Cooking Ingredients

COOKING INGREDIENTS

Bay leaf Bay leaf

Laurus nobilis, known as bay leaf, from William Woodville, Medical Botany, 1793.

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Magnoliophyta (unranked): Magnoliopsida Order:

Laurales

Family:

Lauraceae

Genus:

Laurus

Species:

L. nobilis

Binomial name Laurus nobilis Bay leaf (plural bay leaves) refers to the aromatic leaf of the Bay Laurel (Laurus nobilis, Lauraceae). Fresh or dried bay leaves are used in cooking for their distinctive flavor and fragrance in Mexican food, one example is Red Snapper Veracruzana. The leaves are often used to flavor soups, stews, braises and pâtés in Mediterranean Cuisine. The fresh leaves are very mild and do not develop their full flavor until several weeks after picking and drying.[1]

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Taxonomy Several other plants use the term "bay leaf," but do not refer to the leaves of the Bay Laurel. They include: California bay leaf The leaf of the California bay tree (Umbellularia californica), also known as 'California laurel', 'Oregon myrtle', and 'pepperwood', is similar to the Mediterranean bay but has a stronger flavor. "Indian bay leaf" (also tej pat, tejpat, tejpata or palav aaku in Telugu)

or Tamalpatra

The leaf of the Cinnamomum tejpata (malabathrum) tree is similar in fragrance and taste to cinnamon bark, but milder. In appearance, it is similar to the other bay leaves but is culinarily quite different, having an aroma and flavor more similar to that of Cassia. It is inaccurately called a bay leaf because while it is in the same family, it is of a different genus than the bay laurel. "Indonesian bay leaf" or "Indonesian laurel" (salam leaf) The leaf of Syzygium polyanthum. Not commonly found outside of Indonesia, this exotic spice is applied to meat and, less often vegetables. Like Indian bay leaf, it is also inaccurately named because the plant is actually a member of the Myrtaceae family.[2]

History/Region of Origin The bay leaf originated in Asia Minor, and spread to the Mediterranean and other countries with suitable climates. Bay leaf is not grown in Northern regions, as the plants do not thrive in cold climates. Turkey is one of the main exporters of bay leaves, although they are also grown in areas of France, Belgium, Central and North America, Italy, Russia and India.[1] The laurel tree that the bay leaf comes from was very important both symbolically and literally in both Greece and Rome. The laurel can be found as a central component found in many ancient mythologies that glorify the tree as a symbol of honor. This association continues today.[3] Bay leaves are one of the most widely used culinary herbs in Europe and North America. The bay laurel tree has been cultivated since the beginning of recorded history.[4]

Taste and aroma If eaten whole, bay leaves are pungent and have a sharp, bitter taste. As with many spices and flavorings, the fragrance of the bay leaf is more noticeable in cooked foods than the taste. When dried, the fragrance is herbal, slightly floral, and somewhat similar to oregano and thyme. Myrcene, which is a component of many essential oils used in perfumery, can be extracted from the bay leaf. Bay leaves also contain the essential oil eugenol.[3]

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Uses Bay leaves are a fixture in the cooking of many European cuisines (particularly those of the Mediterranean), as well as in North America. They are used in soups, stews, meat, seafood and vegetable dishes. The leaves also flavor classic French dishes such as bouillabaisse and bouillon. The leaves are most often used whole (sometimes in a bouquet garni), and removed before serving. In Indian and Pakistani cuisine bay leaves are often used in biryani and as an ingredient in garam masala. In Japan, too, it has a long history as a herbal ingredient. Bay leaves can also be crushed or ground before cooking. Crushed bay leaves impart more of their desired fragrance than whole leaves, but are more difficult to remove, and thus they are often used in a muslin bag or tea infuser. Ground bay laurel may be substituted for whole leaves, and does not need to be removed, but it is much stronger due to the increased surface area and in some dishes the texture may not be desirable. Bay leaves can also be used scattered in pantries to repel meal moths[5] and roaches.

Medicinal Value In the Middle Ages it was believed to induce abortions and to have many magical qualities. It was once used to keep moths away, owing to the leafs lauric acid content which gives it insecticidal properties. Bay leaf has many properties which make it useful for treating high blood sugar, migraine headaches, bacterial and fungal infections, and gastric ulcers. Bay leaves and berries have been used for their astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emetic and stomachic properties. Bay Oil, or Oil of Bays (Oleum Lauri) is used in liniments for bruising and sprains. Bay leaf has been used as an herbal remedy for headaches. It contains compounds called parthenolides, which have proven useful in the treatment of migraines. Bay leaf has also been shown to help the body process insulin more efficiently, which leads to lower blood sugar levels.It has also been used to reduce the effects of stomach ulcers. Bay Leaf contains eugenol, which has anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties. Bay leaf is also an anti-fungal and anti-bacterial. Bay Leaf has also been used to treat rheumatism, amenorrhea, and colic.

Safety A number of members of the Laurel family (including mountain laurel and cherry laurel) have leaves that are poisonous to humans and livestock. While these plants are not sold anywhere for culinary use, their visual similarity to bay leaves has led to the oft-repeated belief that bay leaves should be removed from food after cooking because they are poisonous. This is not true - bay leaves may be eaten without toxic effect. However, they remain very stiff even after thorough cooking, and if swallowed whole or in large pieces, they may pose a risk of scratching the digestive tract or even causing choking. Thus most recipes that use bay leaves will recommend their removal after the cooking process has finished.[6]

Cultivation Gardeners in frost-free or light frost areas will find that Bay Laurel seedlings planted in the ground willingly grow into large trees, 38 feet and taller; but when kept pruned the Bay 3|Page

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Laurel tree can thrive as a small bush. Bay Laurel can also be grown in containers, the size of which limits the ultimate size of the trees. New plants are often started via layering, or from cuttings, since growing from seed can be difficult. Bay trees are difficult to start from seed, due in part to the seed's low germination rate, and long germination period. Fresh seeds with the pericarp removed typically have a 40% germination rate, while dried seeds and/or seeds with an intact pericarp have yet lower germination rates. In addition, the Bay Laurel seed germination period can be 50 days or more, which increases the risk of the seeds rotting before they germinate. Treating the seeds with gibberellic acid can be useful in increasing seed yield, as is careful monitoring of moisture levels in the rooting media.[7]

Gallery

Fresh leaves and flower buds of Laurus dried bay leaves nobilis

leaf of Laurus nobilis A Laurus nobilis bush.

A close-up of several Laurus nobilis leaves.

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Thyme

Common thyme, Thymus vulgaris.

Shavings of the thyme herb. Thyme (pronounced /ˈtaɪ m/) is a well known herb; in common usage the name may refer to any or all members of the plant genus Thymus, common thyme, Thymus vulgaris, and some other species that are used as culinary herbs or for medicinal purposes.

History Ancient Egyptians used thyme for embalming. The ancient Greeks used it in their baths and burnt it as incense in their temples, believing that thyme was a source of courage. It was thought that the spread of thyme throughout Europe was thanks to the Romans, as they used it to purify their rooms and to "give an aromatic flavour to cheese and liqueurs".[1] In the European Middle Ages, the herb was placed beneath pillows to aid sleep and ward off nightmares.[2] In this period, women would also often give knights and warriors gifts that included thyme leaves as it was believed to bring courage to the bearer. Thyme was also used as incense and placed on coffins during funerals as it was supposed to assure passage into the next life.[3]

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Cultivation Thyme is widely cultivated for its strong flavour, which is due to its content of thymol.[2] Thyme is best cultivated in a hot sunny location with well drained soil. It is generally planted in the spring and thereafter grows as a perennial. It can be propagated by seed, cuttings, or by dividing rooted sections of the plant. It tolerates drought well.[4] The plants can take deep freezes and are found growing wild on mountain highlands.[citation needed] Thyme retains its flavour on drying better than many other herbs.

Culinary use Thyme is a good source of iron and is used widely in cooking. Thyme is a basic ingredient in French, Greek, Italian, Albanian, Lebanese, Persian, Portuguese, Libyan, Spanish, Syrian, and Turkish cuisines, and in those derived from them. It is also widely used in Arab and Caribbean cuisines. Thyme is often used to flavour meats, soups and stews. It has a particular affinity to and is often used as a primary flavour with lamb, tomatoes and eggs. Thyme, while flavourful, does not overpower and blends well with other herbs and spices. In French cuisine, along with bay and parsley it is a common component of the bouquet garni, and of herbes de Provence. In some Levantine countries, the condiment za'atar (Arabic for thyme) contains thyme as a vital ingredient. Thyme is sold both fresh and dried. The fresh form is more flavourful but also less convenient; storage life is rarely more than a week. While summer-seasonal, fresh thyme is often available year-round. Fresh thyme is commonly sold in bunches of sprigs. A sprig is a single stem snipped from the plant. It is composed of a woody stem with paired leaf or flower clusters ("leaves") spaced ½ to 1" apart. A recipe may measure thyme by the bunch (or fraction thereof), or by the sprig, or by the tablespoon or teaspoon. If the recipe does not specify fresh or dried, assume that it means fresh. Depending on how it is used in a dish, the whole sprig may be used (e.g. in a bouquet garni), or the leaves removed and the stems discarded. Usually when a recipe specifies 'bunch' or 'sprig' it means the whole form; when it specifies spoons it means the leaves. It is perfectly acceptable to substitute dried for whole thyme. Leaves may be removed from stems either by scraping with the back of a knife, or by pulling through the fingers or tines of a fork. Leaves are often chopped. Thyme retains its flavour on drying better than many other herbs. Dried, and especially powdered thyme occupies less space than fresh, so less of it is required when substituted in a recipe. As a rule of thumb, use one third as much dried as fresh thyme - a little less if it is ground. Substitution is often more complicated than that because recipes can specify sprigs and sprigs can vary in yield of leaves. Assuming a 4" sprig (they are often somewhat longer), 6|Page

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estimate that 6 sprigs will yield one tablespoon of leaves. The dried equivalent is 1:3, so substitute 1 teaspoon of dried or ¾ tsp of ground thyme for 6 small sprigs.[5] As with bay, thyme is slow to release its flavours so it is usually added early in the cooking process.

Medicinal use The essential oil of common thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is made up of 20-54% thymol.[6] Thymol, an antiseptic, is the main active ingredient in Listerine mouthwash.[7] Before the advent of modern antibiotics, it was used to medicate bandages.[1] It has also been shown to be effective against the fungus that commonly infects toenails.[8] A tea made by infusing the herb in water can be used for cough and bronchitis.[6] Medicinally thyme is used for respiratory infections in the form of a tincture, tisane, salve, syrup or by steam inhalation[citation needed]. Because it is antiseptic, thyme boiled in water and cooled is very effective against inflammation of the throat when gargled 3 times a day.[citation needed] The inflammation will normally disappear in 2 – 5 days. Other infections and wounds can be dripped with thyme that has been boiled in water and cooled.[citation needed] In traditional Jamaican childbirth practice, thyme tea is given to the mother after delivery of the baby[citation needed]. Its oxytocin-like effect causes uterine contractions and more rapid delivery of the placenta but this was said by Sheila Kitzinger[citation needed] to cause an increased prevalence of retained placenta.

Important species Thymus vulgaris (Common Thyme or Garden Thyme) is a commonly used culinary herb. It also has medicinal uses. Common thyme is a Mediterranean perennial which is best suited to well-drained soils and enjoys full sun. Thymus herba-barona (Caraway Thyme) is used both as a culinary herb and a groundcover, and has a very strong caraway scent due to the chemical carvone. Thymus × citriodorus (Citrus Thyme; hybrid T. pulegioides × T. vulgaris) is also a popular culinary herb, with cultivars selected with aromas of various citrus fruit (lemon thyme, etc.) Thymus pseudolanuginosus (Woolly Thyme) is not a culinary herb, but is grown as a ground cover. Thymus serpyllum (Wild Thyme) is an important nectar source plant for honeybees. All thyme species are nectar sources, but wild thyme covers large areas of droughty, rocky soils in southern Europe (Greece is especially famous for wild thyme honey) and North Africa, as well as in similar landscapes in the Berkshire Mountains and Catskill Mountains of the northeastern US.

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Variegated lemon thyme. There are a number of different cultivars of thyme with established or growing popularity, including: English thyme—the most common Lemon thyme—smells of lemons Variegated lemon thyme—with bi-colour leaves Orange thyme—an unusually low-growing, ground cover thyme that smells like orange Creeping thyme—the lowest-growing of the widely used thyme, good for walkways Silver thyme—white/cream variegate Summer thyme—unusually strong flavour Caribbean thyme—Same flavor as English thyme but 10 times stronger.

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Parsley Parsley

Parsley

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order:

Apiales

Family:

Apiaceae

Genus:

Petroselinum

Species:

Petroselinum crispum

Subspecies Petroselinum crispum var. neapolitanum

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Parsley (raw) Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 40 kcal 150 kJ

Carbohydrates

6.3 g

- Sugars 0.9 g - Dietary fiber 3.3 g Fat

0.8 g

Protein

3.0 g

Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.1 mg

8%

Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.2 mg 13% Niacin (Vit. B3) 1.3 mg

9%

Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.4 mg 8% Vitamin B6 0.1 mg

8%

Folate (Vit. B9) 152 μg

38%

Vitamin C 133.0 mg

222%

Vitamin K 1640.0 μg

1562%

Calcium 138.0 mg

14%

Iron 6.2 mg

50%

Magnesium 50.0 mg

14%

Phosphorus 58.0 mg

8%

Potassium 554 mg

12%

Zinc 1.1 mg

11%

Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) is a bright green biennial herb, often used as spice. It is common in Middle Eastern, European, and American cooking. Parsley is used for its leaf in much the same way as coriander (which is also known as Chinese parsley or cilantro), although parsley has a milder flavor.

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Varieties Two forms of parsley are used as herbs: curly leaf and Italian, or flat leaf (P. neapolitanum). Curly leaf parsley is often used as a garnish. One of the compounds of the essential oil is apiol. The use of curly leaf parsley may be favored by some because it cannot be confused with poison hemlock, like flat leaf parsley or chervil.

Root parsley Another type of parsley is grown as a root vegetable, as with hamburg root parsley (Petroselinum crispum var. tuberosum). This type of parsley produces much thicker roots than types cultivated for their leaves. Although little known in Britain and the United States, root parsley is very common in Central and Eastern European cuisine, used in soups and stews. Parsley grows best between 72 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit (22 to 30 degrees Celsius). Though it looks similar to parsnip it tastes quite different. Parsnips are among the closest relatives of parsley in the umbellifer family of herbs. The similarity of the names is a coincidence, parsnip meaning "forked turnip"; it is not related to real turnips.

Cultivation Parsley's germination is notoriously difficult to achieve.[1] Germination is inconsistent and may require 3-6 weeks.[1] Furanocoumarins in parsley's seed coat may be responsible for parsley's problematic germination. These compounds may inhibit the germination of other seeds, allowing parsley to compete with nearby plants. However, parsley itself may be affected by the furanocoumarins. Soaking parsley seeds overnight before sowing shortens the germination period.[1] Parsley grows well in deep pots, which helps accommodate the long taproot. Parsley grown indoors requires at least five hours of sunlight a day.

Companion plant Parsley is widely used as a companion plant in gardens. Like many other umbellifers, it attracts predatory insects, including wasps and predatory flies to gardens, which then tend to protect plants nearby. For example, they are especially useful for protecting tomato plants as the wasps that kill tomato hornworms also eat nectar from parsley. While parsley is biennial, not blooming until its second year, even in its first year it is reputed to help cover up the strong scent of the tomato plant, reducing pest attraction.

Usage Culinary use In Central and Eastern Europe and in West Asia, many dishes are served with fresh green chopped parsley sprinkled on top. Green parsley is often used as a garnish. The fresh flavor 11 | P a g e

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of the green parsley goes extremely well with potato dishes (french fries, boiled buttered potatoes or mashed potato), with rice dishes (risotto or pilaf), with fish, fried chicken, lamb or goose, steaks, meat or vegetable stews[2] (like Beef Bourguignon, Goulash or Chicken paprikash). In Southern and Central Europe, parsley is part of bouquet garni, a bundle of fresh herbs used to flavor stocks, soups, and sauces. Freshly chopped green parsley is used as a topping for soups like chicken soup, green salads or salads like Salade Olivier, on open sandwiches with cold cuts or pâtés. Parsley is a key ingredient in several West Asian salads, e.g., tabbouleh (the national dish of Lebanon). Persillade is mixture of chopped garlic and chopped parsley in the French cuisine. Gremolata is a traditional accompaniment to the Italian veal stew, Ossobuco alla milanese, a mixture of parsley, garlic, and lemon zest. In addition, the consumption of parsley is thought to contribute to sweet smelling breath. Root parsley is very common in Central and Eastern European cuisines, where it is used as soup vegetable in many soups and in most meat or vegetable stews and casseroles.

Health risks Parsley should not be consumed as a drug or supplement by pregnant women. Parsley as an oil, root, leaf, or seed could lead to uterine stimulation and preterm labor.[3] Parsley is high (1.70% by mass, [1]) in oxalic acid, a compound involved in the formation of kidney stones and nutrient deficiencies. Parsley oil contains furanocoumarins and psoralens which leads to extreme photosensitivity if used orally.[4] The produce code for parsley is 4899, or 4900. "Parsley on plucodes.com". http://www.plucodes.com/PLUdetails.aspx?id=1075&s=4.

References 1. ^ a b c John W. Jett. "That Devilish Parsley." West Virginia University Extension Service. Last retrieved April 26, 2007. 2. ^ June Meyers Authentic Hungarian Heirloon Recipes Cookbook 3. ^ "Parsley information on Drugs.com". http://www.drugs.com/npc/parsley.html. 4. ^ Health effects:Furanocoumarins, chemical photosensitivity & photodermatitis

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Gallery

Parsley Bush Curled Parsley

Flat Parsley flower

Flat Parsley white flower

Parsley bush

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Oregano Oregano

Flowering oregano

Scientific classification Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order:

Lamiales

Family:

Lamiaceae

Genus:

Origanum

Species:

O. vulgare

Binomial name Origanum vulgare L.

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Oregano (IPA: əˈregənoʊ , British English: ɒ rɪ ˈgɑ :nəʊ ) or (Origanum vulgare) is a species of Origanum, of the mint family, native to Europe, the Mediterranean region and southern and central Asia. It is a perennial herb, growing to 20-80 cm tall, with opposite leaves 1-4 cm long. The flowers are purple, 3-4 mm long, produced in erect spikes.

Varieties There are a number of subspecies, e.g. O vulgare hirtum (Greek Oregano), O vulgare gracile, as well as cultivars, each with distinct flavours.[1]

Uses Culinary

Dried oregano for culinary use.

Oregano growing in a field.

Oregano is an important culinary herb. It is particularly widely used in Turkish, Greek, Spanish and in Italian cuisine. It is the leaves that are used in cooking, and the dried herb is often more flavourful than the fresh.[2] Oregano[3] is often used in tomato sauces, fried vegetables, and grilled meat. Together with basil, it contributes much to the distinctive character of many Italian dishes. It is commonly used by local chefs in southern Philippines when boiling carabao or cow meat to eliminate the odor of the meat, and to add a nice, spicy flavor. Oregano combines nicely with pickled olives, capers, and lovage leaves. Unlike most Italian herbs,[citation needed] oregano works with hot and spicy food, which is popular in southern Italy. 15 | P a g e

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Oregano is an indispensable ingredient in Greek cuisine. Oregano adds flavor to Greek salad and is usually added to the lemon-olive oil sauce that accompanies many fish or meat barbecues and some casseroles. In Turkish Cuisine, oregano is mostly used for flavoring meat, especially for mutton and lambs meat. In barbecue and kebab restaurants, it can be usually found on table, together with paprika, salt and pepper.

Oregano growing in a pot.

It has an aromatic, warm and slightly bitter taste. It varies in intensity; good quality oregano is so strong that it almost numbs the tongue, but the cultivars adapted to colder climates have often unsatisfactory flavor. The influence of climate, season and soil on the composition of the essential oil is greater than the difference between the various species. The related species Origanum onites (Greece, Asia Minor) and O. heracleoticum (Italy, Balkan peninsula, West Asia) have similar flavors. A closely related plant is marjoram from Asia Minor, which, however, differs significantly in taste, because phenolic compounds are missing in its essential oil. Some breeds show a flavor intermediate between oregano and marjoram. Pizza

The dish most commonly associated with oregano is pizza. Its variations have probably been eaten in Southern Italy for centuries. Oregano became popular in the US when returning WW2 soldiers brought back with them a taste for the ―pizza herb‖.[4]

Health benefits Oregano is high in antioxidant activity, due to a high content of phenolic acids and flavonoids.[5][6] Additionally, oregano has demonstrated antimicrobial activity against foodborne pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes.[5] Both of these characteristics may be useful in both health and food preservation. In the Philippines, oregano (Coleus aromaticus) is not commonly used for cooking but is rather considered as a primarily medicinal plant, useful for relieving children's coughs.

