ​recidivism ○ Protection​ ​of​ ​community ○ Risks​ ​of​ ​absconding Remand: ➢ A​ ​period​ ​in​ ​custody​ ​awaiting​ ​trial ➢ Undermines​ ​individual​ ​right​ ​to​ ​assumption​ ​of​ ​innocence ➢ If​ ​imprisoned,​ ​time​ ​in​ ​remand​ ​is​ ​subtracted

Detention​ ​and​ ​Interrogation:​ ​Rights​ ​of​ ​Suspects LEPRA​ ​(2002)​ ​sets​ ​out​ ​lawful​ ​conditions​ ​of​ ​detention ➢ Maximum​ ​detention​ ​period​ ​of​ ​four​ ​hours ➢ Suspect​ ​must​ ​be​ ​issued​ ​with​ ​a​ ​caution​ ​of​ ​their​ ​rights ➢ Young​ ​offenders​ ​have​ ​additional​ ​rights ➢ Rights​ ​include: ➢ Right​ ​to​ ​legal​ ​representation ➢ Right​ ​to​ s​ ilence ➢ Aim​ ​is​ ​to​ ​balance​ ​rights​ ​of​ ​the​ ​victim,​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​and​ ​society ➢ Critics​ ​condemn​ ​the​ ​shift​ ​away​ ​from​ ​recognizing​ ​the​ ​rights​ ​of​ ​the​ ​victim

Criminal​ ​Trial​ ​Process Court​ ​Jurisdiction ➢ Jurisdiction:​ ​The​ ​legal​ ​power​ ​or​ ​responsibility​ ​of​ ​a​ ​court ➢ Court Hierarchy: The system of courts within a jurisdiction, from lower courts to intermediate and​ ​then​ ​higher​ ​courts ➢ Cases usually heard in a Local Court for a preliminary hearing, before proceeding to appropriate court Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth) gives state courts the power to hear federal criminal​ ​cases ➢ Original​ ​jurisdiction:​ ​The​ ​authority​ ​for​ ​a​ ​court​ ​to​ ​hear​ ​matters​ ​for​ ​the​ ​first​ ​time ➢ Appellate​ ​jurisdiction:​ ​The​ ​authority​ ​for​ ​a​ ​court​ ​to​ ​review​ ​matters​ ​on​ ​appeal Lower​ ​Courts​ ​of​ ​NSW Local​ ​Courts

➢ Governed​ ​by​ ​Local​ ​Court​ ​Act​ ​2007​ ​(NSW) ➢ Hears​ ​summary​ ​criminal​ ​offences ➢ Conducts bail hearings and committal hearings: Determines if case has enough evidence to proceed to trial in higher court ➢ Overseen​ ​by​ ​magistrate ➢ Cheaper and faster, but limited in jurisdiction and sentencing​ ​options

Coroner's​ ​Court

➢ Conducts​ ​coronial​ ​inquests​ ​into​ ​suspicious​ ​circumstances and​ ​deaths ➢ Evidence​ ​may​ ​warrant​ ​a​ ​criminal​ ​trial ➢ Coroner’s​ ​Act​ ​2009​ ​(NSW)

Children’s​ ​Court

➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

Children’s​ ​Court​ ​Act​ ​1987​ ​(NSW) Deals​ ​with​ ​young​ ​offenders Court​ ​is​ ​closed​ ​to​ ​the​ ​public​ ​and​ ​journalists Presided​ ​over​ ​by​ ​magistrate​ ​and​ ​no​ ​jury

Intermediate​ ​Courts​ ​of​ ​NSW District​ ​Court

➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

District​ ​Court​ ​Act​ ​1973​ ​(NSW) Matters​ ​heard​ ​by​ ​judge​ ​and​ ​jury Can​ ​hear​ ​appeals​ ​from​ ​lower​ ​courts Hears indictable offences such as manslaughter, sexual assault,​ ​robbery​ ​etc

Superior​ ​Courts​ ​of​ ​NSW Supreme​ ​Court​ ​of​ ​NSW

Supreme​ ​Court​ ​Act​ ​1970​ ​(NSW) Cases​ ​can​ ​be​ ​heard​ ​by​ ​judge​ ​or​ ​judge/jury Hears most serious matters, including murder, treason, attempted murder,​ ​sexual​ ​assault​ ​in​ ​company​ ​etc

Court​ ​of​ ​Criminal​ ​Appeal

Appellate​ ​branch​ ​of​ ​Supreme​ ​Court Highest​ ​court​ ​of​ ​appeal​ ​in​ ​NSW​ ​(other​ ​than​ ​high​ ​court)

Land​ ​and​ ​Environment Court

Interprets​ ​and​ ​enforces​ ​environmental​ ​and​ ​property​ ​law Heard​ ​by​ ​judge​ ​only Federal​ ​Courts

High​ ​Court​ ​of​ ​Australia

➢ Prosecuted​ ​by​ ​a​ ​Commonwealth​ ​DPP​ ​in​ ​a​ ​state​ ​court ➢ Includes​ ​drug​ ​importation,​ ​money​ ​laundering​ ​etc ➢ Cases classified as summary/indictable and sent to relevant court ➢ s71​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Constitution​ ​and​ ​Judiciary​ ​Act​ ​1903​ ​(Cth) ➢ Original jurisdiction for constitutional interpretation and some​ ​Cth​ ​matters ➢ Special​ ​leave​ ​can​ ​be​ ​granted​ ​to​ ​appeal