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Main constituents include carvacrol, thymol, limonene, pinene, ocimene, and caryophyllene. The leaves and flowering stems are strongly antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, cholagogue, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, stimulant, stomachic and mildly tonic. Aqueous extracts, capsules, or oil extracts of oregano are taken by mouth for the treatment of colds, influenza, mild fevers, fungal infections, indigestion, stomach upsets, enteric parasites,[7] and painful menstruation. It is strongly sedative and should not be taken in large doses, though mild teas have a soothing effect and aid restful sleep. Used topically, oregano is one of the best antiseptics because of its high thymol content.[8] Hippocrates, the father of medicine, used oregano as an antiseptic as well as a cure for stomach and respiratory ailments. A Cretan oregano (O. dictamnus) is still used today in Greece to soothe a sore throat.[9] Oregano has recently been found to have extremely effective properties against methicillinresistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), showing a higher effectiveness than 18 currently used drugs.[10][11]

Other plants called oregano Mexican oregano, Lippia graveolens (Verbenaceae) is closely related to lemon verbena. It is a highly studied herb that is said to be of some medical use and is common in curandera female shamanic practices in Mexico and the Southwestern United States. Mexican oregano has a very similar flavour to oregano, but is usually stronger. It is becoming more commonly sold outside of Mexico, especially in the United States. It is sometimes used as a substitute for epazote leaves[citation needed]; this substitution would not work the other way round. Several other plants are also known as oregano in various parts of Mexico, including Poliomintha longiflora, Lippia berlandieri, and Plectranthus amboinicus (syn. Coleus aromaticus), also called Cuban oregano. In the Philippines, oregano, Plectranthus amboinicus, is not commonly used as a cooking ingredient but is primarily considered a medicinal plant, useful for relieving children's coughs.

Etymology Oregano is the anglicized form of the Italian word origano, or possibly of the medieval Latin organum; this latter is used in at least one Old English work. Both were drawn from Classical Latin term origanum, which probably referred specifically to sweet marjoram, and was itself a derivation from the Greek origanon ὀ ρίγανον, which simply referred to "an acrid herb". The etymology of the Greek term is often given as oros ὄ ρος "mountain" + the verb ganousthai γανοῦ σθαι "delight in", but the Oxford English Dictionary notes that it is quite likely a loanword from an unknown North African language.[12]

References 1. ^ Organic Gardening 2. ^ http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Orig_vul.html. Oregano leaves are more flavorful when dried 17 | P a g e

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3. ^ ["http://www.dmannose.co.uk/wild-oregano-oil-carvacrol.php" Wild oregano oil from the high mountains of the Mediterranean] 4. ^ Epikouria Magazine, Fall/Spring 2007 5. ^ a b Faleiro, Leonor; et al. (2005). "Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities of Essential Oils Isolated from Thymbra capitata L. (Cav.) and Origanum vulgare L.". J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 (21): 8162–8168. doi:10.1021/jf0510079. PMID 16218659. 6. ^ Dragland, Steinar; et al. (01 May 2003). "Several culinary and medicinal herbs are important sources of dietary antioxidants". J Nutr. 133 (5): 1286–1290. PMID 12730411. http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/abstract/133/5/1286. 7. ^ Inhibition of enteric parasites by emulsified oil of oregano 8. ^ Oregano Herb Profile 9. ^ Epikouria Magazine, Fall/Winter 2007 10. ^ "Himalayan Oregano Effective Against MRSA". Medical News Today. 24 November 2008. http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/130620.php. Retrieved 2008-11-26. 11. ^ "Scientists win SEED award for Himalayan oregano project". University of the West of England. 28.10.2008. http://info.uwe.ac.uk/news/UWENews/article.asp?item=1374&year=2008. Retrieved 200811-26. 12. ^ Oxford English Dictionary Online. Draft revision for "oregano", June 2008; draft revision for "origanum", March 2009; draft revision for "organum", June 2008

Fennel Fennel

Fennel in flower

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order:

Apiales

Family:

Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

Genus:

Foeniculum

Species:

F. vulgare

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Binomial name Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), is a plant species in the genus Foeniculum (treated as the sole species in the genus by most botanists). It is a member of the blunden family Apiaceae (formerly the Umbelliferae). It is a hardy, perennial, umbelliferous herb, with yellow flowers and feathery leaves. It is generally considered indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean, but has become widely naturalised elsewhere (particularly, it seems, areas colonized by the Romans[1]) and may now be found growing wild in many parts of the world, especially on dry soils near the sea-coast and on river-banks. It is a highly aromatic and flavorful herb with culinary and medicinal uses, and is one of the primary ingredients of absinthe. Florence fennel or finocchio is a selection with a swollen, bulb-like stem base that is used as a vegetable. Fennel is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the Mouse Moth and the Anise Swallowtail.

Etymology and history The word fennel developed from the Middle English fenel or fenyl, and is pronounced finocchio in Italian. This came from the Old English fenol or finol, which in turn came from the Latin feniculum or foeniculum, the diminutive of fenum or faenum, meaning "hay". The Latin word for the plant was ferula, which is now used as the genus name of a related plant. As Old English finule it is one of the nine plants invoked in the pagan Anglo-Saxon Nine Herbs Charm, recorded in the 10th century. In Ancient Greek, fennel was called marathon (μάραθον), and is attested in Linear B tablets as ma-ra-tu-wo. John Chadwick notes that this word is the origin of the place name Marathon (meaning "place of fennel"), site of the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC; however, Chadwick wryly notes that he has "not seen any fennel growing there now".[2] In Greek mythology, Prometheus used the stalk of a fennel plant to steal fire from the gods. Also, it was from the giant fennel, Ferula communis, that the Bacchanalian wands of the god Dionysus and his followers were said to have come.[3]

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Appearance

Fennel flowerheads Fennel is a perennial herb. It is erect, glaucous green, and grows to heights of up to 2.5 m, with hollow stems. The leaves grow up to 40 cm long; they are finely dissected, with the ultimate segments filiform (threadlike), about 0.5 mm wide. (Its leaves are similar to those of dill, but thinner.) The flowers are produced in terminal compound umbels 5–15 cm wide, each umbel section having 20–50 tiny yellow flowers on short pedicels. The fruit is a dry seed from 4–10 mm long, half as wide or less, and grooved.[4]

Cultivation and uses Fennel, bulb, raw Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 30 kcal 130 kJ

Carbohydrates

7.29 g

- Dietary fiber 3.1 g Fat

0.20 g

Protein

1.24 g

Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.01 mg

1%

Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.032 mg 2% Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.64 mg

4%

Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.232 mg 5% Vitamin B6 0.047 mg

4%

Folate (Vit. B9) 27 μg

7%

Vitamin C 12 mg

20%

Calcium 49 mg

5%

Iron 0.73 mg

6%

Magnesium 17 mg

5%

Phosphorus 50 mg

7%

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Potassium 414 mg

9%

Zinc 0.20 mg

2%

Manganese 0.191 mg Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

Fennel is widely cultivated, both in its native range and elsewhere, for its edible, stronglyflavoured leaves and seeds. Its aniseed flavour comes from anethole, an aromatic compound also found in anise and star anise, and its taste and aroma are similar to theirs, though usually not as strong.[5] The Florence fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Azoricum Group; syn. F. vulgare var. azoricum) is a cultivar group with inflated leaf bases which form a bulb-like structure. It is of cultivated origin,[6] and has a mild anise-like flavour, but is more aromatic and sweeter. Florence fennel plants are smaller than the wild type.[citation needed] Their inflated leaf bases are eaten as a vegetable, both raw and cooked. There are several cultivars of Florence fennel, which is also known by several other names, notably the Italian name finocchio. In North American supermarkets, it is often mislabelled as "anise".[citation needed] Foeniculum vulgare 'Purpureum', "bronze-leaved" fennel, is widely available in the UK where it is grown as a decorative garden plant.[7] Fennel has become naturalised along roadsides, in pastures, and in other open sites in many regions, including northern Europe, the United States, southern Canada and in much of Asia and Australia. It propagates well by seed, and is considered an invasive species and a weed in Australia and the United States[8] (see Santa Cruz Island).

Florence fennel bulbs Florence fennel was one of the three main herbs used in the preparation of absinthe, an alcoholic mixture which originated as a medicinal elixir in Switzerland and became, by the late 19th century, a popular alcoholic drink in France and other countries. Fennel itself is known to be a stimulant,[9] although many modern preparations marketed under the name "absinthe" do not make use of it.[citation needed]

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Fennel, from Koehler's Medicinal-plants (1887) The bulb, foliage, and seeds of the fennel plant are widely used in many of the culinary traditions of the world. Fennel pollen is the most potent form of fennel, but also the most expensive.[10] Dried fennel seed is an aromatic, anise-flavoured spice, brown or green in colour when fresh, slowly turning a dull grey as the seed ages. For cooking, green seeds are optimal.[5] The leaves are delicately flavored and similar in shape to those of dill. The bulb is a crisp, hardy root vegetable and may be sauteed, stewed, braised, grilled, or eaten raw. Fennel seeds are sometimes confused with those of anise, which are very similar in taste and appearance, though smaller. Fennel is also used as a flavouring in some natural toothpaste. Fennel features prominently in Mediterranean cuisine, where bulbs and fronds are used, both raw and cooked, in side dishes, salads, pastas, vegetable dishes such as artichoke dishes in Greece, and risottos. Fennel seed is a common ingredient in Italian sausages and meatballs and northern European rye breads. Many cultures in the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East use fennel seed in their cookery. It is an essential ingredient of the Bengali/Oriya spice mixture panch phoron and in Chinese five-spice powders. It is known as saunf or mauti saunf in Hindi and Urdu ( Devanagiri ), sompu in Telugu, badesoppu in Kannada, mouri in Bengali, shombu or peruncheeragam ( ) in Tamil and Malayalam language, variyali in Gujarati, badeeshop or badeeshep in Marathi and barishap in the Malay language, Razianeh or ‫ر‬ ‫ ررر ررر‬in PersianJintan Manis in Malay. In many parts of Pakistan and India roasted fennel seeds are consumed as an after-meal digestive and breath freshener. Farming communities also chew on fresh sprigs of green fennel seeds. Many egg, fish, and other dishes employ fresh or dried fennel leaves. Florence fennel is a key ingredient in some Italian and German salads, often tossed with chicory and avocado, or it can be braised and served as a warm side dish. It may be blanched or marinated, or cooked in risotto.

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Medicinal uses

Fennel seeds Fennel contains anethole, which can explain some of its medical effects: it, or its polymers, act as phytoestrogens.[11] Intestinal tract On account of its carminative properties, Fennel is chiefly used medicinally with purgatives to allay their side effects and for this purpose forms one of the ingredients of the well-known compound Liquorice Powder. Fennel water has properties similar to those of anise and dill water: mixed with sodium bicarbonate and syrup, these waters constitute the domestic 'Gripe Water', used to ease flatulence in infants; it also can be made into a syrup to treat babies with colic or painful teething. Long term ingestion of fennel preparations by babies is a known cause of thelarche.[12] For adults, fennel seeds or tea can relax the intestines and reduce bloating caused by digestive disorders. Essential oil of fennel has these properties in concentration. Fennel tea, also employed as a carminative, is made by pouring boiling water on a teaspoonful of bruised fennel seeds. Eyes In the Indian subcontinent, Fennel seeds are also eaten raw, sometimes with some sweetener, as it is said to improve eyesight.[citation needed] Fennel tea can be used as an eye tonic, applied directly like eyedrops or as a compress, to reduce soreness and inflammation of the eye.[citation needed] Extracts of fennel seed have been shown in animal studies to have a potential use in the treatment of glaucoma.[13] Blood and urine Some people use fennel as a diuretic,[citation needed] and it may be an effective diuretic and a potential drug for treatment of hypertension.[14][15] Breastmilk There are historical anecdotes that fennel is a galactogogue,[16] improving the milk supply of a breastfeeding mother. This use, although not supported by direct evidence, is sometimes 23 | P a g e

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justified by the fact that fennel is a source of phytoestrogens, which promote growth of breast tissue.[17] However, normal lactation does not involve growth of breast tissue. There is a single case report of fennel tea ingested by a breastfeeding mother resulting in neurotoxicity for the newborn child.[18]

Other uses Syrup prepared from fennel juice was formerly given for chronic coughs. Fennel is also largely used for cattle condiments. It is one of the plants which is said to be disliked by fleas, and powdered fennel has the effect of driving away fleas from kennels and stables.[19] Plain water drunk after chewing and consuming fennel seeds tastes extremely sweet.

Production Syrian Arab Republic is leader in production of anise, badian (star anise), fennel and coriander, followed by India.

Cinnamon Cinnamon

Cinnamon foliage and flowers

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class:

Magnoliopsida

Order:

Laurales

Family:

Lauraceae

Genus:

Cinnamomum

Species:

C. verum

Binomial name Cinnamomum verum J.Presl

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C. zeylanicum Blume Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum, synonym C. zeylanicum) is a small evergreen tree belonging to the family Lauraceae, native to Sri Lanka,[1] or the spice obtained from the tree's bark. It is often confused with other similar species and the similar spices derived from them, such as Cassia and Cinnamomum burmannii, which are often called cinnamon too.

Nomenclature and taxonomy The name cinnamon comes from Greek kinnámōmon, itself ultimately from Phoenician. The botanical name for the spice—Cinnamomum zeylanicum—is derived from Sri Lanka's former name, Ceylon.[2] In Marathi, it is known as "DalChini ( )". In Bengali, it is called "Darchini" ( ). In Telugu, it is called Dalchina Chakka, Chakka meaning bark or wood. In Sanskrit cinnamon is known as tvak or dārusitā. In Urdu, Hindi, and Hindustani cinnamon is called darchini ( ni ,(‫دارچ ی نی‬Assamese it is called alseni, and in Gujarati taj. In Farsi (Persian), it is called darchin (‫)نیچراد‬. In Indonesia, where it is cultivated in Java and Sumatra, it is called kayu manis and sometimes cassia vera, the "real' cassia.[3] In Sri Lanka, in the original Sinhala, cinnamon is known as kurundu,[4] recorded in English in the 17th century as Korunda.[5] In Malayalam, karugapatta and in Tamil pattai or lavangampattai or karuvappattai. In Arabic it is called qerfa (‫)ةفرق‬.

History

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Cinnamon (canella) output in 2005

Cinnamomum verum, from Koehler's Medicinal-Plants (1887)

Quills of true cinnamon bark and ground cinnamon. Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity; the first mention of a particular spice in the Old Testament is of cinnamon (. 24) where Moses is commanded to use both sweet cinnamon (Hebrew , qinnāmôn) and cassia in the holy anointing oil; in Proverbs, where the lover's bed is perfumed with myrrh, aloe and cinnamon; and in Song of Solomon, a song describing the beauty of his beloved, cinnamon scents her garments like the smell of Lebanon. It was so highly prized among ancient nations that it was regarded as a gift fit for monarchs and even for a god: a fine inscription records the gift of cinnamon and cassia to the temple of Apollo at Miletus.[6] Though its source was kept mysterious in the Mediterranean world for centuries by the middlemen who handled the spice trade, to protect their monopoly as suppliers, cinnamon is native to Sri Lanka.[1] It was imported to Egypt as early as 2000 BC, but those who report that it had come from China confuse it with cassia.[7] It is also alluded to by Herodotus and other classical writers. It was too expensive to be commonly used on funeral pyres in Rome, but the Emperor Nero is said to have burned a year's worth of the city's supply at the funeral for his wife Poppaea Sabina in 65 AD.[8] Before the foundation of Cairo, Alexandria was the Mediterranean shipping port of cinnamon. Europeans who knew the Latin writers who were quoting Herodotus knew that cinnamon came up the Red Sea to the trading ports of Egypt, but whether from Ethiopia or not was less than clear. When the sieur de Joinville accompanied his king to Egypt on Crusade in 1248, he reported what he had been told— and believed— that cinnamon was fished up in nets at the source of the Nile out at the edge of the world. Through the Middle 26 | P a g e

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Ages, the source of cinnamon was a mystery to the Western world. Marco Polo avoided precision on this score.[9] In Herodotus and other authors, Arabia was the source of cinnamon: giant Cinnamon birds collected the cinnamon sticks from an unknown land where the cinnamon trees grew, and used them to construct their nests; the Arabs employed a trick to obtain the sticks. This story was current as late as 1310 in Byzantium, although in the first century, Pliny the Elder had written that the traders had made this up in order to charge more. The first mention of the spice growing in Sri Lanka was in Zakariya al-Qazwini's Athar albilad wa-akhbar al-‘ibad ("Monument of Places and History of God's Bondsmen") in about 1270.[10] This was followed shortly thereafter by John of Montecorvino, in a letter of about 1292.[11] Indonesian rafts transported cinnamon (known in Indonesia as kayu manis- literally "sweet wood") on a "cinnamon route" directly from the Moluccas to East Africa, where local traders then carried it north to the Roman market.[12][13][14] See also Rhapta. Arab traders brought the spice via overland trade routes to Alexandria in Egypt, where it was bought by Venetian traders from Italy who held a monopoly on the spice trade in Europe. The disruption of this trade by the rise of other Mediterranean powers, such as the Mamluk Sultans and the Ottoman Empire, was one of many factors that led Europeans to search more widely for other routes to Asia. Portuguese traders finally landed in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) at the beginning of the sixteenth century and restructured the traditional production and management of cinnamon by the Sinhalese, who later held the monopoly for cinnamon in Ceylon. The Portuguese established a fort on the island in 1518 and protected their own monopoly for over a hundred years. Dutch traders finally dislodged the Portuguese by allying with the inland Kingdom of Kandy. They established a trading post in 1638, took control of the factories by 1640, and expelled all remaining Portuguese by 1658. "The shores of the island are full of it", a Dutch captain reported, "and it is the best in all the Orient: when one is downwind of the island, one can still smell cinnamon eight leagues out to sea." (Braudel 1984, p. 215) The Dutch East India Company continued to overhaul the methods of harvesting in the wild, and eventually began to cultivate its own trees. In 1767 Lord Brown of East India Company established Anjarakkandy Cinnamon Estate near Anjarakkandy in Cannanore (now Kannur) district of Kerala and this estate become Asia's largest cinnamon estate. The British took control of the island from the Dutch in 1796. However, the importance of the monopoly of Ceylon was already declining, as cultivation of the cinnamon tree spread to other areas, the more common cassia bark became more acceptable to consumers, and coffee, tea, sugar, and chocolate began to outstrip the popularity of traditional spices.

The plant Cinnamon' trees are 10–15 metres (32.8–49.2 feet) tall. The leaves are ovate-oblong in shape, 7–18 cm (2.75–7.1 inches) long. The flowers, which are arranged in panicles, have a greenish color, and have a distinct odor. The fruit is a purple 1-cm berry containing a single seed. 27 | P a g e

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Cultivation

Leaves of a wild Cinnamon Cinnamon is harvested by growing the tree for two years and then coppicing it. The next year, about a dozen shoots will form from the roots. These shoots are then stripped of their bark, which is left to dry. Only the thin (0.5 mm) inner bark is used; the outer woody portion is removed, leaving metre-long cinnamon strips that curl into rolls ("quills") on drying; each dried quill comprises strips from numerous shoots packed together. These quills are then cut into 5–10 cm lengths for sale. Cinnamon has been cultivated from time immemorial in Sri Lanka, and the tree is also grown commercially at Kerala in southern India, Bangladesh, Java, Sumatra, the West Indies, Brazil, Vietnam, Madagascar, Zanzibar, and Egypt. Sri Lanka cinnamon has a very thin, smooth bark with a light-yellowish brown color and a highly fragrant aroma. According to the International Herald Tribune, in 2006 Sri Lanka produced 90% of the world's cinnamon, followed by China, India, and Vietnam.[15] According to the FAO, Indonesia produces 40% of the world's Cassia genus of cinnamon. The Sri Lankan grading system divides the cinnamon quills into four groups: • Alba less than 6 mm in diameter • Continental less than 16 mm in diameter • Mexican less than 19 mm in diameter • Hamburg less than 32 mm in diameter These groups are further divided into specific grades, eg, Mexican is divided into M00 000 special, M000000 and M0000 depending on quill diameter and number of quills per kg. Any pieces of bark less than 106 mm long is categorized as quillings. Featherings are the inner bark of twigs and twisted shoots. Chips are trimmings of quills, outer and inner bark that cannot be separated or the bark of small twigs.

Associated species There are several species of Cinnamon found in South and South-East Asia. In addition to the cultivated cinnamon type (Cinnamomum zeylanicum or C. verum), there reported to be seven other species of wild cinnamon which are endemic to Sri Lanka

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Cinnamomum tamala Cinnamomum dubium (Wight) (Sinhala: sewel Kurundu or wal Kurundu)[citation needed] Cinnamomum ovalifolium (Wight)[citation needed] Cinnamomum litseafolium Thw. (Sinhala: Kudu Kurundu)[citation needed] Cinnamomum citriodorum (Sinhala: Pangiri Kurundu - rare) Cinnamomum rivulorum[citation needed] Cinnamomum sinharajense[citation needed] Cinnamomum capparu-corende (Sinhala: Kapuru Kurundu)[citation needed] There are several different cultivars of Cinnamomum zeylanicum based on the taste of bark. Type 1 Sinhala: Pani Kurundu, Pat Kurundu or Mapat Kurundu Type 2 Sinhala: Naga Kurundu Type 3 Sinhala: Pani Miris Kurundu Type 4 Sinhala: Weli Kurundu Type 5 Sinhala: Sewala Kurundu Type 6 Sinhala: Kahata Kurundu Type 7 Sinhala: Pieris Kurundu

Cinnamon and cassia

True Cinnamon (on the left) and Indonesian Cinnamon (Cassia) quills (Cinnamomum burmannii) side-by-side The name cinnamon is correctly used to refer to Ceylon cinnamon, also known as "true cinnamon" (from the botanical name C. zeylanicum). However, the related species, Cassia (Cinnamomum aromaticum), Saigon Cinnamon (Cinnamomum loureiroi), and Cinnamomum burmannii are sometimes sold labeled as cinnamon, sometimes distinguished from true cinnamon as "Chinese cinnamon", "Vietnamese cinnamon", or "Indonesian cinnamon"; many websites, for example, describe their "cinnamon" as being cassia.[16] Ceylon cinnamon, using only the thin inner bark, has a finer, less dense, and more crumbly texture, and is considered to be less strong than cassia. Cassia has a much stronger (somewhat harsher) flavour than cinnamon, is generally a medium to light reddish brown, hard and woody in texture, and thicker (2–3 mm thick), as all of the layers of bark are used.[17]

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Due to the presence of a moderately toxic component called coumarin, European health agencies have recently warned against consuming large amounts of cassia.[18] This is contained in much lower dosages in Cinnamomum burmannii due to its low essential oil content. Coumarin is known to cause liver and kidney damage in high concentrations. True Ceylon cinnamon has negligible amounts of coumarin. The two barks, when whole, are easily distinguished, and their microscopic characteristics are also quite distinct. Cinnamon sticks (or quills) have many thin layers and can easily be made into powder using a coffee or spice grinder, whereas cassia sticks are much harder. Indonesian cassia (Cinnamomum burmannii) is often sold in neat quills made up of one thick layer, capable of damaging a spice or coffee grinder. Saigon cassia (Cinnamomum loureiroi) and Chinese cassia (Cinnamomum aromaticum) are always sold as broken pieces of thick bark, as the bark is not supple enough to be rolled into quills. It is a bit harder to tell powdered cinnamon from powdered cassia. When powdered bark is treated with tincture of iodine (a test for starch), little effect is visible in the case of pure cinnamon of good quality, but when cassia is present, a deep-blue tint is produced, the intensity of the coloration depending on the proportion of cassia.[citation needed] Cinnamon is also sometimes confused with Malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala) and Saigon cinnamon (Cinnamomum loureiroi).

Uses

Cinnamon bark Cinnamon bark is widely used as a spice. It is principally employed in cookery as a condiment and flavoring material. It is used in the preparation of chocolate, especially in Mexico, which is the main importer of true cinnamon.[19] It is also used in the preparation of some kinds of desserts, such as apple pie, donuts and cinnamon buns as well as spicy candies, tea, hot cocoa, and liqueurs. True cinnamon, rather than cassia, is more suitable for use in sweet dishes. In the Middle East, it is often used in savory dishes of chicken and lamb. In the United States, cinnamon and sugar are often used to flavor cereals, bread-based dishes, and fruits, especially apples; a cinnamon-sugar mixture is even sold separately for such purposes. Cinnamon can also be used in pickling. Cinnamon bark is one of the few spices that can be consumed directly. Cinnamon powder has long been an important spice in Persian cuisine, used in a variety of thick soups, drinks, and sweets. It is often mixed with rosewater or other spices to make a cinnamon-based curry powder for stews or just sprinkled on sweet treats (most notably Sholezard Per. ‫)درز هلش‬. Its flavor is due to an aromatic essential oil that makes up 0.5% to 1% of its composition. This oil is prepared by roughly pounding the bark, macerating it in seawater, and then quickly distilling the whole. It is of a golden-yellow color, with the characteristic odor of cinnamon 30 | P a g e

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and a very hot aromatic taste. The pungent taste and scent come from cinnamic aldehyde or cinnamaldehyde (about 60 % of the bark oil) and, by the absorption of oxygen as it ages, it darkens in color and develops resinous compounds. Other chemical components of the essential oil include ethyl cinnamate, eugenol (found mostly in the leaves), cinnamaldehyde, beta-caryophyllene, linalool, and methyl chavicol[citation needed]. In medicine it acts like other volatile oils and once had a reputation as a cure for colds. It has also been used to treat diarrhea and other problems of the digestive system.[20] Cinnamon is high in antioxidant activity.[21][22] The essential oil of cinnamon also has antimicrobial properties,[23] which can aid in the preservation of certain foods.[24] Cinnamon has been reported to have remarkable pharmacological effects in the treatment of Type 2 diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance. However, the plant material used in the study was mostly from cassia and only few of them are truly from Cinnamomum zeylanicum (see cassia's medicinal uses for more information about its health benefits).[25][26] Recent advancement in phytochemistry has shown that it is a cinnamtannin B1 isolated from C. zeylanicum which is of therapeutic effect on Type 2 diabetes,[27] with the exception of the postmenopausal patients studied on C. cassia.[28] Cinnamon has traditionally been used to treat toothache and fight bad breath and its regular use is believed to stave off common cold and aid digestion.[29] Cinnamon is used in the system of Thelemic Magick for Solar invocations, according to the correspondences listed in Aleister Crowley's work Liber 777. In Hoodoo, it is a multipurpose ingredient used for purification, luck, love, and money.[30] Cinnamon has been proposed for use as an insect repellent, although it remains untested.[31] Cinnamon leaf oil has been found to be very effective in killing mosquito larvae.[32] The compounds cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate, eugenol, and anethole, that are contained in cinnamon leaf oil, were found to have the highest effectiveness against mosquito larvae.[32] It is reported that regularly drinking of Cinnamomum zeylanicum tea made from the bark could be beneficial to oxidative stress related illness in humans, as the plant part contains significant antioxidant potential.[33]

Popular culture Cinnamon is the subject of an internet meme, The Cinnamon Challenge, in which one is to attempt to simply eat a whole tablespoon of cinnamon without vomiting. Despite thousands of video-documented attempts, few seem able to succeed. One notable challenger was the host of the television show Tosh.0, who failed.[34]

Notes 1. ^ a b "Cinnamon". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2008. "(species Cinnamomum zeylanicum), bushy evergreen tree of the laurel family (Lauraceae) native to Bangladesh, Sri Lanka (Ceylon), the neighboring Malabar Coast of India, and Myanmar (Burma), and also cultivated in South America and the West Indies for the spice consisting of its dried inner bark. The bark is widely used as a spice due to its distinct odor." 31 | P a g e

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2. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/07/south_asia_sri_lanka0s_spice _of_life/html/1.stm 3. ^ "Cassia, also known as bastard cinnamon or Chinese cinnamon is a tree which has bark similar to that of cinnamon but with a rather pungent odour," remarks Maguelonne Toussant-Samat, Anthea Bell, tr. The History of Food, revised ed. 2009, p.437. 4. ^ The Epicentre, Encyclopedia of Spices, Cinnamon, http://www.theepicentre.com/Spices/cinnamon.html, retrieved 2008-07-15 5. ^ Knox, Robert, An Historical Relation Of The Island Ceylon, http://www.ihaystack.com/authors/k/robert_knox/00014346_an_historical_relation_of _the_island_ceylon_in_the_e/00014346_english_iso88591_p004.htm, retrieved 200807-15 6. ^ Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 437 7. ^ "The Indians obtained cassia from China" (Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 437). 8. ^ Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 437f. 9. ^ Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 438 discusses cinnamon's hidden origins and Joinville's report. 10. ^ Tennent, Sir James Emerson, Account of the Island of Ceylon, http://lakdiva.org/tennent/v1_p5_c02.html#pg598, retrieved 2008-07-15 11. ^ Yule, Col. Henry, Cathay and the Way Thither, http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/III-2F-b-2/V-1/page/0487.html.en, retrieved 2008-07-15 12. ^ http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1984_June/ai_3289703 13. ^ http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?click_id=588&art_id=iol1078376795319P146&set_i d=1 14. ^ http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00754358(1970)60%3C222%3ATSTOTR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N 15. ^ [1] 16. ^ http://www.thespicehouse.com/spices/vietnamese-cassia-saigon-cinnamon-wholecracked-ground thespicehouse.com 17. ^ [2] 18. ^ Harris, Emily, German Christmas Cookies Pose Health Danger, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6672644, retrieved 2007-05-01 19. ^ http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ae017e/ae017e12.htm 20. ^ Felter, Harvey, Cinnamomum.—Cinnamon., http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/cinnamomum.html, retrieved 200705-01 21. ^ Shan B, Cai YZ, Sun M, Corke H (October 2005). "Antioxidant capacity of 26 spice extracts and characterization of their phenolic constituents". J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 (20): 7749–59. doi:10.1021/jf051513y. PMID 16190627. 22. ^ Mancini-Filho J, Van-Koiij A, Mancini DA, Cozzolino FF, Torres RP (December 1998). "Antioxidant activity of cinnamon (Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, Breyne) extracts". Boll Chim Farm 137 (11): 443–7. PMID 10077878. 23. ^ López P, Sánchez C, Batlle R, Nerín C (August 2005). "Solid- and vapor-phase antimicrobial activities of six essential oils: susceptibility of selected foodborne bacterial and fungal strains". J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 (17): 6939–46. doi:10.1021/jf050709v. PMID 16104824.

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24. ^ George Mateljan Foundation, Cinnamon, ground, Research: Thalido..., http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=68, retrieved 200705-01 25. ^ Khan A, Safdar M, Ali Khan MM, Khattak KN, Anderson RA (December 2003). "Cinnamon improves glucose and lipids of people with type 2 diabetes". Diabetes Care 26 (12): 3215–8. doi:10.2337/diacare.26.12.3215. PMID 14633804. http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=14633804. 26. ^ Verspohl, Eugen J. et al. (2005). "Antidiabetic effect of Cinnamomum cassia and Cinnamomum zeylanicum In vivo and In vitro". Phytotherapy Research 19 (3): 203– 206. doi:10.1002/ptr.1643. 27. ^ Taher, Muhammad et al.. "A proanthocyanidin from Cinnamomum zeylanicum stimulates phosphorylation of insullin receptor in 3T3-L1 adipocyties" (PDF). http://eprints.utm.my/3661/1/JTJun44F%5B5%5D_FADZILAH_ADIBAH.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-11. 28. ^ Vanschoonbeek, Kristof et al.. "Cinnamon Supplementation Does Not Improve Glycemic Control in Postmenopausal Type 2 Diabetes Patients". http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/abstract/136/4/977. Retrieved 2008-05-11. 29. ^ Alice Hart-Davis (16 January 2007). "Chillies Are the Spice of Life". http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/803646/chillies_are_the_spice_of_life__pepper s_have_been/index.html?source=r_health. Retrieved 2007-12-17. 30. ^ Yronwode, Cat, http://www.luckymojo.com, retrieved 2007-12-12 31. ^ Beck, Leslie, Cinnamon — December 2006's Featured Food, http://www.lesliebeck.com/ingredient_index.php?featured_food=80, retrieved 200705-01 32. ^ a b "Cinnamon Oil Kills Mosquitoes". www.sciencedaily.com. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/07/040716081706.htm. Retrieved 200808-05. 33. ^ Ranjbar, Akram et al.. "Antioxidative stress potential of Cinnamomum zeylanicum in humans: a comparative cross-sectional clinical study". doi:10.2217/14750708.3.1.113. http://www.futuremedicine.com/doi/abs/10.2217/14750708.3.1.113. Retrieved 200805-11. 34. ^ [3].

References This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. Braudel, Fernand (1984). The Perspective of the World, Vol III of Civilization and Capitalism. Corn, Charles (1998). The Scents of Eden: A Narrative of the Spice Trade. New York: Kodansha International. "Cinnamon Extracts Boost Insulin Sensitivity" (2000). Agricultural Research magazine, July 2000. Alan W. Archer (1988). "Determination of cinnamaldehyde, coumarin and cinnamyl alcohol in cinnamon and cassia by high-performance liquid chromatography". Journal of Chromatography 447: 272–276. doi:10.1016/00219673(88)90035-0. Medicinal Seasonings, The Healing Power Of Spices Book by Dr. Keith Scott 33 | P a g e

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Department of Export Agriculture, Sri Lanka

Onion Onion

Onions

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Monocots Order:

Asparagales

Family:

Alliaceae

Genus:

Allium

Species:

A. cepa

Binomial name Allium cepa L.

Onion is a term used for many plants in the genus Allium. They are known by the common name "onion" but, used without qualifiers, it usually refers to Allium cepa. Allium cepa is also known as the "garden onion" or "bulb" onion. It is grown underground by the plant as a vertical shoot that is used for food storage, leading to the possibility of confusion with a tuber, which it is not. Allium Cepa is known only in cultivation,[1] but related wild species occur in Central Asia. The most closely-related species include Allium vavilovii Popov & Vved. and Allium asarense R.M. Fritsch & Matin from Iran.[2] However Zohary and Hopf warn that "there are doubts whether the vavilovii collections tested represent genuine wild material or only feral derivatives of the crop."[3]

Uses Onions, one of the oldest vegetables, are found in a large number of recipes and preparations spanning almost the totality of the world's cultures. They are now available in fresh, frozen, canned, pickled, powdered, chopped, and dehydrated forms. Onions can be used, usually 34 | P a g e

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chopped or sliced, in almost every type of food including cooked foods and fresh salads and as a spicy garnish. They are rarely eaten on their own but usually act as accompaniment to the main course. Depending on the variety, an onion can be sharp, spicy, tangy and pungent or mild and sweet. Onions pickled in vinegar are eaten as a snack. These are often served as a side serving in fish and chip shops throughout the United Kingdom and are referred to simply as "Pickled Onions". Onions are widely-used in India and Pakistan and are fundamental in the local cuisine. They are commonly used as a base for curries or made into a paste and eaten as a main course or as a side dish. Tissue from onions is frequently used in science education to demonstrate microscope usage, because they have particularly large cells which are readily observed even at low magnifications.[4]

Historical uses It is thought that bulbs from the onion family have been used as a food source for millennia. In Bronze Age settlements, traces of onion remains were found alongside fig and date stones dating back to 5000 BC.[5] However, it is not clear if these were cultivated onions. Archaeological and literary evidence such as the Book of Numbers 11:5 suggests cultivation probably took place around two thousand years later in ancient Egypt, at the same time that leeks and garlic were cultivated. Workers who built the Egyptian pyramids may have been fed radishes and onions.[5] The onion is easily propagated, transported and stored. The Ancient Egyptians worshipped it,[6] believing that its spherical shape and concentric rings symbolized eternal life. Onions were even used in Egyptian burials as evidenced by onion traces being found in the eye sockets of Ramesses IV. In ancient Greece, athletes ate large quantities of onion because it was believed that it would lighten the balance of blood. Roman gladiators were rubbed down with onion to firm up their muscles. In the Middle Ages onions were such an important food that people would pay their rent with onions and even give them as gifts.[6] Doctors were known to prescribe onions to facilitate bowel movements and erection, and also to relieve headaches, coughs, snakebite and hair loss. The onion was introduced to North America by Christopher Columbus on his 1492 expedition to Hispaniola. Onions were also prescribed by doctors in the early 1500s to help with infertility in women, and even dogs and cattle and many other household pets. However, recent evidence has shown that dogs, cats, and other animals should not be given onions in any form, due to toxicity during digestion.[7]

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Medicinal properties and health effects Raw Onions Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 40 kcal 170 kJ

9.34 g

Carbohydrates - Sugars 4.24 g - Dietary fiber 1.7 g

0.1 g

Fat - saturated 0.042 g - monounsaturated 0.013 g - polyunsaturated 0.017 g Protein

1.1 g

Water

89.11 g

Vitamin A equiv. 0 μg

0%

Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.046 mg 4% Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.027 mg 2% Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.116 mg

1%

Vitamin B6 0.12 mg

9%

Folate (Vit. B9) 19 μg

5%

Vitamin B12 0 μg

0%

Vitamin C 7.4 mg

12%

Vitamin E 0.02 mg

0%

Vitamin K 0.4 μg

0%

Calcium 23 mg

2%

Iron 0.21 mg

2%

Magnesium 0.129 mg

0%

Phosphorus 29 mg

4%

Potassium 146 mg

3%

Sodium 4 mg

0%

Zinc 0.17 mg

2%

Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

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Wide-ranging claims have been made for the effectiveness of onions against conditions ranging from the common cold to heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and other diseases.[8] They contain chemical compounds believed to have anti-inflammatory, anticholesterol, anticancer, and antioxidant properties such as quercetin. However, it has not been conclusively demonstrated that increased consumption of onions is directly linked to health benefits. Some studies have shown that increased consumption of onions reduces the risk of head and neck cancers.[9] In India some sects do not eat onion due to its alleged aphrodisiac properties.[10] In many parts of the world, onions are used to heal blisters and boils. A traditional Maltese remedy for sea urchin wounds is to tie half a baked onion to the afflicted area overnight. An application of raw onion is also said to be helpful in reducing swelling from bee stings. In the United States, products that contain onion extract are used in the treatment of topical scars; some studies have found their action to be ineffective,[11][12][13] while others found that they may act as an anti-inflammatory or bacteriostatic[14] and can improve collagen organization in rabbits.[15] Onions may be especially beneficial for women,[16] who are at increased risk for osteoporosis as they go through menopause, by destroying osteoclasts so that they do not break down bone. An American chemist has stated[17] that the pleiomeric chemicals in onions have the potential to alleviate or prevent sore throat. However onion in combination with jaggery has been widely used as a traditional household remedy for sore throat in India. Shallots have the most phenols, six times the amount found in Vidalia onion, the variety with the lowest phenolic content. Shallots also have the most antioxidant activity, followed by Western Yellow, pungent yellow (New York Bold[18]), Northern Red, Mexico, Empire Sweet, Western White, Peruvian Sweet, Texas 1015, Imperial Valley Sweet, and Vidalia. Western Yellow onions have the most flavonoids, eleven times the amount found in Western White, the variety with the lowest flavonoid content. For all varieties of onions, the more phenols and flavonoids they contain, the more antioxidant and anti-cancer activity they provide. When tested against liver and colon cancer cells, Western Yellow, pungent yellow (New York Bold[18]) and shallots were most effective in inhibiting their growth. The milder-tasting varieties—Western White, Peruvian Sweet, Empire Sweet, Mexico, Texas 1015, Imperial Valley Sweet, and Vidalia—showed little cancer-fighting ability.[18] Shallots and ten other onion (Allium cepa L.) varieties commonly available in the United States were evaluated: Western Yellow, Northern Red, pungent yellow (New York Bold), Western White, Peruvian Sweet, Empire Sweet, Mexico, Texas 1015, Imperial Valley Sweet, and Vidalia. In general, the most pungent onions delivered many times the benefits of their milder cousins.[18]

Allergies and eye irritation Some people suffer from from allergies to plants in the allium family. If you are allergic to onions, then you can be allergic to all plants under the family liliaceae (lilies). This can 37 | P a g e

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include reactions to onions, garlic, chives, leeks, shallots, garden lilies, ginger, and bananas. Symptoms can include irritable bowel, diarrhea, mouth and throat ulcerations, nausea, breathing difficulties, and in rare cases anaphylaxis. Garlic-sensitive patients show positive tests to diallyldisulfide, allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan and allicin, all present in garlic. Even if garlic is present in a very small amount, it can lead to an allergic reaction. As onions are sliced or eaten, cells are broken, allowing enzymes called alliinases to break down amino acid sulphoxides and generate sulphenic acids. Sulphenic acids are unstable and spontaneously rearrange into a volatile gas called syn-propanethial-S-oxide. The gas diffuses through the air and eventually reaches the eye, where it binds to sensory neurons, creating a stinging sensation. Tear glands produce tears to dilute and flush out the irritant.[19] Supplying ample water to the reaction while peeling onions prevents the gas from reaching the eyes. Eye irritation can, therefore, be avoided by cutting onions under running water or submerged in a basin of water.[19] Rinsing the onion and leaving it wet while chopping may also be effective. Another way to reduce irritation is by chilling, or by not cutting off the root of the onion (or by doing it last), as the root of the onion has a higher concentration of enzymes.[20] Using a sharp blade to chop onions will limit the cell damage and the release of enzymes that drive the irritation response. Chilling or freezing onions prevents the enzymes from activating, limiting the amount of gas generated. Eye irritation may be avoided by having a fan blow the gas away from the eyes as the onion is being cut. It is also possible to avoid eye irritation by wearing goggles or any eye protection that creates a seal around the eye. Contact lens wearers can experience less immediate irritation as a result of the slight protection afforded by the lenses themselves. It may also be that lens wearers are familiar with controlling the more reflexive actions of their eyes with regards to irritation; as this is an ability they require when manipulating the lenses to prevent blinking. The volume of sulfenic acids released, and the irritation effect, differs among Allium species. On January 31, 2008, the New Zealand Crop and Food institute created a strain of "no tears" onions by using gene-silencing biotechnology.[21]

Propagation

Onion and shallot output in 2005 38 | P a g e

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Onion growing shoots Onions may be grown from seed or, more commonly today, from sets started from seed the previous year. Onion sets are produced by sowing seed very thickly one year, resulting in stunted plants which produce very small bulbs. These bulbs are very easy to set out and grow into mature bulbs the following year, but they have the reputation of producing a less durable bulb than onions grown directly from seed and thinned. Seed-bearing onions are day-length sensitive; their bulbs begin growing only after the number of daylight hours has surpassed some minimal quantity. Most traditional European onions are what is referred to as "long-day" onions, producing bulbs only after 15+ hours of daylight occur. Southern European and North African varieties are often known as "intermediate day" types, requiring only 12–13 hours of daylight to stimulate bulb formation. Finally, "short-day" onions, which have been developed in more recent times, are planted in mild-winter areas in the fall and form bulbs in the early spring, and require only 9–10 hours of sunlight to stimulate bulb formation. Either planting method may be used to produce spring onions or green onions, which are the leaves and/or immature plants. Green onion is a name also used to refer to another species, Allium fistulosum, the Welsh onion, which is said not to produce dry bulbs. The tree onion produces bulbs instead of flowers and seeds, which can be planted directly in the ground.