Adversary​ ​System “A​ ​system​ ​of​ ​law​ ​where​ ​two​ ​opposing​ ​sides​ ​present​ ​their​ ​cases​ ​to​ ​an​ ​impartial​ ​judge​ ​and/​ ​or​ ​jury.” ➢ An​ ​impartial​ ​mediator​ ​determines​ ​result​ ​based​ ​on​ ​evidence​ ​presented ➢ Inherited​ ​from​ ​English​ ​common​ ​law​ ​system ➢ Supporters​ ​argue​ ​it​ ​ensures​ ​each​ ​party​ ​is​ ​heard,​ ​and​ ​bias​ ​is​ ​reduced ➢ Critics argue that the skill of legal personnel impacts on cases, as does the lack of legal knowledge​ ​of​ ​the​ ​jury ➢ The​ ​inquisitorial​ ​system​ ​is​ ​centered​ ​around​ ​the​ ​judge ➢ Judge​ ​directs​ ​case​ ​and​ ​can​ ​request​ ​evidence ➢ Present​ ​in​ ​the​ ​form​ ​of​ ​coronial​ ​inquests​ ​and​ ​royal​ ​commissions Legal​ ​Personnel​ ​in​ ​Criminal​ ​Trial Magistrates

➢ Judicial​ ​officers​ ​who​ ​preside​ ​over​ ​cases ➢ Presides over a local court and are appointed by the chief magistrate, who is independent of the government. In summary cases, they must determine whether the accused is guilty,​ ​and​ ​if​ ​so,​ ​pass​ ​a​ ​sentence

Judges

➢ Conducts trials according to the rules and principles of the law. Is usually appointed to the judiciary after years of service as a successful barrister, although other legal experts such as law academics may also be appointed to the judiciary. Their rulings must be based on law and the facts that​ ​the​ ​prosecution​ ​and​ ​the​ ​defence​ ​present​ ​to​ ​them.

Prosecutors

➢ Represent the state (and therefore society) before the court. Prove that the accused is guilty. Once a conviction has been gained, the prosecution will present arguments and evidence​ ​in​ ​favour​ ​of​ ​a​ ​harsh​ ​penalty.

➢ Police prosecutors (trained officer) operate in the Local Court ➢ Public prosecutors (DPP) operate in higher courts: Director of Public Prosecutions: Criminal lawyer who is appointed by Parliament to be responsible for the Office of the DPP (or ODPP): it has a team of highly trained criminal lawyers, known​ ​as​ ​Crown​ ​prosecutors,​ ​who​ ​act​ ​as​ ​prosecutors ➢ Barristers/Solicitors

➢ Legal personnel responsible for representing their party in court

Plea​ ​and​ ​Negotiation Pleas: ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

Formal​ ​statement​ ​of​ ​guilt​ ​or​ ​innocence​ ​by​ ​the​ ​accused Entered​ ​at​ ​beginning​ ​of​ ​trial​ ​process A​ ​guilty​ ​plea​ ​will​ ​result​ ​in​ ​immediate​ ​sentencing A​ ​not​ ​guilty​ ​plea​ ​will​ ​have​ ​the​ ​case​ ​heard​ ​in​ ​court​ ​on​ ​a​ ​set​ ​date

Negotiation: ➢ An agreement between the DPP and the accused that involves the acceptance of a guilty plea in​ ​exchange​ ​for​ ​a​ ​lesser​ ​charge​ ​or​ ​other​ ​conditions ➢ Reduces​ ​administrative​ ​burdens​ ​and​ ​guarantees​ ​a​ ​conviction ➢ Prevents​ ​full​ ​extent​ ​of​ ​law​ ​being​ ​achieved,​ ​may​ ​‘force’​ ​a​ ​guilty​ ​plea CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​Thomas​ ​Kelly​ ​Case​ ​(2013)​ ​R​ ​v​ ​Loveridge​ ​2013 ➢ The​ ​accused​ ​caused​ ​the​ ​death​ ​of​ ​the​ ​victim​ ​after​ ​a​ ​‘king​ ​hit’ ➢ A guilty plea was entered for manslaughter, and the accused received a sentence of minimum​ ​five​ ​years ➢ Many​ ​argue​ ​this​ ​sentence​ ​was​ ​too​ ​lenient,​ ​and​ ​that​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​should ➢ Have​ ​been​ ​charged​ ​with​ ​murder Legal​ ​Aid​ ​NSW ➢ Differences in financial capability translates into differences in skill between public defenders and​ ​firm​ ​based​ ​barristers ➢ Legal Aid Commission Act 1979 (NSW) provides legal assistance to socioeconomically disadvantaged​ ​individuals​ ​•​ ​Ensures​ ​proper​ ​access​ ​to​ ​the​ ​legal​ ​system:​ ​Justice​ ​is​ ​maintained. ➢ The Legal Aid Commission (LAC) was established in 1979 to ensure that people unable to afford​ ​legal​ ​representation​ ​have​ ​access​ ​to​ ​a​ ​lawyer. ➢ Legal aid is funded by the NSW government and administered by the LAC. The LAC offers anyone free legal advice for fifteen minutes on any legal issue, including civil and Commonwealth​ ​law.