Varieties

Brown and white onions Yellow onions

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Flower head of a yellow Red onions onion

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Bulb onion – Grown from seed (or onion sets), bulb onions range from the pungent varieties used for dried soups and onion powder to the mild and hearty sweet onions, such as the Vidalia from Georgia or Walla Walla from Washington that can be sliced and eaten on a sandwich instead of meat. Multiplier onions – May refer to perennial green onions, or to onions raised from bulbs which produce multiple shoots, each of which forms a bulb. The second type is often referred to as a Potato onion. Tree onion or Egyptian onion - Produce bulblets in the flower head; a hybrid of Allium cepas. Welsh onion – Sometimes referred to as green onion or spring onion, although these onions may refer to any green onion stalk. Leek

Production trends

Onion field during harvest, Vale, Oregon (USA). Top Ten Onions Producers — 2005 (1000 tonnes) 9,793 India 5,500 China United States 3,346 2,220 Turkey 1,764 Pakistan 1,758 Russia 1,750 South Korea 1,637 Japan Egypt 1,302 1,149 Spain World Total 64,101 Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)[22]

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The Onion Futures Act, passed in 1958, bans the trading of futures contracts on onions in the United States, after farmers complained about alleged market manipulation at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. It provides economists with a unique case study in the effects of futures trading on agricultural prices. It remains in effect as of 2009.

Aroma attributes 3-Mercapto-2-methylpentan-1-ol[23][24]

Potential medicinal use 3-mercapto-2-methylpentan-1-ol in onion was found to have an antioxidant potent which inhibites peroxynitrite induced diseases.[25]

Pictures

Red onion

Cut onion

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Onion fields near Elba, Onions cooked in a New York frying pan

Onion weighing and packing in The Netherlands

Spring onion

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Garlic Garlic

Allium sativum, known as garlic, from William Woodville, Medical Botany, 1793.

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Monocots Order:

Asparagales

Family:

Alliaceae

Subfamily: Allioideae Tribe:

Allieae

Genus:

Allium

Species:

A. sativum

Binomial name Allium sativum L.

Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion family Alliaceae. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, and chive. Garlic has been used throughout recorded history for both culinary and medicinal purposes. It has a characteristic pungent, spicy flavor that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking.[1] A bulb of garlic, the most commonly used part of the plant, is divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves. Single clove garlic (also called Pearl garlic or Solo garlic) also exists—it originates in the 42 | P a g e

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Yunnan province of China. The cloves are used as seed, for consumption (raw or cooked), and for medicinal purposes. The leaves, stems (scape), and flowers (bulbils) on the head (spathe) are also edible and are most often consumed while immature and still tender. The papery, protective layers of "skin" over various parts of the plant and the roots attached to the bulb are the only parts not considered palatable.

Origin and distribution The ancestry of cultivated garlic, according to Zohary and Hopf, is not definitely established: "A difficulty in the identification of its wild progenitor is the sterility of the cultivars."[4] Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalised; it probably descended from the species Allium longicuspis, which grows wild in southwestern Asia.[5] The "wild garlic", "crow garlic", and "field garlic" of Britain are the species Allium ursinum, Allium vineale, and Allium oleraceum, respectively. In North America, Allium vineale (known as "wild garlic" or "crow garlic") and Allium canadense, known as "meadow garlic" or "wild garlic" and "wild onion", are common weeds in fields.[6] One of the best-known "garlics", the so-called elephant garlic, is actually a wild leek (Allium ampeloprasum). It is called "Sudu Lunu" in Sinhalese, Lehsun in Urdu and Hindi, Velli ullipaaya in Telugu and Vellai poondu in Tamil.

Cultivation Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. In cold climates, cloves can be planted in the ground about six weeks before the soil freezes and harvested in late spring. Garlic plants are not attacked by pests. They can suffer from pink root, a disease that stunts the roots and turns them pink or red. Garlic plants can be grown close together, leaving enough room for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. There are different types or subspecies of garlic, most notably hardneck garlic and softneck garlic. The latitude where the garlic is grown affects the chocie of type as garlic can be daylength sensitive. Hardneck garlic is generally grown in cooler climates; softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator.[7][8]

Production trends

Garlic output in 2005. Garlic is grown globally, but China is by far the largest producer of garlic, with approximately 10.5 million tonnes (23 billion pounds) annually, accounting for over 77% of world output. India (4.1%) and South Korea (2%) follow, with Russia (1.6%) in fourth place and the United States (where garlic is grown primarily as a cash crop in every state except for 43 | P a g e

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Alaska) in fifth place (1.4%).[9] This leaves 16% of global garlic production in countries that each produce less than 2% of global output. Much of the garlic production in the United States is centered on Gilroy, California, which calls itself the "garlic capital of the world". Top Ten Garlic Producers — 11 June 2008 Country

Production (Tonnes)

Footnote

12,088,000

F

India

645,000

F

South Korea

325,000

F

Russia

254,000

F

United States

221,810

Egypt

168,000

Spain

142,400

Argentina

140,000

F

Myanmar

128,000

F

Ukraine

125,000

F

15,686,310

A

People's Republic of China

World

F

No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = unofficial/semiofficial/mirror data, C = calculated figure, A = aggregate (may include official, semiofficial, or estimates). Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic and Social Department: The Statistical Division

Uses Culinary uses

Garlic being crushed using a garlic press. Garlic is widely used around the world for its pungent flavor as a seasoning or condiment. It is a fundamental component in many or most dishes of various regions, including eastern Asia, south Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa, southern Europe, and parts of South and Central America. The flavour varies in intensity and aroma with the different cooking methods. It is often paired with onion, tomato, or ginger. The parchmentlike skin is much like the skin of an onion and is typically removed before using in raw or cooked form. An alternative is to cut the top off the bulb, coat the cloves by dribbling olive 44 | P a g e

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oil (or other oil-based seasoning) over them, and roast them in an oven. The garlic softens and can be extracted from the cloves by squeezing the (root) end of the bulb, or individually by squeezing one end of the clove. In Japan and Korea, heads of garlic are fermented at high temperature; the resulting product, called black garlic, is sweet and syrupy, and is now being sold in the United States, United Kingdom and Australia. Garlic may be applied to breads to create a variety of classic cuisines such as garlic bread, garlic toast, bruschetta, crostini and canapé.

Garlic being rubbed using a garlicboss Oils are often flavored with garlic cloves. These infused oils are used to season all categories of vegetables, meats, breads and pasta. In some cuisine, the young bulbs are pickled for 3–6 weeks in a mixture of sugar, salt, and spices. In eastern Europe, the shoots are pickled and eaten as an appetizer. Immature scapes are tender and edible. They are also known as "garlic spears", "stems", or "tops". Scapes generally have a milder taste than cloves. They are often used in stir frying or prepared like asparagus. Garlic leaves are a popular vegetable in many parts of Asia. The leaves are cut, cleaned, and then stir-fried with eggs, meat, or vegetables. Mixing garlic with eggs and olive oil produces aioli. Garlic, oil, and a chunky base produce skordalia. Blending garlic, almond, oil, and soaked bread produces ajoblanco. Garlic powder has a different taste than fresh garlic. If used as a substitute for fresh garlic, 1/8 teaspoon of garlic powder is equivalent to one clove of garlic.

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Storage

Ready peeled garlic cloves sold in a plastic container Domestically, garlic is stored warm (above 18°C [64°F]) and dry to keep it dormant (so that it does not sprout). It is traditionally hung; softneck varieties are often braided in strands, called "plaits" or grappes. Garlic is often kept in oil to produce flavoured oil; however, the practice requires measures to be taken to prevent the garlic from spoiling. Untreated garlic kept in oil can support the growth of deadly Clostridium botulinum. Refrigeration will not assure the safety of garlic kept in oil. Peeled cloves may be stored in wine or vinegar in the refrigerator.[10] Commercially prepared oils are widely available, but when preparing and storing garlicinfused oil at home, there is a risk of botulism if the product is not stored properly. To reduce this risk, the oil should be refrigerated and used within one week. Manufacturers add acids and/or other chemicals to eliminate the risk of botulism in their products.[11] Commercially, garlic is stored at −3°C, also dry.[12][13]

Historical use Garlic has been used as both food and medicine in many cultures for thousands of years, dating at least as far back as the time that the Giza pyramids were built. Garlic is still grown in Egypt, but the Syrian variety is the kind most esteemed now (see Rawlinson's Herodotus, 2.125). Garlic is mentioned in the Bible and the Talmud. Hippocrates, Galen, Pliny the Elder, and Dioscorides all mention the use of garlic for many conditions, including parasites, respiratory problems, poor digestion, and low energy. Its use in China was first mentioned in A.D. 510. It was consumed by ancient Greek and Roman soldiers, sailors, and rural classes (Virgil, Ecologues ii. 11), and, according to Pliny the Elder (Natural History xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Galen eulogizes it as the "rustic's theriac" (cure-all) (see F. Adams' Paulus Aegineta, p. 99), and Alexander Neckam, a writer of the 12th century (see Wright's edition of his works, p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a palliative for the heat of the sun in field labor.

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In the account of Korea's establishment as a nation, gods were said to have given mortal women with bear and tiger temperaments an immortal's black garlic before mating with them. This is a genetically unique six-clove garlic that was to have given the women supernatural powers and immortality. This garlic is still cultivated in a few mountain areas today. In his Natural History, Pliny gives an exceedingly long list of scenarios in which it was considered beneficial (N.H. xx. 23). Dr. T. Sydenham valued it as an application in confluent smallpox, and, says Cullen (Mat. Med. ii. p. 174, 1789), found some dropsies cured by it alone. Early in the 20th century, it was sometimes used in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis or phthisis.

Harvesting garlic, from Tacuinum sanitatis, 15th century (Bibliothèque nationale). Garlic was rare in traditional English cuisine (though it is said to have been grown in England before 1548) and has been a much more common ingredient in Mediterranean Europe. Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at crossroads, as a supper for Hecate (Theophrastus, Characters, The Superstitious Man); and according to Pliny, garlic and onions were invoked as deities by the Egyptians at the taking of oaths. (Pliny also states that garlic demagnetizes lodestones, which is not factual.)[14] The inhabitants of Pelusium, in lower Egypt (who worshiped the onion), are said to have had an aversion to both onions and garlic as food. To prevent the plant from running to leaf, Pliny (N.H. xix. 34) advised bending the stalk downward and covering with earth; seeding, he observes, may be prevented by twisting the stalk (by "seeding", he most likely meant the development of small, less potent bulbs).

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Medicinal use and health benefits Garlic, raw Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 150 kcal 620 kJ

33.06 g

Carbohydrates - Sugars 1.00g - Dietary fiber 2.1 g Fat

0.5 g

Protein

6.39 g

- beta-carotene 5 μg

0%

Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.2 mg

15%

Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.11 mg

7%

Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.7 mg

5%

Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.596 mg 12% Vitamin B6 1.235 mg

95%

Folate (Vit. B9) 3 μg

1%

Vitamin C 31.2 mg

52%

Calcium 181 mg

18%

Iron 1.7 mg

14%

Magnesium 25 mg

7%

Phosphorus 153 mg

22%

Potassium 401 mg

9%

Sodium 17 mg

1%

Zinc 1.16 mg

12%

Manganese 1.672 mg Selenium 14.2 mcg Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

In test tube studies garlic has been found to have antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal activity. However, these actions are less clear in humans and do not suggest that garlic is a substitute for antibiotics or antifungal medications. Garlic is also claimed to help prevent heart disease (including atherosclerosis, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure) and cancer.[15] Animal studies, and some early investigational studies in humans, have suggested 48 | P a g e

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possible cardiovascular benefits of garlic. A Czech study found that garlic supplementation reduced accumulation of cholesterol on the vascular walls of animals.[16] Another study had similar results, with garlic supplementation significantly reducing aortic plaque deposits of cholesterol-fed rabbits.[17] Another study showed that supplementation with garlic extract inhibited vascular calcification in human patients with high blood cholesterol.[18] The known vasodilative effect of garlic is possibly caused by catabolism of garlic-derived polysulfides to hydrogen sulfide in red blood cells, a reaction that is dependent on reduced thiols in or on the RBC membrane. Hydrogen sulfide is an endogenous cardioprotective vascular cell-signaling molecule.[19] Although these studies showed protective vascular changes in garlic-fed subjects, a randomized clinical trial funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States and published in the Archives of Internal Medicine in 2007 found that the consumption of garlic in any form did not reduce blood cholesterol levels in patients with moderately high baseline cholesterol levels.[20][21]

―

Despite decades of research suggesting that garlic can improve cholesterol profiles, a new NIH-funded trial found absolutely no effects of raw garlic or garlic supplements on LDL, HDL, or triglycerides… The findings underscore the hazards of meta-analyses made up of small, flawed studies and the value of rigorously studying popular herbal remedies.

‖

—theheart.org, 2007-02-26[22]

There are critics of the NIH, and its pharmaceutical lobby, who believe their study intended to confuse those prior findings that had shown protective vascular changes for withstanding high cholesterol levels (and not, as in the NIH study, the cholesterol levels themselves). In 2007, the BBC reported that Allium sativum may have other beneficial properties, such as preventing and fighting the common cold.[23] This assertion has the backing of long tradition in herbal medicine, which has used garlic for hoarseness and coughs.[24] The Cherokee also used it as an expectorant for coughs and croup.[25] Allium sativum has been found to reduce platelet aggregation[26][27][28][29] and hyperlipidemia.[29][30][31] Garlic is also alleged to help regulate blood sugar levels. Regular and prolonged use of therapeutic amounts of aged garlic extracts lower blood homocysteine levels and has shown to prevent some complications of diabetes mellitus.[32][33] People taking insulin should not consume medicinal amounts of garlic without consulting a physician. In 1858, Louis Pasteur observed garlic's antibacterial activity, and it was used as an antiseptic to prevent gangrene during World War I and World War II.[34] More recently, it has been found from a clinical trial that a mouthwash containing 2.5% fresh garlic shows good antimicrobial activity, although the majority of the participants reported an unpleasant taste and halitosis.[35] In modern naturopathy, garlic is used as a treatment for intestinal worms and other intestinal parasites, both orally and as an anal suppository. Garlic cloves are used as a remedy for

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infections (especially chest problems), digestive disorders, and fungal infections such as thrush.[36][37] Garlic has been used reasonably successfully in AIDS patients to treat cryptosporidium in an uncontrolled study in China.[38] It has also been used by at least one AIDS patient to treat toxoplasmosis, another protozoal disease.[39] Garlic supplementation in rats, along with a high protein diet, has been shown to boost testosterone levels.[40]

Side effects Garlic is known for causing halitosis as well as causing sweat to have a pungent 'garlicky' smell which is caused by Allyl methyl sulfide (AMS). AMS is a gas which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic; from the blood it travels to the lungs (and from there to the mouth causing bad breath) and skin where it is exuded through skin pores. Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell. Raw garlic is more potent and therefore cooking garlic reduces the effect. The green dry 'folds' in the center of the garlic clove are especially pungent. The sulfur compound allicin, produced by crushing or chewing fresh garlic produces other sulfur compounds: ajoene, allyl sulfides, and vinyldithiins. Aged garlic lack allicin, but may have some activity due to the presence of S-allylcysteine. Some people suffer from allergies to plants in the allium family. Symptoms can include irritable bowel, diarrhea, mouth and throat ulcerations, nausea, breathing difficulties, and in rare cases anaphylaxis. Even if garlic is present in a very small amount, it can lead to an allergic reaction. When crushed, Allium sativum yields allicin, a powerful antibiotic and antifungal compound (phytoncide). In some cases, it can be used as a home remedy to help speed recovery from strep throat or other minor ailments because of its antibiotic properties. It also contains the sulfur containing compounds alliin, ajoene, diallylsulfide, dithiin, S-allylcysteine, and enzymes, vitamin B, proteins, minerals, saponins, flavonoids, and maillard reaction products, which are non-sulfur containing compounds. Furthermore a phytoalexin called allixin (3hydroxy-5-methoxy-6-methyl-2-penthyl-4H-pyran-4-one) was found, a non-sulfur compound with a γ-pyrone skeleton structure with anti-oxidative effects,[1] anti-microbial effects,[41] anti-tumor promoting effects,[42] inhibition of aflatoxin B2 DNA binding,[42] and neurotrophic effects. Allixin showed an anti-tumor promoting effect in vivo, inhibiting skin tumor formation by TPA in DMBA initiated mice.[42] Analogs of this compound have exhibited anti tumor promoting effects in in vitro experimental conditions. Herein, allixin and/or its analogs may be expected useful compounds for cancer prevention or chemotherapy agents for other diseases. The composition of the bulbs is approximately 84.09% water, 13.38% organic matter, and 1.53% inorganic matter, while the leaves are 87.14% water, 11.27% organic matter, and 1.59% inorganic matter.[43][44][45] The phytochemicals responsible for the sharp flavor of garlic are produced when the plant's cells are damaged. When a cell is broken by chopping, chewing, or crushing, enzymes stored 50 | P a g e

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in cell vacuoles trigger the breakdown of several sulfur-containing compounds stored in the cell fluids. The resultant compounds are responsible for the sharp or hot taste and strong smell of garlic. Some of the compounds are unstable and continue to evolve over time. Among the members of the onion family, garlic has by far the highest concentrations of initial reaction products, making garlic much more potent than onions, shallots, or leeks.[46] Although people have come to enjoy the taste of garlic, these compounds are believed to have evolved as a defensive mechanism, deterring animals like birds, insects, and worms from eating the plant. Humans, however, usually enjoy these sensations.[47] A large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic. Diallyl disulfide is believed to be an important odour component. Allicin has been found to be the compound most responsible for the "hot" sensation of raw garlic. This chemical opens thermoTRP (transient receptor potential) channels that are responsible for the burning sense of heat in foods. The process of cooking garlic removes allicin, thus mellowing its spiciness.[48] Due to its strong odor, garlic is sometimes called the "stinking rose". When eaten in quantity, garlic may be strongly evident in the diner's sweat and breath the following day. This is because garlic's strong-smelling sulfur compounds are metabolized, forming allyl methyl sulfide. Allyl methyl sulfide (AMS) cannot be digested and is passed into the blood. It is carried to the lungs and the skin, where it is excreted. Since digestion takes several hours, and release of AMS several hours more, the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time. This well-known phenomenon of "garlic breath" is alleged to be alleviated by eating fresh parsley. The herb is, therefore, included in many garlic recipes, such as pistou, persillade, and the garlic butter spread used in garlic bread. However, since the odour results mainly from digestive processes placing compounds such as AMS in the blood, and AMS is then released through the lungs over the course of many hours, eating parsley provides only a temporary masking. One way of accelerating the release of AMS from the body is the use of a sauna. Because of the AMS in the bloodstream, it is believed by some to act as a mosquito repellent. However, there is no evidence to suggest that garlic is actually effective for this purpose.[49]

Toxicology Some people can have allergic reactions to garlic. Garlic-sensitive patients show positive tests to diallyldisulfide, allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan and allicin, all present in garlic. People who suffer from garlic allergies will often be sensitive to many plants in the lily family (liliaceae), including onions, garlic, chives, leeks, shallots, garden lilies, ginger, and bananas.