Burden​ ​and​ ​Standard​ ​of​ ​Proof ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

Accused​ ​is​ ​assumed​ ​innocent​ ​until​ ​proven​ ​guilty Onus​ ​lies​ ​with​ ​prosecution​ ​to​ ​prove​ ​the​ ​accused​ ​committed​ ​the​ ​offence Standard​ ​of​ ​proof​ ​in​ ​criminal​ ​cases​ ​is​ ​beyond​ ​reasonable​ ​doubt Ensures​ ​justice​ ​is​ ​achieved​ ​through​ ​proper​ ​sentencing​ ​procedures DPP​ ​only​ ​brings​ ​cases​ ​to​ ​court​ ​when​ ​the​ ​standard​ ​of​ ​proof​ ​can​ ​be​ ​met

Use​ ​of​ ​Evidence​ ​(inc.​ ​Witnesses) ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

Evidence​ ​Act​ ​1995​ ​(NSW) Must​ ​be​ ​obtained​ ​lawfully​ ​by​ ​police​ ​to​ ​be​ ​admissible​ ​in​ ​court Confusing​ ​or​ ​unlawfully​ ​obtained​ ​evidence​ ​is​ ​inadmissible Can​ ​take​ ​many​ ​forms,​ ​including​ ​witness​ ​testimony Witnesses​ ​undergo​ ​examination​ ​in​ ​chief​ ​and​ ​cross​ ​examination Procedure​ ​must​ ​be​ ​followed:​ ​Protects​ ​witnesses May​ ​include​ ​expert​ ​witnesses

Defences​ ​to​ ​Criminal​ ​Trial Allow courts to consider mitigating circumstances which may justify actions of the Accused. May reduce​ ​liability,​ ​but​ ​are​ ​controversial Complete​ ​Defence Mental​ ​Illness

Accused​ ​was​ ​mentally​ ​incapacitated​ ​while​ ​committing​ ​the​ ​crime.

Automatism

Accused​ ​was​ ​not​ ​in​ ​control​ ​of​ ​their​ ​own​ ​actions​ ​at​ ​the​ ​time​ ​they committed​ ​the​ ​crime.

Necessity

The​ ​crime​ ​was​ ​necessitated​ ​by​ ​external​ ​factors

Mistake

Actions​ ​were​ ​a​ ​reasonable,​ ​honest​ ​mistake

Self​ ​Defence

Accused committed the crime in the act of defending themselves or others​ ​with​ ​reasonable​ ​force​ ​depending​ ​on​ ​circumstance

Duress

Accused committed the crime against their own free will, unlawful pressure​ ​was​ ​applied​ ​to​ ​them.

Consent

The​ ​victim​ ​consented​ ​to​ ​the​ ​act​ ​(sexual​ ​offences) Partial​ ​Defence

Provocation

Diminished​ ​Responsibility

Accused was not in control of their actions due to the actions of another. Controversial, implies victim was responsible (reduces murder​ ​to​ ​manslaughter). A​ ​mental​ ​abnormality​ ​influenced​ ​the​ ​action​ ​(excluding

intoxication

CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​Case:​ ​Singh​ ​v​ ​R​ ​(2009) ➢ Victoria​ ​abolished​ ​the​ ​defence​ ​in​ ​2009​ ​and​ ​restricted​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​provocation ➢ Under​ ​section​ ​23​ ​of​ ​NSW​ ​Crimes​ ​Act ➢ Extreme​ p​ rovocation​ ​can​ ​still​ ​be​ ​used​ ​if: ○ Act​ ​was​ ​done​ ​in​ ​response​ ​to​ ​conduct​ ​of​ ​the​ ​deceased​ ​toward​ ​or​ ​affecting​ ​accused ○ Act​ ​done​ ​by​ ​the​ ​deceased​ ​was​ ​serious,​ ​indictable​ ​offence ○ Act​ ​caused​ ​accused​ ​to​ ​lose​ ​self-control ○ Act​ ​could​ ​have​ ​caused​ ​ordinary​ ​person​ ​to​ ​lose​ ​self​ ​control Role​ ​of​ ​Juries ➢ Role to a reach a verdict in the guilt or innocence of the defendant based on the evidence presented​ ​at​ ​trial. ➢ Either party can challenge selection of a juror based on either a peremptory challenge or a challenge​ ​for​ ​a​ ​cause. ➢ Australian citizens 18 years or over are eligible to sit on a jury once enrolled on the electoral roll. ➢ In NSW, majority verdicts have been permitted since 2006, allowing verdicts of eleven or ten to​ ​one​ ​where​ ​the​ ​court​ ​is​ ​satisfied​ ​that​ ​unanimous​ ​verdict​ ​will​ ​not​ ​be​ ​reached.

Sentencing​ ​and​ ​Punishment Sentencing Hearing: a hearing in which a judge/magistrate determines the sentence to be applied to the accused. Aims to balance rights of victim, offender and society to achieve justice. ALL MANDATED​ ​BY:​ ​Crimes​ ​(Sentencing​ ​and​ ​Procedure)​ ​Act​ ​1999​ ​(NSW). Statutory​ ​and​ ​Judicial​ ​Guidelines Judicial​ ​Guidelines: - Reduce inconsistency in the judgements of trial judges, who are given considerable discretion in deciding sentences. To ensure that like cases are treated alike. Too great an inconsistency in sentencing​ ​between​ ​the​ ​decisions​ ​of​ ​different​ ​judges​ ​is​ ​an​ ​injustice. - As trial judges have considerable discretion (flexibility) in reaching a sentencing, judicial guidelines are used by courts higher in the hierarchy over lower courts. This can be in the form​ ​of​ ​‘rules’​ ​about​ ​how​ ​certain​ ​matters​ ​should​​ ​be​ ​addressed​ ​by​ ​trial​ ​judges. Statutory​ ​Guidelines: - Set out guidelines for the courts to use in sentencing offenders. However, the degree of weight placed on mitigating and aggravating factors will be for the court to determine in individual cases. - Further​ ​consistency - Establish​ ​minimum​ ​sentences​ ​for​ ​a​ ​range​ ​of​ ​offences. - The Crimes (Sentencing Procedure) Act 1999 sets out the general guidelines for the courts to use​ ​in​ ​sentencing​ ​offenders. Purpose​ ​of​ ​Punishment Deterrence

➢ Passing​ ​a​ ​higher​ ​sentence​ ​to​ ​deter​ ​the​ ​offender​ ​from reoffending,​ ​or​ ​to​ ​deter​ ​other​ ​offenders ➢ Little​ ​evidence​ ​to​ ​support​ ​effectiveness ➢ ALRC​ ​recommends​ ​deterrence​ ​not​ ​be​ ​considered

Retribution

➢ Morally​ ​correct​ ​punishment​ ​(revenge) ➢ Recognises​ ​harm​ ​to​ ​victim​ ​and​ ​community

Rehabilitation

➢ Punishment​ ​designed​ ​to​ ​reform​ ​the​ ​offender​ ​to​ ​discourage recidivism ➢ Addresses​ ​factors​ ​which​ ​lead​ ​to​ ​crime ➢ Drug​ ​counseling,​ ​community​ ​outreach​ ​etc.

Incapacitation

➢ Restricts​ ​freedom​ ​of​ ​offender​ ​to​ ​render​ ​them​ ​incapable​ ​of committing​ ​further​ ​offences ➢ Imprisonment,​ ​home​ ​detention

Factors​ ​Affecting​ ​Decision Aggravating​ ​Factors

➢ Factors​ ​which​ ​make​ ​offence​ ​more​ ​severe

➢ E.g Excessive violence, prejudicial motives, age of the victim​ ​etc ➢ Results​ ​in​ ​more​ ​severe​ ​sentence ➢ Mitigating​ ​Factors

➢ Factors​ ​which​ ​make​ ​offence​ ​less​ ​severe ➢ e.g.​ ​Remorse,​ ​good​ ​character,​ ​provocation​ ​or​ ​duress,​ ​etc ➢ May​ ​result​ ​in​ ​a​ ​less​ ​severe​ ​sentence

Role​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Victim​ ​in​ ​Sentencing ➢ Crimes​ ​usually​ ​involve​ ​a​ ​victim​ ​who​ ​has​ ​suffered​ ​emotionally,​ ​physically​ ​or​ ​mentally ➢ This is summated in Victim Impact Statements: voluntary submissions detailing impact of crime​ ​on​ ​victim ➢ This​ ​allows​ ​participation​ ​by​ ​the​ ​victim​ ​in​ ​the​ ​trial​ ​process ➢ Victims​ ​Rights​ ​Act​ ​1996​ ​(NSW)​ ​guarantees​ ​certain​ ​rights​ ​to​ ​victims,​ ​including ➢ protection​ ​and​ ​rehabilitation Types​ ​of​ ​Penalties Penalty

Definition

Advantage

Disadvantage

No​ ​conviction recorded​ ​recognises the​ ​damage​ ​that​ ​a conviction​ ​can​ ​have on​ ​an​ ​individual’s​ ​life. Enables​ ​them​ ​to​ ​have an​ ​effective​ ​second chance

May​ ​be​ ​an​ ​ineffective deterrent​ ​–​ ​May​ ​not achieve​ ​any​ ​of​ ​the major​ ​purposes​ ​of punishment​ ​–​ ​‘Slap​ ​on the​ ​wrist’​ ​that​ ​may rattle​ ​public confidence​ ​in​ ​the enforcing​ ​of​ ​the​ ​law by​ ​judiciary

Monetary​ ​penalty imposed​ ​for infringement​ ​of​ ​a​ ​law (Penalty​ ​units​ ​are​ ​a specified​ ​unit​ ​of money​ ​used​ ​in legislation​ ​to​ ​describe the​ ​fine​ ​payable)

Inexpensive​ ​to​ ​impose –​ ​Raises​ ​revenue​ ​that can​ ​be​ ​used​ ​by​ ​the government​ ​in​ ​other areas​ ​–​ ​Appropriate for​ ​minor​ ​offences​ ​– Flexible

May​ ​not​ ​deter​ ​–​ ​May disadvantage​ ​poor people​ ​who​ ​have greater​ ​difficulty​ ​in finding​ ​the​ ​money​ ​to pay​ ​the​ ​fine​ ​–​ ​Does not​ ​rehabilitate