Spiritual and religious perceptions Garlic has been regarded as a force for both good and evil. A Christian myth considers that after Satan left the Garden of Eden, garlic arose in his left footprint and onion in the right.[50] In Europe, many cultures have used garlic for protection or white magic, perhaps owing to its reputation as a potent preventative medicine.[51] Central European folk beliefs considered garlic a powerful ward against demons, werewolves, and vampires.[51] To ward off vampires, garlic could be worn, hung in windows, or rubbed on chimneys and keyholes.[52] 51 | P a g e

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In Daoism mythology, six-clove black garlic is used as part of the process of modifying a Daoist's physiology. It supposedly endows the users immortality by intensifying their vital energy or "chi".[53] The association of garlic to evil spirits may be based on the antibacterial, antiparasitic value of garlic, which could prevent infections that lead to delusions and other related mental illness symptoms.[54][55] In both Hinduism and Jainism, garlic is considered to stimulate and warm the body and to increase one's desires. Some Hindus generally avoid using garlic and the related onion in the preparation of foods for religious festivities and events. Followers of the Jain religion avoid eating garlic and onion on a daily basis. In connection with the odor associated with garlic, Islam views eating garlic and subsequently going to the mosque as inappropriate. "Whoever has eaten (garlic) should not approach our mosque", indicated Muhammad.[56]

Miscellaneous This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this article to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (August 2009) Known adverse effects of garlic include halitosis (nonbacterial bad breath), indigestion, nausea, emesis, and diarrhea.[57] Garlic may interact with warfarin, antiplatelets, saquinavir, antihypertensives, calcium channel blockers, and hypoglycemic drugs, as well as other medications. Consult a health professional before taking a garlic supplement[57] or consuming excessive amounts of garlic. Garlic can thin the blood, similar to the effect of aspirin.[58] Two outbreaks of botulism have been caused by consuming commercially produced garlic-in-oil preparations that were not properly preserved. It is especially important for home preparation to use safe and tested food preservation methods to retard bacterial growth, such as including sufficient salt or acidity and keeping the mixture refrigerated. It is recommended to not keep home preparations for more than a week.[59][60] While culinary quantities are considered safe for consumption, very high quantities of garlic and garlic supplements have been linked with an increased risk of bleeding, particularly during pregnancy and after surgery and childbirth.[57][61] Some breastfeeding mothers have found their babies slow to feed and have noted a garlic odour coming from their baby when they have consumed garlic.[57][62] The safety of garlic supplements had not been determined for children.[62] The side effects of long-term garlic supplementation, if any exist, are largely unknown, and no FDA-approved study has been performed. However, garlic has been consumed for several thousand years without any adverse long-term effects, suggesting that modest quantities of garlic pose, at worst, minimal risks to normal individuals. Possible side effects include gastrointestinal discomfort, sweating, dizziness, allergic reactions, bleeding, and menstrual irregularities.[61] Some degree of liver toxicity has been demonstrated in rats, particularly in extremely large quantities exceeding those that a rat would consume under normal situations.[63] 52 | P a g e

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There have been several reports of serious burns resulting from garlic being applied topically for various purposes, including naturopathic uses and acne treatment, so care must be taken to test a small area of skin using a very low concentration of garlic.[64] On the basis of numerous reports of such burns, including burns to children, topical use of raw garlic, as well as insertion of raw garlic into body cavities, is discouraged. In particular, topical application of raw garlic to young children is not advisable.[65] Garlic and onions might be toxic to cats or dogs.[66]

Gallery

Garlic Bulbs and cloves

Garlic growing in a container.

Garlic scapes are often Garlic bulbs and harvested early so that individual cloves, one the bulbs will grow peeled. bigger.

A bulb of garlic, split.

Notes 1. ^ Gernot Katzer (2005-02-23). "Spice Pages: Garlic (Allium sativum, garlick)". http://www.unigraz.at/~katzer/engl/Alli_sat.html. Retrieved 2007-08-28. 2. ^ a b Lee, J. et al. (2005). "Free amino acid and cysteine sulfoxide composition of 11 garlic (Allium sativum L.) cultivars by gas chromatography with flame ionization and mass selective detection". http://hdl.handle.net/10113/877. Retrieved 5 June 2009. 3. ^ a b c d Tabor, G. et al. (2004). "Influence of storage duration on field sprouting, maturity and yield of some garlic (Allium sativum L.) cultivars at Debre Zeit, Ethiopia". The Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology 79 (6): 871-876. http://www.jhortscib.org/Vol79/79_6/8.htm. Retrieved 5 June. 4. ^ Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of plants in the Old World, third edition (Oxford: University Press, 2000), p. 197 5. ^ Salunkhe and Kadam p. 397 6. ^ McGee p. 112 7. ^ http://www.nj.com/warrenreporter/index.ssf/2008/12/farmers_forum_it_probably_came.html 8. ^ http://www.natural-holistic-health.com/alternative-therapies/herbs-for-health/medicinal-garlic/ 9. ^ [1]

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10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

15. 16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32. 33. 34. 35.

^ GARLIC: Safe Methods to Store, Preserve and Enjoy ^ It's Your Health - Garlic-In-Oil ^ Garlic Produce Facts ^ Garlic Information: Storage ^ Lehoux, Daryn (2003). "Tropes, Facts, and Empiricism" (PDF). Perspectives on Science 11: 326–345. doi:10.1162/106361403773062678. http://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/daryn.lehoux/Tropes.pdf. ^ University of Maryland Garlic ^ Sovová M, Sova P (May 2004). "[Pharmaceutical importance of Allium sativum L. 5. Hypolipemic effects in vitro and in vivo]" (in Czech). Ceska Slov Farm 53 (3): 117–23. PMID 15218732. ^ Durak I, Oztürk HS, Olcay E, Güven C (2002). "Effects of garlic extract supplementation on blood lipid and antioxidant parameters and atherosclerotic plaque formation process in cholesterol-fed rabbits". J Herb Pharmacother 2 (2): 19–32. PMID 15277094. ^ Durak I, Kavutcu M, Aytaç B, et al (June 2004). "Effects of garlic extract consumption on blood lipid and oxidant/antioxidant parameters in humans with high blood cholesterol". J. Nutr. Biochem. 15 (6): 373–7. doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2004.01.005. PMID 15157944. ^ Benavides GA, Squadrito GL, Mills RW, et al (November 2007). "Hydrogen sulfide mediates the vasoactivity of garlic". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (46): 17977–82. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705710104. PMID 17951430. ^ Charlson M, McFerren M (February 2007). "Garlic: what we know and what we don't know". Arch. Intern. Med. 167 (4): 325–6. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.4.325. PMID 17325291. http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/extract/167/4/325. ^ Gardner CD, Lawson LD, Block E, et al (February 2007). "Effect of raw garlic vs commercial garlic supplements on plasma lipid concentrations in adults with moderate hypercholesterolemia: a randomized clinical trial". Arch. Intern. Med. 167 (4): 346–53. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.4.346. PMID 17325296. http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/167/4/346. ^ Goodbye, garlic? Randomized controlled trial of raw garlic and supplements finds no effect on lipids Retrieved 27 February 2007 ^ Garlic 'prevents common cold' 2007 ^ Grieve, Maud. (Mrs.). Garlic. A Modern Herbal. Hypertext version of the 1931 edition. Accessed: December 18, 2006. [2] ^ Hamel, Paul B. and Mary U. Chiltoskey 1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses -- A 400 Year History. Sylva, N.C. Herald Publishing Co. (p. 35) ^ Rahman K (November 2007). "Effects of garlic on platelet biochemistry and physiology". Mol Nutr Food Res 51 (11): 1335–44. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200700058. PMID 17966136. ^ Chan KC, Yin MC, Chao WJ (March 2007). "Effect of diallyl trisulfide-rich garlic oil on blood coagulation and plasma activity of anticoagulation factors in rats". Food Chem Toxicol 45 (3): 502–7. PMID 17123684. ^ Borrelli F, Capasso R, Izzo AA (November 2007). "Garlic (Allium sativum L.): adverse effects and drug interactions in humans". Mol Nutr Food Res 51 (11): 1386–97. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200700072. PMID 17918162. ^ a b Steiner M, Lin RS (June 1998). "Changes in platelet function and susceptibility of lipoproteins to oxidation associated with administration of aged garlic extract". J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 31 (6): 904–8. doi:10.1097/00005344-199806000-00014. PMID 9641475. ^ Kojuri J, Vosoughi AR, Akrami M (March 2007). "Effects of anethum graveolens and garlic on lipid profile in hyperlipidemic patients". Lipids Health Dis 1 (6): 5. doi:10.1186/1476-511X-6-5. PMID 17328819. ^ Mader FH (October 1990). "Treatment of hyperlipidaemia with garlic-powder tablets. Evidence from the German Association of General Practitioners' multicentric placebo-controlled doubleblind study". Arzneimittelforschung 40 (10): 1111–6. PMID 2291748. ^ People with diabetes should say 'yes' to garlic by Patricia Andersen-Parrado, Better Nutrition, Sept 1996 ^ Garlic - University of Maryland Medical Center ^ Health effects of garlic American Family Physician by Ellen Tattelman, July 1, 2005 ^ Groppo, F.; Ramacciato, J.; Motta, R.; Ferraresi, P.; Sartoratto, A. (2007) "Antimicrobial activity of garlic against oral streptococci." Int. J. Dent. Hyg., 5:109–115.

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36. ^ Lemar KM, Passa O, Aon MA, et al (October 2005). "Allyl alcohol and garlic (Allium sativum) extract produce oxidative stress in Candida albicans". Microbiology (Reading, Engl.) 151 (Pt 10): 3257–65. doi:10.1099/mic.0.28095-0. PMID 16207909. http://mic.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/full/151/10/3257. 37. ^ Shuford JA, Steckelberg JM, Patel R (January 2005). "Effects of fresh garlic extract on Candida albicans biofilms". Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49 (1): 473. doi:10.1128/AAC.49.1.473.2005. PMID 15616341. PMC: 538912. http://aac.asm.org/cgi/content/full/49/1/473. 38. ^ Fareed G, Scolaro M, Jordan W, Sanders N, Chesson C, Slattery M, Long D, Castro C. The use of a high-dose garlic preparation for the treatment of Cryptosporidium parvum diarrhea. NLM Gateway. Retrieved December 7, 2007. 39. ^ John S. James. Treatment Leads on Cryptosporisiosis: Preliminary Report on Opportunistic Infection, AIDS TREATMENT NEWS No. 049 - January 29, 1988. Retrieved December 7, 2007. 40. ^ Oi Y, Imafuku M, Shishido C, Kominato Y, Nishimura S, Iwai K. (2001). "Garlic supplementation increases testicular testosterone and decreases plasma corticosterone in rats fed a high protein diet.". Journal of Nutrition 131 (8): 2150–6. PMID 11481410. 41. ^ Kodera Y., Matuura H., Yoshida S., Sumida T., Itakura Y., Fuwa T., Nishino H. (1989-01-30). "Allixin, a stress compound from garlic.". http://joi.jlc.jst.go.jp/JST.JLC/AID/6d45e46d45c048c9062c390a58734a7228bf?from=JSTAGE&type=list&lang=en. Retrieved 2009-01-30. 42. ^ a b c Yamasaki T., Teel R. W., Lau B. H. (1991-08-01). "Effect of allixin, a phytoalexin produced by garlic, on mutagenesis, DNA-binding and metabolism of aflatoxin B1 = 2009-01-30". http://joi.jlc.jst.go.jp/JST.JLC/AID/6d45e46d45c048c9062c390a58734a7c72bf?from=JSTAGE&type=list&lang=en. 43. ^ http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Garlic.htm 44. ^ http://lem.ch.unito.it/didattica/infochimica/2006_aglio/pagine/agronomy.html 45. ^ http://www.goldbamboo.com/topic-t6335-a1-6Allium_sativum.html 46. ^ McGee p. 310–311 47. ^ Macpherson et al. section "Conclusion" 48. ^ Macpherson et al. 49. ^ Mosquito Repellents 50. ^ Pickering, David (2003). Cassell's Dictionary of Superstitions. Sterling Publishing. ISBN 0-30436561-0. p. 211 51. ^ a b McNally, Raymond T (1994). In Search of Dracula. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-65783-0. p. 120. 52. ^ McNally p. 122; Pickering p. 211. 53. ^ http://washokufood.blogspot.com/2009/03/ninniku-garlic.html 54. ^ University of Maryland Garlic 55. ^ Neurodegenerative diseases 56. ^ Bukhari, Volume 7, Book 65 57. ^ a b c d Hogg, Jennifer (2002-12-13). "Garlic Supplements" (PDF). Complementary Medicines Summary. UK Medicines Information, National Health Service. http://www.ukmi.nhs.uk/Med_info/documents/GarlicSuppsCMSFinal2.pdf. Retrieved 2007-0707. 58. ^ Garlic - Allium sativum [NCCAM Herbs at a Glance] 59. ^ CSU SafeFood Newsletter, Summer 2005 - Vol 9 No. 4 - Botulinum Toxin: Friend or Foe 60. ^ Health Canada - Garlic-in-Oil 61. ^ a b MedlinePlus Herbs and Supplements: Garlic (Allium sativum L.) 62. ^ a b Mayo Clinic, garlic advisory 63. ^ Alnaqeeb MA, Thomson M, Bordia T, Ali M (June 1996). "Histopathological effects of garlic on liver and lung of rats". Toxicol. Lett. 85 (3): 157–64. PMID 8644128. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0378427496036582. 64. ^ Baruchin AM, Sagi A, Yoffe B, Ronen M (November 2001). "Garlic burns". Burns 27 (7): 781– 2. PMID 11600262. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305417901000390. 65. ^ Garty BZ (March 1993). "Garlic burns". Pediatrics 91 (3): 658–9. PMID 8441577. 66. ^ What you should know about household hazards to pets brochure by the American Veterinary Medical Association.

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References Japanese garlic.にんにく専門のにんにく屋.jp［青森県産］. Balch, P. A. (2000). Prescription for Nutritional Healing, 3rd ed. New York: Avery. Block, E. (1985). The chemistry of garlic and onions. Scientific American 252 (March): 114–9. Block, E. (1992). The organosulfur chemistry of the genus Allium — implications for organic sulfur chemistry. Angewandte Chemie International Edition 104: 1158–1203. Breithaupt-Grögler K, Ling M, Boudoulas H, Belz GG (October 1997). "Protective effect of chronic garlic intake on elastic properties of aorta in the elderly". Circulation 96 (8): 2649–55. PMID 9355906. http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9355906. Efendy JL, Simmons DL, Campbell GR, Campbell JH (July 1997). "The effect of the aged garlic extract, 'Kyolic', on the development of experimental atherosclerosis". Atherosclerosis 132 (1): 37–42. PMID 9247357. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0021-9150(97)00078-6. Gardner, C. D.; Lawson, L. D.; Block, E.; Chatterjee, L. M.; Kiazand, A.; Balise, R. R.; Kraemer, H. C. (2007) The effect of raw garlic vs. garlic supplements on plasma lipids concentrations in adults with moderate hypercholesterolemia: A clinical trial. "Archives of Internal Medicine" 167: 346–353. Garty BZ (March 1993). "Garlic burns". Pediatrics 91 (3): 658–9. PMID 8441577. Hamilton, Andy (2004). Selfsufficientish - Garlic. Retrieved 1 May 2005. Hile, A. G.; Shan, Z.; Zhang, S.-Z.; Block, E. (2004). Aversion of European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) to garlic oil treated granules: garlic oil as an avian repellent. Garlic oil analysis by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52: 2192–6. Jain AK, Vargas R, Gotzkowsky S, McMahon FG (June 1993). "Can garlic reduce levels of serum lipids? A controlled clinical study". Am. J. Med. 94 (6): 632–5. PMID 8506890. R. Kamenetsky, I. L. Shafir, H. Zemah, A. Barzilay, and H. D. Rabinowitch (2004). Environmental Control of Garlic Growth and Florogenesis. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 129: 144–151. Koch, H. P.; Lawson, L. D. (1996). Garlic. The Science and Therapeutic Application of Allium sativum L. and Related Species (Second Edition). Williams & Wilkens. ISBN 0-683-18147-5. Yukihiro Kodera, Makoto Ichikawa, Jiro Yoshida, Naoki Kashimoto, Naoto Uda, Isao Sumioka, Nagatoshi Ide and Kazuhisa Ono, ―Pharmacokinetic Study of Allixin, a Phytoalexin Produced by Garlic‖, Chem. Pharm. Bull., Vol. 50, 354-363 (2002). [3] Yukihiro Kodera, Masanori Ayabe, Kozue Ogasawara, Susumu Yoshida, Norihiro Hayashi and Kazuhisa Ono, ―Allixin Accumulation with Long-term Storage of Garlic‖, Chem. Pharm. Bull., Vol. 50, 405-407 (2002). [4] Lawson, L. D.; Wang, Z. J. (2001). Low allicin release from garlic supplements: a major problem due to sensitivities of alliinase activity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49: 2592–2599. Lemar, K.M.; Turner, M.P.; Lloyd, D. (2002) Garlic (Allium sativum) as an antiCandida agent: a comparison of the efficacy of fresh garlic and freeze-dried extracts. Journal of Applied Microbiology 93 (3), 398–405 Abstract 56 | P a g e

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Lindsey J. Macpherson, Bernhard H. Geierstanger, Veena Viswanath, Michael Bandell, Samer R. Eid, SunWook Hwang, and Ardem Patapoutian (2005). "The pungency of garlic: Activation of TRPA1 and TRPV1 in response to allicin". Current Biology 15 (May 24): 929–34. Mader FH (October 1990). "Treatment of hyperlipidaemia with garlic-powder tablets. Evidence from the German Association of General Practitioners' multicentric placebocontrolled double-blind study". Arzneimittelforschung 40 (10): 1111–6. PMID 2291748. McGee, Harold (2004). "The Onion Family: Onions, Garlic, Leeks". On Food and Cooking (Revised Edition). Scribner. pp. 310–3. ISBN 0-684-80001-2. Salunkhe, D.K.; Kadam, S.S. (1998). Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology. Marcel Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-0105-4. Shuford JA, Steckelberg JM, Patel R (January 2005). "Effects of fresh garlic extract on Candida albicans biofilms". Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49 (1): 473. doi:10.1128/AAC.49.1.473.2005. PMID 15616341. PMC: 538912. http://aac.asm.org/cgi/content/full/49/1/473. Silagy C, Neil A (1994). "Garlic as a lipid lowering agent--a meta-analysis". J R Coll Physicians Lond 28 (1): 39–45. PMID 8169881. Steiner M, Lin RS (June 1998). "Changes in platelet function and susceptibility of lipoproteins to oxidation associated with administration of aged garlic extract". J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 31 (6): 904–8. PMID 9641475. http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/templatejournal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=01602446&volume=31&issue=6&spage=904. Yeh, Y-Y., et al. (1999). Garlic extract reduces plasma concentration of homocysteine in rats rendered folic acid deficient. FASEB Journal 13(4): Abstract 209.12. Yeh, Y-Y., et al. (1997). Garlic reduced plasma cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic men maintaining habitual diets. In: Ohigashi, H., et al. (eds). Food Factors for Cancer Prevention. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag. Abstract.

Clove Clove

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Scientific classification Kingdom:

Plantae

Phylum:

Angiosperms

(unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order:

Myrtales

Family:

Myrtaceae

Genus:

Syzygium

Species:

S. aromaticum

Binomial name Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill & Perry

Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum, syn. Eugenia aromaticum or Eugenia caryophyllata) are the aromatic dried flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae. Cloves are native to Indonesia and India and used as a spice in cuisine all over the world. The English name derives from Latin clavus 'nail' (also origin of French clou 'nail') as the buds vaguely resemble small irregular nails in shape. Cloves are harvested primarily in Indonesia, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka; it is also grown in India under the name Lavang, called "lavanga" ( ) in Telugu. In Vietnam, it is called đinh hương. The clove tree is an evergreen which grows to a height ranging from 10-20 m, having large oval leaves and crimson flowers in numerous groups of terminal clusters. The flower buds are at first of a pale color and gradually become green, after which they develop into a bright red, when they are ready for collecting. Cloves are harvested when 1.5-2 cm long, and consist of a long calyx, terminating in four spreading sepals, and four unopened petals which form a small ball in the centre.

Uses

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Dried cloves

Global distribution of clove output in 2005 as a percentage of the top producer (Indonesia 110,000 tonnes). Cloves can be used in cooking either whole or in a ground form, but as they are extremely strong, they are used sparingly. The spice is used throughout Europe and Asia and is smoked in a type of cigarettes locally known as kretek in Indonesia. A major brand of kreteks in the United States is Djarum, which sells Djarum Black. Cloves are also an important incense material in Chinese and Japanese culture. Cloves have historically been used in Indian cuisine (both North Indian and South Indian) as well as Mexican cuisine (best known as "clavos de olor"), where it is often paired together with cumin and cinnamon.[1] In north Indian cuisine, it is used in almost all dishes, along with other spices. It is also a key ingredient in tea along with green cardamom. In south Indian cuisine, it is used extensively in biryani along with "cloves dish" (similar to pilaf, but with the addition of other spices), and it is normally added whole to enhance the presentation and flavor of the rice. In Vietnamese cuisine, cloves are often used to season pho broth. Due to the Indonesean influence the use of cloves is widespread in the Netherlands. Cloves are used in cheeses, often in combination with cumin. Cloves are an essential ingredient for making Dutch speculaas. Furthermore cloves are used in traditional Dutch stews like hachee. Its essence is commonly used in the production of many perfumes. During Christmas, it is a tradition in some European countries to make a pomander from cloves and oranges to hang around the house. This spreads a nice scent throughout the house and the oranges themselves act as Christmas decorations.