A​ ​sentence​ ​of imprisonment​ ​imposed but​ ​suspended​ ​on condition​ ​of​ ​good behaviour

Saves​ ​the​ ​state​ ​money, as​ ​imprisonment​ ​is expensive​ ​–​ ​Deterrent of​ ​going​ ​to​ ​gaol​ ​hangs over​ ​offender

Not​ ​retributive​ ​– offenders​ ​don’t​ ​get their​ ​‘just​ ​deserts’​ ​– Reduced​ ​deterrence for​ ​smaller​ ​scale offences

No​ ​Conviction/Record Judicial​ ​officer​ ​passes the​ ​sentence​ ​with​ ​no conviction​ ​recorded​ ​or conviction​ ​recorded but​ ​no​ ​further​ ​sentence

Fine

Bond Suspended​ ​Sentence

Probation

A​ ​type​ ​of​ ​good behaviour​ ​bond​ ​where the​ ​offender​ ​is released​ ​on​ ​condition of​ ​good​ ​behaviour​ ​but placed​ ​under​ ​some form​ ​of​ ​supervision, such​ ​as​ ​daily​ ​reporting to​ ​a​ ​probation​ ​officer

Offender​ ​has​ ​to​ ​adhere strictly​ ​to​ ​the conditions​ ​of​ ​the​ ​bond or​ ​be​ ​returned​ ​to​ ​the court​ ​and​ ​risk​ ​facing​ ​a higher​ ​sentence​ ​–​ ​Can be​ ​used​ ​when​ ​an​ ​order for​ ​detention​ ​would​ ​be too​ ​severe

May​ ​not​ ​be​ ​an effective​ ​deterrent (specific​ ​or​ ​general). Could​ ​lead​ ​to recidivism​ ​–​ ​Takes​ ​up police​ ​time​ ​which could​ ​be​ ​better​ ​spent on​ ​other​ ​ ​matters

Criminal Infringement​ ​Notice

A​ ​notice​ ​issued​ ​by​ ​the police​ ​outside​ ​of​ ​court alleging​ ​a​ ​criminal infringement​ ​and requiring​ ​a​ ​payment​ ​of a​ ​fine

Saves​ ​on​ ​court​ ​time and​ ​resources​ ​–​ ​The notices​ ​are​ ​not​ ​final and​ ​offenders​ ​can elect​ ​to​ ​have​ ​the matter​ ​heard​ ​in​ ​court

Increase​ ​in​ ​police powers​ ​and​ ​police discretion​ ​–​ ​If offender​ ​challenges and​ ​loses​ ​in​ ​court​ ​they are​ ​likely​ ​to​ ​be punished​ ​more,​ ​is​ ​this fair?​ ​–​ ​may​ ​be​ ​too lenient​ ​(not retributive)​ ​–​ ​not​ ​deter

The​ ​offender​ ​is sentenced​ ​to​ ​serve specified​ ​hours​ ​of work​ ​in​ ​the community

Assists​ ​the​ ​general community​ ​–​ ​society is​ ​compensated​ ​– Suitably​ ​retributive​ ​as offender​ ​can​ ​correct their​ ​actions​ ​e.g.​ ​clean up​ ​graffiti​ ​– Inexpensive

May​ ​not​ ​deter​ ​(both specific​ ​and​ ​general)​ ​– Offender​ ​has opportunity​ ​to re-offend​ ​–​ ​May​ ​not rehabilitate

Home​ ​Detention

Imprisonment sentence​ ​where​ ​the offender​ ​is​ ​confined​ ​to their​ ​home​ ​under certain​ ​conditions​ ​of monitoring

Appropriate​ ​for​ ​those convicted​ ​of non-violent​ ​crime​ ​– Decreases​ ​prison population​ ​–​ ​Enables people​ ​with​ ​family responsibilities​ ​to​ ​stay at​ ​home​ ​–​ ​Offenders are​ ​assessed​ ​for suitability

Mainly​ ​available​ ​in city​ ​court​ ​areas​ ​–​ ​Can discriminate​ ​against lower​ ​socio-economic groups​ ​who​ ​may​ ​not have​ ​regular accommodation​ ​– May​ ​not​ ​rehabilitate

Periodic​ ​Detention

Imprisonment sentence​ ​where​ ​the offender​ ​spends​ ​a period​ ​of​ ​each​ ​week​ ​or month​ ​in​ ​prison​ ​and the​ ​rest​ ​of​ ​the​ ​time​ ​at home

Only​ ​available​ ​to offenders​ ​who​ ​would otherwise​ ​receive maximum imprisonment​ ​of​ ​3 years​ ​–​ ​appropriate​ ​for some​ ​offences​ ​–

May​ ​not​ ​be​ ​an effective​ ​deterrent​ ​– Offender​ ​has opportunity​ ​to re-offend​ ​as​ ​they​ ​are only​ ​detained​ ​for​ ​short periods

Penalty​ ​Units Community​ ​Service Order,

Enables​ ​offender​ ​to maintain​ ​life (working/family)​ ​–​ ​If offender​ ​breaches​ ​the conditions​ ​of​ ​their periodic​ ​detention,​ ​the court​ ​may​ ​order​ ​them to​ ​serve​ ​the​ ​sentence full-time Forfeiture​ ​of​ ​Assets

Loss​ ​of​ ​rights​ ​to property​ ​or​ ​assets​ ​as​ ​a penalty​ ​or​ ​wrongdoing

Applied​ ​effectively​ ​to organised​ ​crime matters​ ​–​ ​as sentencing​ ​itself​ ​won’t stop​ ​these​ ​offenders benefiting​ ​from​ ​their criminally​ ​acquired assets​ ​–​ ​Gives​ ​the​ ​law an​ ​avenue​ ​to​ ​target​ ​the primary​ ​incentive​ ​of most​ ​criminal organisations,​ ​money –​ ​Additional punishments​ ​can​ ​be ordered​ ​e.g. imprisonment

Difficult​ ​to​ ​relate​ ​to the​ ​traditional purposes​ ​of​ ​sentencing –​ ​Only​ ​truly​ ​effective if​ ​used​ ​in​ ​conjunction with​ ​another punishment

Imprisonment

Most​ ​severe​ ​sentence that​ ​can​ ​be​ ​imposed​ ​in Australia.​ ​This sentence​ ​deprives​ ​a person​ ​of​ ​their​ ​liberty and​ ​removes​ ​them from​ ​the​ ​community​ ​– into​ ​gaol.

Incapacitates offenders​ ​so​ ​that​ ​they cannot​ ​re-offend​ ​–​ ​A serious​ ​punishment suitable​ ​for​ ​serious crimes

Often​ ​does​ ​not rehabilitate​ ​offenders and​ ​may​ ​have​ ​a negative​ ​effect​ ​on their​ ​behaviour​ ​– Imposes​ ​hardship​ ​on offender’s​ ​family​ ​– Very​ ​costly,​ ​over​ ​$50 000​ ​per​ ​inmate​ ​per annum

Diversionary Programs

An​ ​alternative​ ​to​ ​the traditional​ ​court system,​ ​diversionary programs​ ​focus​ ​on therapeutic​ ​justice​ ​and rehabilitation​ ​of offenders

Targets​ ​the​ ​causes​ ​of offending​ ​and​ ​seeks​ ​to improve​ ​offender’s future​ ​prospects​ ​by assisting​ ​individual needs​ ​i.e. rehabilitation​ ​– Devised​ ​to​ ​support offenders​ ​who​ ​have committed​ ​crimes​ ​due to​ ​drug​ ​and​ ​alcohol abuse​ ​–​ ​Drug​ ​Court​ ​is an​ ​e.g.​ ​of​ ​a​ ​successful

Is​ ​rehabilitation focused​ ​on​ ​too​ ​much in​ ​comparison​ ​with other​ ​purposes​ ​of punishment​ ​i.e. retribution, incarceration​ ​and deterrence?​ ​– Discriminatory,​ ​in​ ​that it​ ​focuses​ ​heavily​ ​on offenders​ ​with​ ​drug and​ ​alcohol​ ​problems –​ ​Reduces​ ​personal

diversionary​ ​program which​ ​has​ ​attracted international​ ​acclaim for​ ​its​ ​success​ ​in breaking​ ​long-term cycles​ ​of​ ​crime​ ​and drug​ ​abuse​ ​in individuals

accountability​ ​for criminal​ ​behaviours by​ ​focusing​ ​more​ ​on the​ ​causes​ ​of criminality​ ​and​ ​not​ ​its impacts/results​ ​– Offenders​ ​seemingly more​ ​significant​ ​factor than​ ​victims​ ​and society​ ​in​ ​this​ ​form​ ​of punishment

Alternative​ ​Methods​ ​of​ ​Sentencing ➢ Circle sentencing is conducted in a circle consisting of legal representatives, the victim, the offender,​ ​and​ ​their​ ​communities ➢ Based​ ​on​ ​indigenous​ ​customary​ ​law,​ ​tailors​ ​sentence​ ​to​ ​needs​ ​of​ ​community​ ​and​ ​Offender ➢ Restorative justice involves voluntary conferences between the offender and victim e.g youth conferences. Post​ ​Sentencing​ ​Considerations Security​ ​Classification

➢ Three levels of security for prisoners in NSW (max, med, min) ➢ Classified based on the nature of the crime and prospects of​ ​rehabilitation

Protective​ ​Custody

➢ Provided to prisoners vulnerable to attack by other prisoners ➢ Correctional​ ​centres​ ​have​ ​a​ ​duty​ ​of​ ​care

Parole

➢ Conditional​ ​release​ ​of​ ​a​ ​prisoner​ ​from​ ​custody ➢ Incentive​ ​for​ r​ ehabilitation​ ​and​ ​good​ ​behaviour

Preventative​ ​Detention

➢ Incapacitation of a potential offender without charge as a precaution​ ​to​ ​the​ ​community ➢ Controversial,​ ​removes​ ​legal​ ​rights​ ​without​ ​due​ ​process ➢

Sexual​ ​Offender’s Registration

➢ Databases​ ​exist​ ​for​ ​offender’s​ ​committed​ ​of​ ​certain​ ​crimes ➢ Child Protection (Offenders Registration) Act 2000 (NSW)