Medicinal and Nostrums Cloves are used in Ayurveda called Lavang in India, Chinese medicine and western herbalism and dentistry where the essential oil is used as an anodyne (painkiller) for dental emergencies. Cloves are used as a carminative, to increase hydrochloric acid in the stomach and to improve peristalsis. Cloves are also said to be a natural antihelmintic.[2] The essential oil is used in aromatherapy when stimulation and warming are needed, especially for digestive problems. Topical application over the stomach or abdomen are said to warm the digestive tract. In Chinese medicine cloves or ding xiang are considered acrid, warm and aromatic, entering the kidney, spleen and stomach meridians, and are notable in their ability to warm the middle, 59 | P a g e

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direct stomach qi downward, to treat hiccough and to fortify the kidney yang.[3] Because the herb is so warming it is contraindicated in any persons with fire symptoms and according to classical sources should not be used for anything except cold from yang deficiency. As such it is used in formulas for impotence or clear vaginal discharge from yang deficiency, for morning sickness together with ginseng and patchouli, or for vomiting and diarrhea due to spleen and stomach coldness.[3] This would translate to hypochlorhydria. Clove oil is used in various skin disorders like acne, pimples etc. It is also used in severe burns, skin irritations and to reduce the sensitiveness of skin. Ayurvedic herbalist K.P. Khalsa, RH (AHG), uses cloves internally as a tea and topically as an oil for hypotonic muscles, including for multiple sclerosis. This is also found in Tibetan medicine.[4] Ayurvedic herbalist Alan Tilotson, RH (AHG) suggests avoiding more than occasional use of cloves internally in the presence of pitta inflammation such as is found in acute flares of autoimmune diseases.[5] In West Africa, the Yorubas use cloves infused in water as a treatment for stomach upsets, vomiting and diarrhea.The infusion is called Ogun Jedi-jedi. Western studies have supported the use of cloves and clove oil for dental pain, and to a lesser extent for fever reduction, as a mosquito repellent and to prevent premature ejaculation. Clove may reduce blood sugar levels.[6]

History Until modern times, cloves grew only on a few islands in the Maluku Islands (historically called the Spice Islands), including Bacan, Makian, Moti, Ternate, and Tidore.[7] Nevertheless, they found their way west to the Middle East and Europe well before the first century AD. Archeologists found cloves within a ceramic vessel in Syria along with evidence dating the find to within a few years of 1721 BC.[7] Cloves, along with nutmeg and pepper, were highly prized in Roman times, and Pliny the Elder once famously complained that "there is no year in which India does not drain the Roman Empire of fifty million sesterces." Cloves were traded by Arabs during the Middle Ages in the profitable Indian Ocean trade. In the late fifteenth century, Portugal took over the Indian Ocean trade, including cloves, due to the Treaty of Tordesillas with Spain and a separate treaty with the sultan of Ternate. The Portuguese brought large quantities of cloves to Europe, mainly from the Maluku Islands. Clove was then one of the most valuable spices, a kg costing around 7 g of gold.[citation needed] The high value of cloves and other spices drove Spain to seek new routes to the Maluku Islands, which would not be seen as trespassing on the Portuguese domain in the Indian Ocean. Fernando e Isabela sponsored the unsuccessful voyages of Cristobal Colon (Columbus), and their grandson Carlos I sponsored the voyage of Hernando de Magallanes (Magellan). The fleet led by Magallanes reached the Maluku Islands after his death, and the Spanish were successful in briefly capturing this trade from the Portuguese. The trade later became dominated by the Dutch in the seventeenth century. With great difficulty the French succeeded in introducing the clove tree into Mauritius in the year 1770. Subsequently, their cultivation was introduced into Guiana, Brazil, most of the West Indies, and Zanzibar.

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In Britain in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, cloves were worth at least their weight in gold, due to the high price of importing them.[citation needed]

Active compounds

The compound eugenol is responsible for most of the characteristic aroma of cloves. The compound responsible for the cloves' aroma is eugenol. It is the main component in the essential oil extracted from cloves, comprising 72-90%. Eugenol has pronounced antiseptic and anaesthetic properties. Other important constituents include essential oils acetyl eugenol, beta-caryophyllene and vanillin; crategolic acid; tannins, gallotannic acid, methyl salicylate (painkiller); the flavonoids eugenin, kaempferol, rhamnetin, and eugenitin; triterpenoids like oleanolic acid, stigmasterol and campesterol; and several sesquiterpenes.[8]

Notes and references 1. ^ Dorenburg, Andrew and Page, Karen. "The New American Chef: Cooking with the Best Flavors and Techniques from Around the World", John Wiley and Sons Inc., ©2003. 2. ^ Balch, Phyllis and Balch, James. Prescription for Nutritional Healing, 3rd ed., Avery Publishing, ©2000, pg. 94. 3. ^ a b Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica, Third Edition by Dan Bensky, Steven Clavey, Erich Stoger, and Andrew Gamble 2004 4. ^ "TibetMed - Question: Multiple Sclerosis". http://www.tibetmed.org/questions/question_44.htm. 5. ^ http://oneearthherbs.squarespace.com/diseases/special-diets-for-illness.html Tilotson, Alan. Special Diets for Illness 6. ^ http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-clove.html National Institutes of Health, Medicine Plus. Clove (Eugenia aromatica) and Clove oil (Eugenol) 7. ^ a b Turner, Jack (2004). Spice: The History of a Temptation. Vintage Books. pp. xv. ISBN 0-375-70705-0. 8. ^ Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica, Third Edition by Dan Bensky, Steven Clavey, Erich Stoger, and Andrew Gamble. 2004

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Shallot Shallot

Shallots

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Monocots Order:

Asparagales

Family:

Alliaceae

Genus:

Allium

Species:

A. oschaninii

Binomial name Allium oschaninii O. Fedtsch

For other uses, see Shallot (disambiguation). The term shallot is used to describe two different Allium species of plant. The French grey challot or griselle, which has been considered to be the ―true shallot‖ by many, is Allium oschaninii, a species that grows wild from Central to Southwest Asia. Other varieties of shallot are Allium cepa var. aggregatum (multiplier onions), also known as A. ascalonicum.[citation needed] The botanical name of shallot is Allium ascalonicum Linn and it belongs to the family Alliaceae. Indian names are Ek-kanda-lasun or Gandana (Hindi, Marwari and Punjabi) or Gundhun (Bengali).

Details Shallots probably originated in Asia, traveling from there to India and the eastern Mediterranean. The name ―shallot‖ comes from Ashkelon, a city in Israel, where people in classical Greek times believed shallots originated. Like garlic, shallots are formed in clusters of offsets with a head composed of multiple cloves. Their skin color can vary from golden brown to gray to rose red, and their off-white 62 | P a g e

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flesh is usually tinged with green or magenta. Shallots are much favored by chefs because of their firm texture and sweet, aromatic, yet pungent, flavor. This ambiguity[clarification needed] is further confused with scallions, also known as spring or green onions. In some countries, green onions are called shallots, and shallots are referred to by alternative names such as eschallot or eschalotte.

Shallots for sale in Southern France The shallot is a relative of the onion, and tastes a bit like an onion, but has a sweeter, milder flavor. They tend to be more expensive than onions, especially in the United States. They can be stored for at least 6 months.[1] Shallots are extensively cultivated and much used in cookery, in addition to being pickled. Finely sliced deep-fried shallots are used as a condiment in Asian cuisine. Shallots are propagated by offsets, which, in the Northern Hemisphere, are often planted in September or October, but the principal crop should not be planted earlier than February or the beginning of March. In planting, the tops of the bulbs should be kept a little above ground, and it is a commendable plan to draw away the soil surrounding the bulbs when their roots have taken hold. They should not be planted on ground recently manured. They come to maturity about July or August, although they can now be found year-round in supermarkets. Similar to onions, raw shallots release chemicals that irritate the eye when sliced, resulting in tears. See onion for a discussion of this phenomenon.

Onion and shallot output in 2005 Shallots appear to contain more flavonoids and phenols than other members of the onion family.[1] In Australia, shallots are sometimes referred to as eschalottes or eshalotts. The latter names are preferred by those living in the city of Sydney. 63 | P a g e

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The term French shallot has also been used for Allium oschaninii.[citation needed] There is a very specific region of shallot gardening in south eastern Ghana.

Shallots in Persian Cooking The shallot in Persian is called ‫( ریسوم‬Mûsîr), which is often crushed into yogurt. Iranians enjoy yogurt in this way, especially in restaurants and Kebab-Saras where just kebabs are served. Most shallots are grown wild, harvested, sliced, dried, and sold at markets. Buyers will often soak the shallots for a number of days then boil them to get a milder flavour.

Shallots in Indian and South East Asian Cooking Shallots are called 'bawang merah kecil' (small red onions) in Bahasa Melayu, an official language of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore, also called Brambang in Java, and "hom" (หอม - literally "fragrant") in Thai. In Cambodian (Khmer) literally called it "Katem Kror Hom" where "Katem or Ktem" is a species of Onion and "Kror Hom" or "Hom" is meant RED describing the colour of the onion, which roughly translate as "Red Onion". In South East Asian cuisines, such as Thai, Cambodian, Malaysian and Indonesian cuisines, both shallots and garlic ('bawang putih', white onions) are very often used as elementary spices. Raw shallot can also accompany cucumbers when pickled in mild vinegar solution. It is also often chopped finely, then fried until golden brown, resulting in tiny crispy shallot chips called 'bawang goreng' (fried onions) in Indonesian language, which can be bought ready-made from groceries and supermarkets. It enhances the flavor of many South East Asian dishes, such as fried rice variants. Crispy shallot chips are also used in Southern Chinese cuisine. In Indonesia, sometimes it is made into pickle which is usually added in variable kinds of traditional food. Its sourness increases one's appetite. It is widely used in the southern part of India. In Kannada language it is known as 'Eerulli' and used extensively in snacks, salads, curries and rice varieties. It is called 'Chuvannulli' in Malayalam and is used in Sambar (a type of curry) and different types of kuzhambu(curry).

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Cardamom Cardamom

True Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)

Scientific classification Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Monocots (unranked): Commelinids Order:

Zingiberales

Family:

Zingiberaceae

Genera Amomum Elettaria

The name cardamom is used for herbs within two genera of the ginger family Zingiberaceae, namely Elettaria and Amomum. Both varieties take the form of a small seedpod, triangular in cross-section and spindle-shaped, with a thin papery outer shell and small black seeds. Elettaria pods are light green in color, while Amomum pods are larger and dark brown.

Types and distribution The two main genera of the ginger family that are named as forms of cardamom are distributed as follows: Elettaria (commonly called cardamom, green cardamom, or true cardamom) is distributed from India to Malaysia.

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Amomum (commonly known as black cardamom(沙仁), brown cardamom, Kravan, Java cardamom, Bengal cardamom, Siamese cardamom, white or red cardamom) is distributed mainly in Asia and Australia. The Sanskrit name for cardamom is "elā" or "truṭ ī." In Urdu/Hindi/Gujarati and some Southern Indian languages, it is called "elaichi" or "elchi." In Malayalam, it is "Aelam". In Telugu & Tamil, it is "elakkai" and in Kannada it is "yelakki"

Varieties There were initially three natural varieties of cardamom plants. 1. Malabar (Nadan/Native) - As the name suggests, this is the native variety of Kerala. These plants have pannicles which grow horizontally along the ground. 2. Mysore - As the name suggests, this is a native variety of Karnataka. These plants have pannicles which grow vertically upwards. 3. Vazhuka - This is a naturally occurring hybrid between Malabar and Mysore varieties, and the pannicles grow neither vertically nor horizontally, but in between. Recently a few planters isolated high yielding plants and started multiplying them on a large scale. The most popular high yielding variety is Njallani. Njallani, also known as "rup-ree-t" is a unique high-yielding cardamom variety developed by an Indian farmer Sebastian Joseph at Kattappana in the South Indian state of Kerala. Sebastian Joseph and his son Regimon let bees cross-pollinate the cardamom plants and came up with a new high-yielding variety that he named Njallani, after his ancestral home. This variety yields 1500 kg/hectare as compared to the conventional 200 kg/ha. The increased yield revolutionised cardamom cultivation in the state of Kerala.[1][2][3][4]

Uses

Green and black cardamom Both forms of cardamom are used as flavorings in both food and drink, as cooking spices and as a medicine. Elettaria cardamomum (the usual type of cardamom) is used as a spice, a

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masticatory, and in medicine; it is also smoked sometimes; it is used as a food plant by the larva of the moth Endoclita hosei.

Food and drink Cardamom has a strong, unique taste, with an intensely aromatic fragrance. Black cardamom has a distinctly more astringent aroma, though not bitter, with a coolness similar to mint, though with a different aroma. It is a common ingredient in Indian cooking, and is often used in baking in Nordic countries, such as in the Finnish sweet bread pulla or in the Scandinavian bread Julekake. Green cardamom is one of the most expensive spices by weight but little is needed to impart the flavor. Cardamom is best stored in pod form because once the seeds are exposed or ground they quickly lose their flavor. However, high-quality ground cardamom is often more readily (and cheaply) available and is an acceptable substitute. For recipes requiring whole cardamom pods, a generally accepted equivalent is 10 pods equals 1½ teaspoons of ground cardamom. In the Middle East, green cardamom powder is used as a spice for sweet dishes as well as traditional flavouring in coffee and tea. Cardamom pods are ground together with coffee beans to produce a powdered mixture of the two, which is boiled with water to make coffee. Cardamom is also used in some extent in savoury dishes. In Arabic, cardamom is called alHayl. In Persian, it is called hel. In Hebrew, it is also called hel (‫)לה‬. In Gujarati (a derivative of Sanskrit), it is "Ē-lī-chē". In some Middle Eastern countries, coffee and cardamom are often ground in a wooden mortar and cooked together in a mihbaz, an oven using wood or gas, to produce mixtures that are as much as forty percent cardamom. In South Asia, green cardamom is often used in traditional Indian sweets and in Masala chai (spiced tea). Black cardamom is sometimes used in garam masala for curries. It is occasionally used as a garnish in basmati rice and other dishes. It is often referred to as fat cardamom due its size ('Moti Elaichi'). Individual seeds are sometimes chewed, in much the same way as chewinggum. It has also been known to be used for gin making.

In traditional medicine Green cardamom in South Asia is broadly used to treat infections in teeth and gums, to prevent and treat throat troubles, congestion of the lungs and pulmonary tuberculosis, inflammation of eyelids and also digestive disorders. It also is used to break up kidney stones and gall stones, and was reportedly used as an antidote for both snake and scorpion venom. Amomum is used as a spice and as an ingredient in traditional medicine in systems of the traditional Chinese medicine in China, in Ayurveda in India, Japan, Korea and Vietnam. Species in the genus Amomum are also used in traditional Indian medicine. Among other species, varieties and cultivars, Amomum villosum cultivated in China, Laos and Vietnam is used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat stomach-aches, constipation, dysentery, and other digestion problems. "Tsaoko" cardamom Amomum tsao-ko is cultivated in Yunnan, China and northwest Vietnam, both for medicinal purposes and as a spice. Increased demand since the 1980s, principally from China, for both Amomum villosum and Amomum tsao-ko has provided a key source of income for poor farmers living at higher altitudes in localized areas of China, Laos and Vietnam, people typically isolated from many other markets. Until 67 | P a g e

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recently, Nepal has been the world's largest producer of large cardamom. Guatemala has become the world's largest producer and exporter of cardamom, with an export total of US$137.2 million for 2007.

Gallery

Green cardamom pods and seeds Cardamom fruit and seeds

A jar of green cardamom

Notes 1. ^ Unsung Hero: Tale of an ingenious farmer. Rediff.com, 30 May 2007 [1] 2. ^ New cardamom variety. Njallani. National Innovation Foundation [2] 3. ^ Poor rainfall may hit cardamom crop. The Hindu Business Line, 06 July 2007 [3] 4. ^ Cardamom: Scientists, Njallani developers fight. CommodityOnline, 08 Jan 2008 [4]

Bibliography 1. Mabberley, D.J. The Plant-book: A Portable Dictionary of the Higher Plants. Cambridge University Press, 1996. 2. Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages: Cardamom 3. Plant Cultures: botany and history of Cardamom 4. Pham Hoang Ho 1993, Cay Co Vietnam [Plants of Vietnam: in Vietnamese], vols. I, II & III, Montreal. 5. Buckingham, J.S. & Petheram, R.J. 2004, Cardamom cultivation and forest biodiversity in northwest Vietnam, Agricultural Research and Extension Network, Overseas Development Institute, London UK. 6. Aubertine, C. 2004, Cardamom (Amomum spp.) in Lao PDR: the hazardous future of an agroforest system product, in 'Forest products, livelihoods and conservation: case studies of non-timber forest products systems vol. 1-Asia, Center for International Forest Research. Jakarta, Indonesia. 7. Álvarez, L., Gudiel, V. 2008. 'Cardamom prices leads to a re-emergence of the green gold'. [5]

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Star anise Star anise

Star anise fruits (Illicium verum)fdaf

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class:

Magnoliopsida

Order:

Austrobaileyales

Family:

Illiciaceae

Genus:

Illicium

Species:

I. verum

Binomial name Illicium verum Hook.f.

Star anise, star aniseed, badiane or Chinese star anise, (Chinese: 八角, pinyin: bājiǎo, lit. "eight-horn"; Malayalam: ) or hoa hồi (Vietnamese) is a spice that closely resembles anise in flavor, obtained from the star-shaped pericarp of Illicium verum, a small native evergreen tree of southwest China. The star shaped fruits are harvested just before ripening. It is widely used in Chinese cuisine, in Indian cuisine where it is a major component of garam masala, and in Malay–Indonesian cuisine. It is widely grown for commercial use in China, India, and most other countries in Asia. Star anise is an ingredient of the traditional five-spice powder of Chinese cooking. It is also a major ingredient in the making of phở, a Vietnamese noodle soup. It is used as a spice in preparation of Biryani in Andhra Pradesh, a state of southern India. In Marathi, it is called BarDan ( ) which literally means "spice with twelve( ) seeds ( )".

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Usages Culinary uses Star anise contains anethole, the same ingredient which gives the unrelated anise its flavor. Recently, star anise has come into use in the West as a less expensive substitute for anise in baking as well as in liquor production, most distinctively in the production of the liquor Galliano. It is also used in the production of Sambuca, pastis, and many types of absinthe.

Medicinal uses Star anise has been used in a tea as a remedy for rheumatism, and the seeds are sometimes chewed after meals to aid digestion. As a warm and moving herb, Ba Jiao is used to assist in relieving cold-stagnation in the middle jiao, according to TCM. Shikimic acid, a primary feedstock used to create the anti-flu drug Tamiflu, is produced by most autotrophic organisms, but star anise is the industrial source. In 2005, there was a temporary shortage of star anise due to its use in making Tamiflu. Late in that year, a way was found of making shikimic acid artificially. Roche now derives some of the raw material it needs from fermenting E. coli bacteria. The 2009 swine flu outbreak led to another series of shortages as stocks of Tamiflu were built up around the world, sending prices soaring.[1] Star anise is grown in four provinces in China and harvested between March and May. Its also found in the south of New South Wales. The shikimic acid is extracted from the seeds in a ten-stage manufacturing process which takes a year. Reports say 90% of the harvest is already used by the Swiss pharmaceutical manufacturer Roche in making Tamiflu, but other reports say there is an abundance of the spice in the main regions - Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and Yunnan. Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum), a similar tree, is not edible because it is highly toxic (due to containing sikimitoxin); instead, it has been burned as incense in Japan. Cases of illness, including "serious neurological effects, such as seizures", reported after using star anise tea may be a result of using this species. Japanese star anise contains anisatin, which causes severe inflammation of the kidneys, urinary tract and digestive organs. Using Star Anise as a remedy for colic is dangerous as referenced here.

Standardization of its products and services ISO 676:1995 - contains the information about the nomenclature of the variety and cultivars [2]

Identification Refer to the 4th edition of the European Pharmacopoeia [1153].

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Differentiation with other species Joshi et al. have tried the techniques of fluorescent microscopy and gas chromatography[3] to distinguished the species, while Lederer et al. employed the state of the art which combines the technology of TLC with HPLC-MS/MS.[4]

Specifications ISO 11178:1995 - a specification for its dried fruits[5] GB/T 7652:2006 - a Chinese standard of the product[6]

Notes & References 1. ^ Louisa Lim, "Swine Flu Bumps Up Price Of Chinese Spice", NPR, 18 May 2009 2. ^ International Organization for Standardization. "ISO 676:1995 Spices and condiments -- Botanical nomenclature". http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber =4844. Retrieved 8 June 2009. 3. ^ Joshi, Vaishali C. et al. (2005). "Rapid and Easy Identification of Illicium verum Hook. f. and Its Adulterant Illicium anisatum Linn. by Fluorescent Microscopy and Gas Chromatography". Journal of AOAC International (AOAC International) 88 (3): 703–706. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-0058. PMID 15492355. http://www.atypon-link.com/AOAC/doi/abs/10.5555/jaoi.2005.88.3.703. Retrieved 10 November. 4. ^ Lederer, Ines et al. (2006). "Combination of TLC and HPLC-MS/MS Methods. Approach to a Rational Quality Control of Chinese Star Anise". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (American Chemical Society) 54 (6): 1970– 1974. doi:10.1021/jf058156b. 5. ^ International Organization for Standardization. "ISO 11178:1995 Star anise (Illicium verum Hook. f.) -- Specification". http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=19183. Retrieved 8 June 2009. 6. ^ 供销总杜南京野生植物综合利用研究院. "GB/T 7652-2006 八角". http://www.chinaios.com/BZ-shuju/standshow.asp?table=gbtwo&id=18357. Retrieved 8 June 2009.