Deportation

➢ Migration​ ​Act​ ​1958​ ​(Cth.) ➢ Offender can be deported if they have not been a citizen for​ ​more​ ​than​ ​10​ ​years

Young​ ​Offenders

➢ Young​ ​Offenders​ ​are​ ​treated​ ​differently​ ​than​ ​adults​ ​• ➢ This​ ​area​ ​of​ ​law​ ​is​ ​called​ ​juvenile​ ​justice Reasons​ ​for​ ​juvenile​ ​involvement​ ​in​ ​criminal​ ​activity​ ​include: ➢ Lack​ ​of​ ​supervision ➢ Substance​ ​abuse ➢ Domestic​ ​violence ➢ Negative​ ​peer​ ​associations Welfare​ ​model:​ ​aims​ ​to​ ​protect​ ​young​ ​people​ ​from​ ​causes​ ​of​ ​crime​ ​and​ ​promote​ ​rehabilitation Justice​ ​model:​ ​aims​ ​to​ ​deter​ ​young​ ​offenders​ ​with​ ​harsh​ ​penalties. Age​ ​of​ ​Criminal​ ​Responsibility Doli incapax: The legal presumption that children under a certain age cannot be held legally responsible​ ​for​ ​their​ ​actions,​ ​due​ ​to​ ​a​ ​lack​ ​of​ ​adequate​ ​mens​ ​rea. Children’s​ ​(Criminal​ ​Proceedings)​ ​Act​ ​1987​ ​(NSW)​ ​and​ ​Young​ ​Offender’s​ ​Act​ ​1997 Age​ ​(Inclusive)

Criminal​ ​Responsibility

0-9​ ​years​ ​old

Cannot be charged with criminal offence. Children under 10 are not seen​ ​as​ ​mature​ ​enough​ ​to​ ​commit​ ​criminal​ ​offences.

10-13​ ​years​ ​old

Rebuttable presumption of doli incapax. Presumed not capable of committing an offence, but prosecution may show the child knew what​ ​they​ ​did​ ​was​ ​‘seriously​ ​wrong,’​ ​not​ ​just​ ​‘naughty.’

14-15​ ​years​ ​old

Criminally responsible for any offence committed, but no conviction​ ​can​ ​be​ ​recorded​ ​until​ ​it​ ​is​ ​a​ ​serious​ ​offence.

16-17​ ​years​ ​old

Criminally responsible for any offence committed and a conviction may be recorded, but the case will still be heard in a children's’ court.

18​ ​years​ ​or​ ​older

Full adult criminal responsibility, with case to be heard in adults court. IF the offence was committed before the accused’ 18th birthday, it an still be heard in the Children's court until the accused turns​ ​21. CASE​ ​STUDY:​ ​Corey​ ​Davis​ ​Case​ ​(1999)

➢ The offender, a 10 year old boy, pushed a 6 year old into the river who subsequently drowned ➢ Prosecution​ ​could​ ​not​ ​prove​ ​criminal​ ​intent​ ​beyond​ ​reasonable​ ​doubt ➢ Offender​ ​was​ ​found​ ​guilty​ ​of​ ​manslaughter

Rights​ ​of​ ​Children​ ​when​ ​questioned/arrested Australia must protect rights of children: Convention on the Rights of the Child. LEPRA includes special​ ​provisions​ ​for​ ​children. Approach​ ​and​ ​Questioning

➢ Most​ ​police​ ​powers​ ​apply​ ​equally ➢ Children​ ​have​ ​the​ ​same​ ​rights​ ​as​ ​adults,​ ​plus​ ​additions ➢ A responsible adult must be present to obtain admissible evidence ➢ Limitations​ ​on​ ​strip​ ​searches​ ​are​ ​in​ ​place

Arrest​ ​and​ ​Interrogation

➢ Young​ ​people​ ​must​ ​be​ ​separated​ ​from​ ​adult​ ​criminals ➢ No DNA samples or fingerprints can be taken (without court​ ​order)

Children’s​ ​Court:​ ​Procedures​ ​and​ ​Operations ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

Children​ ​(Criminal​ ​Proceedings)​ ​Act​ ​1987​ ​(NSW) Hears​ ​most​ ​charges​ ​against​ ​those​ ​under​ ​18 Closed​ ​court:​ ​Identity​ ​of​ ​offender​ ​not​ ​disclosed Similar​ ​to​ ​summary​ ​hearings:​ ​Specialist​ ​magistrate No​ ​conviction​ ​recorded

Penalties​ ​for​ ​Children Children​ ​(Criminal​ ​Proceedings)​ ​Act​ ​1987​ ​(NSW)​ ​outlines​ ​basic​ ​principles: ➢ Education​ ​uninterrupted​ ​where​ ​possible ➢ Not​ ​removed​ ​from​ ​home ➢ Less​ ​than​ ​or​ ​equal​ ​to​ ​punishment​ ​applicable​ ​to​ ​an​ ​adult Similar​ ​sentencing​ ​options​ ​to​ ​adults,​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as: ➢ Referral​ ​to​ ​a​ ​Youth​ ​Justice​ ​Conference​ ​or​ ​Youth​ ​Drug​ ​and​ ​Alcohol​ ​Court ➢ Dismissal​ ​with​ ​caution,​ ​community​ ​service​ ​orders​ ​etc Alternatives​ ​to​ ​Court Young​ ​Offenders​ ​Act​ ​1997​ ​(NSW) ➢ Warnings:​ ​Informal​ ​warnings​ ​w/​ ​name​ ​recorded ➢ Cautions:​ ​Formal​ ​warning​ ​given​ ​with​ ​adult​ ​present ➢ YJC’s:​ ​Conferences​ ​with​ ​the​ ​victim,​ ​the​ ​offender,​ ​and​ ​support​ ​persons​ ​with​ ​a​ ​mediator. ➢ Form​ ​an​ ​agreement​ ​for​ ​rehabilitation​ ​and​ ​reparation. ➢ Youth Drug and Alcohol Court: Implements rehabilitation programs, completed in exchange for​ ​a​ ​lighter​ ​sentence

International​ ​Crime

➢ Globalisation​ ​has​ ​increased​ ​frequency​ ​of​ ​international​ ​crime ➢ Cooperations​ o​ f​ ​nation​ ​states​ ​(United​ ​Nations)​ ​required​ ​to​ ​punish​ ​offenders ➢ Recently​ ​considered​ ​to​ ​be​ ​a​ ​matter​ ​beyond​ ​domestic​ ​jurisdiction

Categories​ ​of​ ​International​ ​Crime Crimes​ ​Against​ ​International​ ​Community: ➢ Crimes​ ​considered​ ​as​ ​unlawful​ ​and​ ​immoral​ ​by​ ​the​ ​international​ ​community​ ​(international ➢ customary​ ​law) ➢ A group of extreme crimes deemed serious enough to be punished within an international forum ➢ Complex​ ​area,​ ​due​ ​to​ ​political​ ​influences​ ​and​ ​differences​ ​in​ ​the​ ​views​ ​of​ ​different​ ​cultures ➢ Includes​ ​war​ ​crimes,​ ​genocide​ ​and​ ​hijacking​ ​an​ ​aircraft ➢ Usually​ ​contained​ ​within​ ​UN​ ​declarations,​ ​conventions​ ​and​ ​treaties ➢ E.g​ ​Convention​ ​on​ ​the​ ​Prevention​ ​and​ ​Punishment​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Crime​ ​of​ ​Genocide ➢ E.g​ ​-​ ​The​ ​Geneva​ ​Conventions ➢ International Criminal Court: Established by Rome Statute (2002) Prosecutes war crimes, crimes​ ​against​ ​humanity,​ ​and​ ​genocide​ ​concerning​ ​signatory​ ​nation​ ​states Transnational​ ​Crime ➢ Crimes which occur within state jurisdiction, but across international borders (e.g drug trafficking) ➢ Acts​ ​have​ ​international​ ​and​ ​domestic​ ​implications ➢ Usually​ ​prosecuted​ ​in​ ​native​ ​country ➢ May​ ​involve​ ​extradition ➢ Causes​ ​of​ ​transnational​ ​crime​ ​include: ➢ Desire​ ​for​ ​prohibited​ ​goods/services ➢ Differences​ ​in​ ​socioeconomic​ ​opportunity ➢ Political​ ​tension ➢ Crimes committed outside jurisdiction: crimes committed in international waters or other areas​ ​outside​ ​of​ ​any​ ​relevant​ ​state​ ​jurisdiction.​ ​Covered​ ​by​ ​international​ ​treaties. Dealing​ ​with​ ​International​ ​Crime Domestic​ ​Measures: ➢ Limited​ ​by​ ​jurisdiction​ ​and​ ​state​ ​sovereignty ➢ Must​ ​involve​ ​cooperation​ ​with​ ​other​ ​nation​ ​states ➢ Ratification of international treaties to promote common ideals Australia has several measures in​ ​place​ ​to​ ​prevent​ ​transnational​ ​crime: ➢ Australian Federal Police Act 1919 (Cth): Federal police investigate and prosecute transnational​ ​crime​ ​(e.g-​ ​drug​ ​trafficking) ➢ Australian​ ​Border​ ​Protection:​ ​Protects​ ​Australia's​ ​borders​ ​from​ ​transnational​ ​criminals ➢ Australian​ ​High​ ​Tech​ ​Crime​ ​Centre:​ ​Investigates​ ​multi-jurisdictional​ ​crimes​ ​involving ➢ technology

International​ ​Measures ➢ ICC and Rome Statute evidence international cooperation in the prosecution of international criminals ➢ Extradition treaties and bilateral agreements between nation states assist in the prosecution of transnational​ ​criminals ➢ International​ ​Court​ ​of​ ​Justice​ ​(ICJ)​ ​assists​ ​in​ ​multilateral​ ​cooperation ➢ Sanctions imposed on a nation state by the UN encourage obligations under international customary​ ​law Limitations ➢ State​ ​sovereignty​ ​proves​ ​a​ ​major​ ​issue​ ​in​ ​prosecuting​ ​international​ ​criminals ➢ International measures are arguably not responsive to a great extent, taking many years to react ➢ High​ ​cost​ ​of​ ​investigations ➢ Cooperation​ ​between​ ​nation​ ​states​ ​is​ ​essential​ ​in​ ​dealing​ ​with​ ​international​ ​crime