Bibliography ITIS 505892 FDA Issues Advisory on Star Anise "Teas"

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Cumin Cumin

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order:

Apiales

Family:

Apiaceae

Genus:

Cuminum

Species:

C. cyminum

Binomial name Cuminum cyminum L.[1]

Cumin (Cuminum cyminum, pronounced /ˈkjuˈmɪ n/ or UK: /ˈkʌ mɪ n/, US: /ˈkuˈm ɪ n/, and sometimes spelled cummin) is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae, native from the east Mediterranean to East India.

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Etymology The English "cumin" derives from the French "cumin", which was borrowed indirectly from Arabic "‫ "نومك‬Kammūn via Spanish comino during the Arab rule in Spain in the 15th century. The spice is native to Arabic-speaking Syria where cumin thrives in its hot and arid lands. Cumin seeds have been found in some ancient Syrian archeological sites. The word found its way from Syria to neighbouring Turkey and nearby Greece most likely before it found its way to Spain. Like many other Arabic words in the English language, cumin was acquired by Western Europe via Spain rather than the Grecian route. Some suggest that the word is derived from the Latin cuminum and Greek κύμινον. The Greek term itself has been borrowed from Arabic. Forms of this word are attested in several ancient Semitic languages, including kamūnu in Akkadian.[2] The ultimate source is believed to be the Sumerian word gamun.[3] A folk etymology connects the word with the Persian city Kerman where, the story goes, most of ancient Persia's cumin was produced. For the Persians the expression "carrying cumin to Kerman" has the same meaning as the English language phrase "carrying coals to Newcastle". Kerman, locally called "Kermun", would have become "Kumun" and finally "cumin" in the European languages. In Northern India and Nepal, cumin is known as jeera (Devanagari ) or jira, while in Iran and Pakistan it is known as zeera (Persian nrehtuoS ni ;(‫زي ره‬India it is called Jeerige ( in (Kannada)) or jeeragam or seeragam (Tamil ( / )) or jilakarra (Telugu); in Sri Lanka it is known as duru, the white variety being suduru and the large variety, maduru; in Iran and Central Asia, cumin is known as zireh; in Turkey, cumin is known as kimyon; in northwestern China, cumin is known as ziran (孜然). In Arabic, it is known as al-kamuwn (‫)نومكلا‬. Cumin is called kemun in Ethiopian, and is one of the ingredients in the spice mix berbere.

Description Cumin is the dried seed of the herb Cuminum cyminum, a member of the parsley family. The cumin plant grows to 30-50 cm (1-2 ft) tall and is harvested by hand. Cumin seeds resemble caraway seeds, being oblong in shape, longitudinally ridged, and yellow-brown in colour, like other members of the Umbelliferae family such as caraway, parsley and dill.

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History

Cumin Seeds Cumin has been in use since ancient times. Seeds, excavated at the Syrian site Tell ed-Der, have been dated to the second millennium BC. They have also been reported from several New Kingdom levels of ancient Egyptian archaeological sites.[4] Originally cultivated in Iran and Mediterranean region, cumin is mentioned in the Bible in both the Old Testament (Isaiah 28:27) and the New Testament (Matthew 23:23). It was also known in ancient Greece and Rome. The Greeks kept cumin at the dining table in its own container (much as pepper is frequently kept today), and this practice continues in Morocco. Cumin fell out of favour in Europe except in Spain and Malta during the Middle Ages. It was introduced to the Americas by Spanish colonists. Since returned to favour in parts of Europe, today it is mostly grown in Iran, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Morocco, Egypt, India, Syria, Mexico, and Chile.

Folklore Superstition during the Middle Ages cited that cumin kept chickens and lovers from wandering. It was also believed that a happy life awaited the bride and groom who carried cumin seed throughout the wedding ceremony.

Medical Usage Cumin is said to help in treatment of the common cold, when added to hot milk and consumed. In South Asia, cumin tea (dry seeds boiled in hot water) is used to distinguish false labour (due to gas) from real labour. In Sri Lanka, toasting cumin seeds and then boiling them in water makes a tea used to soothe acute stomach problems.

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Cultivation and uses

Cuminum cyminum Linn. It is an herbaceous annual plant, with a slender branched stem 20-30 cm tall. The leaves are 5-10 cm long, pinnate or bipinnate, thread-like leaflets. The flowers are small, white or pink, and borne in umbels. The fruit is a lateral fusiform or ovoid achene 4-5 mm long, containing a single seed. Cumin seeds are similar to fennel and anise seeds in appearance, but are smaller and darker in colour. Today, cumin is the second most popular spice in the world after black pepper.[5][unreliable source?] Cumin seeds are used as a spice for their distinctive aroma, popular in Indian, Pakistani, North African, Middle Eastern, Sri Lankan, Cuban, Northern Mexican cuisines, and the Western Chinese cuisines of Sichuan and Xinjiang. Cumin can be found in some Dutch cheeses like Leyden cheese, and in some traditional breads from France. It is also commonly used in traditional Brazilian cuisine. Cumin can be an ingredient in (often Texan or Mexican-style) Chili powder, and is found in achiote blends, adobos, sofrito, garam masala, curry powder, and bahaarat. Cumin's distinctive flavour and strong, warm aroma is due to its essential oil content. Its main constituent and important aroma compound is cuminaldehyde (4-isopropylbenzaldehyde). Important aroma compounds of toasted cumin are the substituted pyrazines, 2-ethoxy-3isopropylpyrazine, 2-methoxy-3-sec-butylpyrazine, and 2-methoxy-3-methylpyrazine. Cumin can be used to season many dishes, either ground or as whole seeds, as it draws out their natural sweetnesses. It is traditionally added to chili, enchiladas, tacos, curries, and other Middle-Eastern, Indian, Cuban and Mexican-style foods. Cumin has also been used on meat in addition to other common seasonings. Contrary to popular belief in the US, the spice is not 75 | P a g e

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very common in Mexican cuisine. However, the spice is a familiar taste in Tex-Mex dishes. It is extensively used in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent. Cumin was also used heavily in ancient Roman cuisine. Cumin is typically used in Mediterranean cooking from Spanish, Italian and Middle Eastern cuisine. It helps to add an earthy and warming feeling to cooking making it a staple in certain stews and soups as well. Cultivation of cumin requires a long, hot summer of 3–4 months, with daytime temperatures around 30°C (86°F); it is drought-tolerant, and is mostly grown in mediterranean climates. It is grown from seed, sown in spring, and needs fertile, well-drained soil.

Nutritional value Cumin seeds Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 370 kcal 1570 kJ

Carbohydrates

44.24 g

- Sugars 2.25 g - Dietary fiber 10.5 g Fat

22.27 g

- saturated 1.535 g Protein

17.81 g

Water

8.06 g

Vitamin A equiv. 64 μg

7%

Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.327 mg 22% Niacin (Vit. B3) 4.579 mg

31%

Vitamin B6 0.435 mg

33%

Folate (Vit. B9) 10 μg

3%

Vitamin B12 0 μg

0%

Vitamin C 7.7 mg

13%

Vitamin E 3.33 mg

22%

Vitamin K 5.4 μg

5%

Calcium 931 mg

93%

Iron 66.36 mg

531%

Magnesium 366 mg

99%

Phosphorus 499 mg

71%

Potassium 1788 mg

38%

Sodium 168 mg

7%

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Zinc 4.8 mg

48%

Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

Cumin seeds contain a relatively large percentage amount of iron. However, unless one would eat about 15 grams (1/2 oz) per day, cumin is not likely to be a significant dietary source of iron.

Confusion with other spices

Black Cumin seeds Cumin is hotter to the taste, lighter in colour, and larger than caraway (Carum carvi), another umbelliferous spice that is sometimes confused with it. Many European languages do not distinguish clearly between the two. For example, in Czech caraway is called 'kmín' while cumin is called 'římský kmín' or "Roman caraway". The distinction is practically the same in Hungarian ("kömény" for caraway and "római kömény" [Roman caraway] for cumin). In Polish the difference is even less significant- caraway is 'kminek' and cumin is 'kmin rzymski', which is even more confusing as 'kminek' is a diminutive of 'kmin' (notice the -ek suffix, as in 'kot' - a cat and 'kotek' - a small cat). In Swedish, caraway is called "kummin" while cumin is "spiskummin", from the Swedish word "spisa", to eat, while in German "Kümmel" stands for caraway and "Kreuzkümmel" denotes cumin. Some older cookbooks erroneously name ground coriander as the same spice as a ground cumin.[6] The distantly related Bunium persicum and the unrelated Nigella sativa are both sometimes called black cumin (q.v.). Not related to curcumin, a chemical found in turmeric.

Aroma profile beta-Pinene[7][8][9] Cuminal[7][clarification needed] Gamma-terpinene[7][8][9]

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Whole cumin seeds and Close up of dried cumin Commercially ground cumin Dry, whole cumin fruit seeds packaged whole (or seed) and ground cumin seeds

Notes and references 1. ^ "Cuminum cyminum information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov. http://www.arsgrin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?12617. Retrieved 2008-03-13. 2. ^ "Kamūnu." premiumwanadoo.com. 3. ^ "KMN." American Heritage Dictionary (Fourth Edition), 2000. 4. ^ Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of plants in the Old World, third edition (Oxford: University Press, 2000), p. 206 5. ^ http://www.foodreference.com/html/fcumin.html 6. ^ Growingtaste.com 7. ^ a b c Li, Rong; Zi-Tao Jiang (2004). "Chemical composition of the essential oil of Cuminum cyminum L. from China". Flavour and Fragrance Journal 19 (4): 311 - 313. doi:10.1002/ffj.1302. 8. ^ a b Wang, Lu et al. (2009). "Ultrasonic nebulization extraction coupled with headspace single drop microextraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry for analysis of the essential oil in Cuminum cyminum L.". Analytica Chimica Acta 647 (1): 72 - 77. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2009.05.030. 9. ^ a b Iacobellis, Nicola S. et al. (2005). "Antibacterial Activity of Cuminum cyminum L. and Carum carvi L. Essential Oils". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 53 (1): 57 – 61. doi:10.1021/jf0487351.

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Ginger Ginger

Color plate from Köhler's Medicinal Plants.

Conservation status Secure Scientific classification Kingdom:

Plantae

Division:

Magnoliophyta

(unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Monocots (unranked): Commelinids Order:

Zingiberales

Family:

Zingiberaceae

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Genus:

Zingiber

Species:

officinale

Binomial name Zingiber officinale Roscoe

[1]

Ginger is a tuber which is consumed whole as a delicacy, medicine, or spice. It is the rhizome of the plant Zingiber officinale. It lends its name to its genus and family (Zingiberaceae). Other notable members of this plant family are turmeric, cardamom, and galangal. Ginger cultivation began in Asia and is now also grown in India, West Africa and the Caribbean.[2] It is sometimes called root ginger to distinguish it from other things that share the name ginger.

Chemistry The characteristic odor and flavor of ginger is caused by a mixture of zingerone, shogaols and gingerols, volatile oils that compose one to three percent of the weight of fresh ginger. In laboratory animals, the gingerols increase the motility of the gastrointestinal tract and have analgesic, sedative, antipyretic and antibacterial properties.[3] Ginger oil has been shown to prevent skin cancer in mice[4] and a study at the University of Michigan demonstrated that gingerols can kill ovarian cancer cells.

Ginger section

Ginger contains up to three percent of a fragrant essential oil whose main constituents are sesquiterpenoids, with (-)-zingiberene as the main component. Smaller amounts of other sesquiterpenoids (β-sesquiphellandrene, bisabolene and farnesene) and a small monoterpenoid fraction (β-phelladrene, cineol, and citral) have also been identified.

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The pungent taste of ginger is due to nonvolatile phenylpropanoid-derived compounds, particularly gingerols and shogaols, which form from gingerols when ginger is dried or cooked. Zingerone is also produced from gingerols during this process; this compound is less pungent and has a spicy-sweet aroma.[5] Ginger is also a minor chemical irritant, and because of this was used as a horse suppository by pre-World War I mounted regiments for feaguing. Ginger has a sialagogue action, stimulating the production of saliva, which makes swallowing easier.

Use Culinary use Young ginger rhizomes are juicy and fleshy with a very mild taste. They are often pickled in vinegar or sherry as a snack or just cooked as an ingredient in many dishes. They can also be stewed in boiling water to make ginger tea, to which honey is often added; sliced orange or lemon fruit may also be added. Mature ginger roots are fibrous and nearly dry. The juice from old ginger roots is extremely potent[citation needed] and is often used as a spice in Indian recipes and Chinese cuisine to flavor dishes such as seafood or goat meat and vegetarian cuisine. Ginger acts as a useful food preservative,[6] and has been proven to kill the harmful bacteria salmonella. Fresh ginger can be substituted for ground ginger at a ratio of 6 to 1, although the flavors of fresh and dried ginger are somewhat different. Ginger is also made into candy. Powdered dry ginger root is typically used as a flavoring for recipes such as gingerbread, cookies, crackers and cake, ginger ale, and ginger beer. Fresh ginger may be peeled before being eaten. For storage, the ginger can be placed in a plastic bag and refrigerated, or frozen for longer term storage. [edit] Regional use

In India, ginger is called Aada in Bengali, Adrak, in Gujarati, Shunti in the Kannada language of Karnataka, Allam ( ) in Telugu, Inji in Tamil, enchi in Malayalam, Alay in Marathi, and Aduwa in Nepali. Fresh ginger is one of the main spices used for making pulse and lentil curries and other vegetable preparations. It is used fresh to spice tea especially in winter. Ginger powder is also used in certain food preparations particularly for pregnant or nursing women, the most popular one being Katlu which is a mixture of gum resin, ghee, nuts, and sugar. In South India, ginger is used in the production of a candy called Inji-murappa meaning ginger candy in Tamil. This candy is mostly sold by vendors to bus passengers in bus stops and in small tea shops as a locally produced item. Candied or crystallised ginger (ginger cured with sugar) is also common. Additionally, in Tamil Nadu, especially in the Tanjore belt, a variety of ginger which is less spicy is used when tender to make fresh pickle with the combination of lemon juice or vinegar, salt, and tender green chili peppers. This kind of pickle was generally made before the invention of refrigeration and stored for a maximum of 4–5 days. The pickle gains a mature flavor when the juices cook the ginger over the first day.

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Ginger is also added as a flavoring in tea. Dried ginger (sukku coffee and also in siddha medicine.

) is used in tea or

In Bangladesh, ginger is called Aadha and is finely chopped or ground into a paste to use as a base for chicken and meat dishes alongside onion and garlic. In Burma, ginger is called gyin. It is widely used in cooking and as a main ingredient in traditional medicines. It is also consumed as a salad dish called gyin-thot, which consists of shredded ginger preserved in oil, and a variety of nuts and seeds. In Indonesia a beverage called Wedang Jahe is made from ginger and palm sugar. Indonesians also use ground ginger root, called jahe as a common ingredient in local recipes. In Vietnam, the fresh leaves finely chopped can also be added to shrimp-and-yam soup (canh khoai mỡ) as a top garnish and spice to add a much subtler flavor of ginger than the chopped root. In China, sliced or whole ginger root is often paired with savory dishes such as fish. However, candied ginger is sometimes a component of Chinese candy boxes, and a herbal tea can also be prepared from ginger. In Japan, ginger is pickled to make beni shoga and gari or grated and used raw on tofu or noodles. It is also made into a candy called shoga no satozuke. In the traditional Korean kimchi, ginger is finely minced and added to the ingredients of the spicy paste just before the fermenting process. In Western cuisine, ginger is traditionally used mainly in sweet foods such as ginger ale, gingerbread, ginger snaps, parkin and ginger biscuits. A ginger-flavored liqueur called Canton is produced in Jarnac, France. Green ginger wine is a ginger flavored wine produced in the United Kingdom, traditionally sold in a green glass bottle. Ginger is also used as a spice added to hot coffee and tea. In the Caribbean, ginger is a popular spice for cooking, and making drinks such as sorrel, a seasonal drink made during the Christmas season. Jamaicans make ginger beer both as a carbonated beverage and also fresh in their homes. Ginger tea is often made from fresh ginger as well. On the island of Corfu, Greece, a traditional drink called τσιτσιμπύρα (tsitsimpira), a type of ginger beer, is made. The people of Corfu and the rest of the Ionian islands picked up the drink from the British, during their occupation of the islands. In Arabic, ginger is called zanjabil and in some parts of the Middle East ginger powder is used as a spice for coffee. In the Ivory Coast, ginger is ground and mixed with orange, pineapple and lemon to produce a juice called Nyamanku.

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Medicinal use The medical form of ginger historically was called Jamaica ginger; it was classified as a stimulant and carminative, and used frequently for dyspepsia and colic. It was also frequently employed to disguise the taste of medicines. Ginger is on the FDA's "generally recognized as safe" list, though it does interact with some medications, including warfarin. Ginger is contraindicated in people suffering from gallstones as it promotes the production of bile.[7] Ginger may also decrease pain from arthritis, though studies been inconsistent, and may have blood thinning and cholesterol lowering properties that may make it useful for treating heart disease.[8] Diarrhea

Ginger compounds are active against a form of diarrhea which is the leading cause of infant death in developing countries. Zingerone is likely to be the active constituent against enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin-induced diarrhea.[9] Nausea

Ginger has been found effective in multiple studies for treating nausea caused by seasickness, morning sickness and chemotherapy,[10] though ginger was not found superior over a placebo for post-operative nausea. Ginger is a safe remedy for nausea relief during pregnancy[11]. Folk medicine

A variety of uses are suggested for ginger. Tea brewed from ginger is a folk remedy for colds. Three to four leaves of Tulsi taken along with a piece of ginger on an empty stomach is considered an effective cure for congestion, cough and cold.[citation needed] Ginger ale and ginger beer have been recommended as stomach settlers for generations in countries where the beverages are made, and ginger water was commonly used to avoid heat cramps in the United States. Ginger has also been historically used to treat inflammation, which several scientific studies support, though one arthritis trial showed ginger to be no better than a placebo or ibuprofen for treatment of osteoarthritis.[8] Research on rats suggests that ginger may be useful for treating diabetes.[12][13]

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Regional medicinal use

A pack of ginger powder

In the West, powdered dried ginger root is made into capsules and sold in pharmacies for medicinal use. In Burma, ginger and a local sweetener made from palm tree juice (Htan nyat) are boiled together and taken to prevent the flu. In China, ginger is included in several traditional preparations. A drink made with sliced ginger cooked in water with brown sugar or a cola is used as a folk medicine for the common cold.[14] In Congo, ginger is crushed and mixed with mango tree sap to make tangawisi juice, which is considered a panacea. In India, ginger is applied as a paste to the temples to relieve headache and consumed when suffering from the common cold, people use ginger for making tea, in food etc. In Indonesia, ginger ("Jahe" in Indonesian) is used as a herbal preparation to reduce fatigue, reducing "winds" in the blood, prevent and cure rheumatism and controlling poor dietary habits. In the Philippines a traditional health drink called "salabat" is made for breakfast by boiling chopped ginger and adding sugar; it is considered good for a sore throat. In the United States, ginger is used to prevent motion and morning sickness. It is recognized as safe by the Food and Drug Administration and is sold as an unregulated dietary supplement.

Reactions Allergic reactions to ginger generally result in a rash, and although it's generally recognized as safe, ginger can cause heartburn, bloating, gas, belching and nausea, particularly if taken in powdered form. Unchewed fresh ginger may result in intestinal blockage, and individuals who have had ulcers, inflammatory bowel disease or blocked intestines may react badly to large quantities of fresh ginger.[15] Ginger can also adversely affect individuals with gallstones.[8][15] There are also suggestions that ginger may affect blood pressure, clotting, and heart rhythms.[15] 84 | P a g e

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Horticulture

Ginger field

Ginger produces clusters of white and pink flower buds that bloom into yellow flowers. Because of its aesthetic appeal and the adaptation of the plant to warm climates, ginger is often used as landscaping around subtropical homes. It is a perennial reed-like plant with annual leafy stems, about a meter (3 to 4 feet) tall. Traditionally, the root is gathered when the stalk withers; it is immediately scalded, or washed and scraped, in order to kill it and prevent sprouting. Scalding, applied generally to the older and poorer roots, produces black ginger; washing and scraping gives white ginger. The natural color of the white scraped ginger is a pale buff; it is often whitened by bleaching or liming, but this generally reduces its value.

Production trends India, with over 30% of the global share, now leads in global production of ginger, replacing China, which has slipped to the second position (~20.5%), followed by Indonesia(~12.7%), Nepal(~11.5%) and Nigeria(~10%). Top Ten Ginger Producers — 11 June 2008

Country

Production Footnote (Tonnes) 420,000

F

People's Republic of China

285,000

F

Indonesia

177,000

F

India

Nepal

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Nigeria

138,000

F

Bangladesh

57,000

F

Japan

42,000

F

Thailand

34,000

F

Philippines

28,000

F

Sri Lanka World

8,270 1,387,445

A

No symbol = official figure, F = FAO estimate, A = Aggregate(may include official, semiofficial or estimates); Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Devision

Similar species Myoga (Zingiber mioga Roscoe) appears in Japanese cuisine; the flower buds are the part eaten. Another plant in the Zingiberaceae family, galangal, is used for similar purposes as ginger in Thai cuisine. Galangal is also called Thai ginger. Also referred to as galangal, fingerroot (Boesenbergia rotunda), or Chinese ginger or the Thai krachai, is used in cooking and medicine. A dicotyledonous native species of eastern North America, Asarum canadense, is also known as "wild ginger", and its root has similar aromatic properties, but it is not related to true ginger. The plant also contains aristolochic acid, a carcinogenic compound.

See also Bu Zhong Yi Qi Wan - contains ginger material Kaempferia galanga List of plants used as medicine Xiao Yao Wan - contains ginger material

References 1. ^ "Zingiber officinale information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov. http://www.arsgrin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?42254. Retrieved 2008-03-03.

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2. ^ "Spices: Exotic Flavours & Medicines: Ginger". http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/biomed/spice/index.cfm?displayID=15. Retrieved 2007-0808. 3. ^ MD O' Hara, Mary; & MSt; David Kiefer, MD; Kim Farrell, MD; Kathi Kemper, MD, MPH (1998). "A Review of 12 Commonly Used Medicinal Herbs". Archives of Family Medicine 7 (7): 523–536. doi:10.1001/archfami.7.6.523. PMID 9821826. http://archfami.amaassn.org/cgi/content/full/7/6/523. Retrieved 2007-08-06. 4. ^ Glorious Ginger: Root Out Ailments with This Ancient Spice published by thefoodpaper.com 5. ^ McGee, Harold (2004). On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen (2nd ed.). New York: Scribner pp. 425-426. 6. ^ Glorious Ginger: Root out Ailments with this Ancient Spice published by thefoodpaper.com 7. ^ Al-Achi, Antoine. "A Current Look at Ginger Use". http://www.uspharmacist.com/oldformat.asp?url=newlook/files/Comp/ginger2.htm&pub_i d=8&article_id=772. Retrieved 2007-08-02. 8. ^ a b c University of Maryland Medical Centre (2006). "Ginger". http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsHerbs/Gingerch.html. Retrieved 2007-08-02. 9. ^ Chen, Jaw-Chyun; Li-Jiau Huang, Shih-Lu Wu, Sheng-Chu Kuo, Tin-Yun Ho, Chien-Yun Hsiang (2007). "Ginger and Its Bioactive Component Inhibit Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Heat-Labile Enterotoxin-Induced Diarrhoea in Mice". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55 (21): 8390–8397. doi:10.1021/jf071460f. 10. ^ Ernst, E.; & Pittler, M.H. (01 Mar 2000). "Efficacy of ginger for nausea and vomiting: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials" (PDF). British Journal of Anesthesia 84 (3): 367–371. PMID 10793599. http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/84/3/367. Retrieved 2006-09-06. 11. ^ Glorious Ginger: Root Out Ailments with This Ancient Spice published by thefoodpaper.com 12. ^ Al-Amin, Zainab M. et al. (2006). "Anti-diabetic and hypolipidaemic properties of ginger (Zingiber officinale) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats". British Journal of Nutrition (Cambridge University Press) 96: 660–666. doi:10.1079/BJN20061849 (inactive 2008-06-25). http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=928716. Retrieved 5 November. 13. ^ Afshari, Ali Taghizadeh et al. (2007). "The effect of ginger on diabetic nephropathy, plasma antioxidant capacity and lipid peroxidation in rats". Food Chemistry (Elsevier) 101 (1): 148– 153. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.01.013. 14. ^ Jakes, Susan (2007-01-15). "Beverage of Champions". http://timeblog.com/china_blog/2007/01/the_beverage_of_champions_1.html. Retrieved 2007-08-02. 15. ^ a b c Mayo Clinic (2006-05-01). "Drugs & Supplements: Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)". http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/ginger/NS_patient-ginger. Retrieved 2007-08-02. This article incorporates text from the public domain 1911 edition of The Grocer's Encyclopedia.

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Turmeric Turmeric

Curcuma longa

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Order:

Zingiberales

Family:

Zingiberaceae

Genus:

Curcuma

Species:

C. longa

Binomial name Curcuma longa Linnaeus[1]

Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae.[2] It is native to tropical South Asia and needs temperatures between 20°C and 30°C, and a considerable amount of annual rainfall to thrive[citation needed]. Plants are gathered annually for their rhizomes, and re-seeded from some of those rhizomes in the following season. The rhizomes are boiled for several hours and then dried in hot ovens, after which they are ground into a deep orange-yellow powder commonly used as a spice in curries and other South Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine, for dyeing, and to impart color to mustard condiments. Its active ingredient is curcumin and it has a distinctly earthy, slightly bitter, slightly hot peppery flavor and a mustardy smell. In medieval Europe, turmeric became known as Indian Saffron, since it was widely used as an alternative to the far more expensive saffron spice. Erode, a city in the south Indian state of Tamil Nadu, is the world's largest producer and most important trading center of turmeric in Asia. For these reasons, Erode is also known as 88 | P a g e

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Yellow City, Turmeric City, or Textile City.[citation needed] Sangli, a town in the southern part of the Indian state of Maharashtra, is the second largest and most important trading center for turmeric in Asia.[3]

Usage Culinary uses

Turmeric powder is used extensively in South Asian cuisine.

Commercially packaged turmeric powder Turmeric is found everywhere and grows wild in the forests of Malaysia. It has become the key ingredient for many Malay dishes, not only in curry, but also in masak lemak, rendang, and many more. In non-South Asian recipes, turmeric is sometimes used as an agent to impart a rich, custardlike yellow color. It is used in canned beverages and baked products, dairy products, ice cream, yogurt, yellow cakes, orange juice, biscuits, popcorn color, sweets, cake icings, cereals, sauces, gelatins, etc.[citation needed] It is a significant ingredient in most commercial curry powders. Turmeric is mostly used in savory dishes, as well as some sweet dishes such as the cake Sfouf. Although usually used in its dried, powdered form, turmeric is also used fresh, much like ginger. It has numerous uses in Far Eastern recipes, such as fresh turmeric pickle (which contains large chunks of soft turmeric). Turmeric (coded as E100 when used as a food additive) is used to protect food products from sunlight. The oleoresin is used for oil-containing products. The curcumin/polysorbate solution or curcumin powder dissolved in alcohol is used for water-containing products. Over-coloring, such as in pickles, relishes, and mustard, is sometimes used to compensate for fading. 89 | P a g e

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In combination with annatto (E160b), turmeric has been used to color cheeses, yogurt, dry mixes, salad dressings, winter butter and margarine. Turmeric is also used to give a yellow color to some prepared mustards, canned chicken broths and other foods (often as a much cheaper replacement for saffron). Turmeric is widely used as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking. Momos (Nepali meat dumplings), a traditional dish in South Asia, are spiced with turmeric. In South Africa turmeric is traditionally used to give boiled white rice a golden color.

Medicinal uses

Turmeric plant Main article: Curcumin In Ayurvedic practices, turmeric is thought to have many medicinal properties and many in South Asia use it as a readily available antiseptic for cuts, burns and bruises. It is also used as an antibacterial agent. It is taken in some Asian countries as a dietary supplement, which allegedly helps with stomach problems and other ailments. It is popular as a tea in Okinawa, Japan. Pakistanis also use it as an anti-inflammatory agent, and remedy for gastrointestinal discomfort associated with irritable bowel syndrome, and other digestive disorders. In Afghanistan and northwest Pakistan, turmeric is applied to a piece of burnt cloth, and placed over a wound to cleanse and stimulate recovery. Indians, in addition to its Ayurvedic properties, use turmeric in a wide variety of skin creams that are also exported to neighboring countries. It is currently being investigated for possible benefits in Alzheimer's disease,[4] cancer, arthritis [5] and liver disorders.[citation needed] Hidradenitis Suppurativa or Acne Inversa, an uncurable and debilitating disease, is also treated with turmeric powder. It is unknown why it works, but people[who?] who have suffered from HS for 30–40 years have reported almost an immediate improvement after consuming one teaspoon in 1/4 cup of warm water three times a day. Within one week of using turmeric, these same people have reported almost a complete reduction of boils and purple scarring.[citation needed]

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Turmeric rhizome In the latter half of the 20th century, curcumin was identified as responsible for most of the biological effects of turmeric. According to a 2005 article in the Wall Street Journal, research activity into curcumin is exploding. In that year supplement sales increased 35% from 2004, and the U.S. National Institutes of Health had four clinical trials underway to study curcumin treatment for pancreatic cancer, multiple myeloma, Alzheimer's, and colorectal cancer. Curcumin also enhances the production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, or BDNF, which supports nerve growth.[citation needed] There is evidence that piperine, found in black pepper, improves the absorption of turmeric. In 1998 researchers at St. John‘s Medical College, Bangalore, India found that curcumin taken with 20 mg of piperine increased the absorption of curcumin by 2000%, with no adverse effects.[6] This means that a low dose of curcumin (or turmeric for that matter) could have a greater effect in terms of health benefits when combined with piperine than a large dose of curcumin or turmeric would. Snake Bite Anti venin. Curcuram Longa has been identified as acting as an anti venin for King Cobra snake bites by Dr Eric Lattman of Aston University. Steve Backshall's venom: poisonous animals in the natural world . This if adopted around the world could turn out to be the simplest cure for snake bites.

Cosmetics Turmeric is currently used in the formulation of some sunscreens. Turmeric paste is used by some Indian women to keep them free of superfluous hair. Turmeric paste is applied to bride and groom before marriage in some places of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, where it is believed turmeric gives glow to skin and keeps some harmful bacteria away from the body. The government of Thailand is funding a project to extract and isolate tetrahydrocurcuminoids (THC) from turmeric. THCs (not to be confused with tetrahydrocannabinol, which is also known as THC) are colorless compounds that might have antioxidant and skin-lightening properties and might be used to treat skin inflammations, making these compounds useful in cosmetics formulations.

Dye 91 | P a g e

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Turmeric makes a poor fabric dye as it is not very lightfast (the degree to which a dye resists fading due to light exposure). However, turmeric is commonly used in Indian clothing, such as saris.

Gardening Turmeric can also be used to deter ants. The exact reasons why turmeric repels ants is unknown, but anecdotal evidence suggests it works.[citation needed]

Ceremonial uses Turmeric is also used in various rituals, such as the turmeric ceremony or gaye holud, part of the Bengali wedding. It is widely used in all parts of India during wedding ceremony, particularly in North India and the Deccan Plateau. It is also used in Pujas to make a form of the elephant God Ganesha. It is made by mixing turmeric with water and forming it into a cone-like shape. During the south Indian festival Pongal, a whole turmeric plant with the root is placed as part of the ceremonial decorations. Also, fresh root is some times tied around the pot boiling the ceremonial rice. In southern India, as a part of the marriage ritual, a piece of dried turmeric tied with string is sometimes used to replace the Thali necklace temporarily or permanently. This happens in economically lower situations. Modern Neopagans list it with the quality of fire, and it is used for power and purification rites. In Dakshina Kannada (Karnataka state, India) turmeric plant leaf is used to prepare special sweet dishes by covering rice flour, jaggery, and coconut and cooked in steam.

Automotive Turmeric is one of the main ingredients in leading radiator stop-leak sealant mixtures.[citation needed]

Chemistry

Curcumin Keto form

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Curcumin Enol form Turmeric contains up to 5% essential oils and up to 3% curcumin, a polyphenol. It is the active substance of turmeric and it is also known as C.I. 75300, or Natural Yellow 3. The systematic chemical name is (1E,6E)-1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1,6-heptadiene3,5-dione. It can exist at least in two tautomeric forms, keto and enol. The keto form is preferred in solid phase and the enol form in solution. Turmeric can also be used as an indicator of acidic or basic properties of a substance.

Notes 1. ^ "Curcuma longa information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?12676. Retrieved 2008-03-04. 2. ^ Chan, E.W.C. et al. (2009). "Effects of different drying methods on the antioxidant properties of leaves and tea of ginger species". Food Chemistry 113 (1): 166 - 172. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.07.090. | accessyear = 2009}} 3. ^ Sangli: The Turmeric City of Indian home of brights 4. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1668932.stm 5. ^ [|Ketteler, Judy] (June 2009). "Foods That Help Fight Chronic Pain". AOL Health. http://www.aolhealth.com/condition-center/heart-disease/surviving-a-heart-attack. Retrieved June 2009. 6. ^ http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-2006-957450 thiemeconnect.de Shoba G, Joy D, Joseph T, Majeed M, Rajendran R, Srinivas PS. Influence of Piperine on the Pharmacokinetics of Curcumin in Animals and Human Volunteers. Planta Med. 1998 May; 64(4):353-6.

See also Alpinia zerumbet Etlingera elatior Kaempferia galanga

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Candlenut Candlenut

Candlenut (Aleurites moluccana) foliage, flowers, and nut

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Division:

Magnoliophyta

Class:

Magnoliopsida

Order:

Malpighiales

Family:

Euphorbiaceae

Subfamily: Crotonoideae Tribe:

Aleuritideae

Subtribe:

Aleuritinae

Genus:

Aleurites

Species:

A. moluccana

Binomial name Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.

The Candlenut (Aleurites moluccana), is a flowering tree in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, also known as Candleberry, Indian walnut, Kemiri, Varnish tree or Kukui nut tree. Its native range is impossible to establish precisely because of early spread by humans, and the tree is now distributed throughout the New and Old World tropics. It grows to a height of 15–25 metres (49–82 ft), with wide spreading or pendulous branches. The leaves are pale green, simple and ovate, or trilobed or rarely 5-lobed, with an acute apex, 10–20 centimetres (3.9–7.9 in) long. The nut is round, 4–6 centimetres (1.6–2.4 in) in diameter; the seed inside has a very hard seed coat and a high oil content, which allows its use as a candle (see below), hence its name. 94 | P a g e

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Uses The nut is often used cooked in Indonesian and Malaysian cuisine, where it is called kemiri in Indonesian or buah keras in Malay. On the island of Java in Indonesia, it is used to make a thick sauce that is eaten with vegetables and rice. Outside of Southeast Asia, macadamia nuts are sometimes substituted for candlenuts when they are not available, as they have a similarly high oil content and texture when pounded. The flavor, however, is quite different, as the candlenut is much more bitter. Because the nuts contains saponin and phorbol, they are mildly toxic when raw.[1] Several parts of the plant have been used in traditional medicine in most of the areas where it is native. The oil is an irritant and laxative and sometimes used like castor oil. It is also used as a hair stimulant or additive to hair treatment systems. The seed kernels have a laxative effect. In Japan its bark has been used on tumors. In Sumatra, pounded seeds, burned with charcoal, are applied around the navel for costiveness. In Malaya, the pulped kernels or boiled leaves are used in poultices for headache, fevers, ulcers, swollen joints, and gonorrhea. In Java, the bark is used for bloody diarrhea or dysentery. In Hawaiʻi, the flowers and the sap at the top of the husk (when just removed from the branch) were used to treat eʻa (oral candidiasis) in children.

Aleurites moluccanus flowers In Ancient Hawaiʻi, the nuts, named kukui were burned to provide light. The nuts were strung in a row on a palm leaf midrib, lit one end, and burned one by one every 15 minutes or so. This led to their use as a measure of time. One could instruct someone to return home before the second nut burned out. Hawaiians also extracted the oil from the nut and burned it in a stone oil lamp called a kukui hele po (light, darkness goes) with a wick made of kapa cloth. Candle nuts are also roasted and mixed into a paste with salt to form a Hawaiian condiment known as inamona. Inamona is a key ingredient in traditional Hawaiian poke. It is the state tree of Hawaiʻi.[2] Hawaiians also had many other uses for the tree, including: leis from the shells, leaves and flowers; ink for tattoos from charred nuts; a varnish with the oil; and fishermen would chew the nuts and spit them on the water to break the surface tension and remove reflections, giving them greater underwater visibility. A red-brown dye made from the inner bark was 95 | P a g e

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used on kapa and aho (Touchardia latifolia cordage). A coating of kukui oil helped preserve

ʻupena (fishing nets). Kukui represents the island of Molokaʻi, whose symbolic color is the silvery green of the kukui leaf.[3] The nohona waʻa (seats), pale (gunwales) of waʻa (outrigger canoes) were made from the wood.[4] The trunk was sometimes used to make smaller canoes used for fishing.[5] In Tonga, still nowadays, ripe nuts, named tuitui are pounded into a paste, tukilamulamu, used as soap or shampoo. Dead wood of candlenut is eaten by a larva of a coleoptera called Agrionome fairmairei. This larva is eaten by some people. Modern cultivation is mostly for the oil. In plantations, each tree will produce 30–80 kilograms (66–180 lb) of nuts, and the nuts yield 15 to 20% of their weight in oil. Most of the oil is used locally rather than figuring in international trade.

Mythology In Hawaiʻi the candlenut tree is a symbol of enlightenment, protection and peace. The candlenut was considered to be the physical form of Kamapua'a, the hog-man fertility demigod associated with Lono, the god of agriculture. One of the legends told of a woman who, despite her best efforts to please her husband, was routinely beaten. Finally, the husband beat her to death and buried her under a kukui tree. Being a kind and just woman, she was given new life, and the husband was eventually killed.[citation needed]

References 1. ^ Scott, Susan; Craig Thomas (2000). Poisonous Plants of Paradise: First Aid and Medical Treatment of Injuries from Hawaii's Plants. University of Hawaii Press. p. 26. ISBN 9780824822514. http://books.google.com/books?id=99Dr7v8JOKAC&client=firefox-a. 2. ^ State tree of Hawaii 3. ^ "Kukui". Canoe Plants of Ancient Hawaii. http://canoeplants.com/kukui.html. Retrieved 2009-03-06. 4. ^ Krauss, Beatrice H. (1993). "Chapter 4: Canoes". Plants in Hawaiian Culture. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 50-51. http://books.google.com/books?id=WOdrGIP3zksC&client=firefox-a. 5. ^ Dunford, Betty; Lilinoe Andrews; Mikiala Ayau; Liana I. Honda; Julie Stewart Williams (2002). Hawaiians of Old (3 ed.). Bess Press. p. 122. ISBN 9781573061377. http://books.google.com/books?id=PpKyFZXO_jEC.

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Black pepper Black pepper

Pepper plant with immature peppercorns

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Magnoliids Order:

Piperales

Family:

Piperaceae

Genus:

Piper

Species:

P. nigrum

Binomial name Piper nigrum L.[1]

Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit, known as a peppercorn when dried, is a small drupe approximately five millimetres in diameter, dark red when fully mature, containing a single seed. Peppercorns, and the powdered pepper derived from grinding them, may be described as black pepper, white pepper, green pepper, and very often simply pepper. The terms pink peppercorns, red pepper (as in bell or chile), and green pepper (as in bell or chile) are also used to describe the fruits of other, unrelated plants. However, green peppercorns are simply the immature black peppercorns. Black pepper is native to South India (Tamil:milagu, ; Kannada:meNasu, ; Malayalam:kurumulaku, ; Telugu:miriyam, ; Konkani:miriya konu, Marathi: Miri ) and is extensively cultivated there and elsewhere in tropical regions. Black pepper is also cultivated in the Coorg area of Karnataka. 97 | P a g e

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Dried ground pepper is one of the most common spices in European cuisine and its descendants, having been known and prized since antiquity for both its flavor and its use as a medicine. The spiciness of black pepper is due to the chemical piperine. It may be found on nearly every dinner table in some parts of the world, often alongside table salt. The word "pepper" is ultimately derived from the Sanskrit pippali, the word for long pepper[2] via the Latin piper which was used by the Romans to refer both to pepper and long pepper, as the Romans erroneously believed that both of these spices were derived from the same plant.[citation needed] The English word for pepper is derived from the Old English pipor. The Latin word is also the source of German Pfeffer, French poivre, Dutch peper, and other similar forms. In the 16th century, pepper started referring to the unrelated New World chile peppers as well. "Pepper" was used in a figurative sense to mean "spirit" or "energy" at least as far back as the 1840s; in the early 20th century, this was shortened to pep.[3]

Varieties

Black and white peppercorns Black pepper is produced from the still-green unripe berries of the pepper plant. The berries are cooked briefly in hot water, both to clean them and to prepare them for drying. The heat ruptures cell walls in the pepper, speeding the work of browning enzymes during drying. The berries are dried in the sun or by machine for several days, during which the pepper around the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin, wrinkled black layer. Once dried, the spice is called black peppercorn. White pepper consists of the seed only, with the skin of the pepper removed. This is usually accomplished by process known as retting, where fully ripe peppers are soaked in water for about a week, during which the flesh of the pepper softens and decomposes. Rubbing then removes what remains of the fruit, and the naked seed is dried. Alternative processes are used for removing the outer pepper from the seed, including decortication, the removal of the outer layer from black pepper from small peppers through mechanical, chemical or biological methods.[4] In the U.S., white pepper is often used in dishes like light-coloured sauces or mashed potatoes, where ground black pepper would visibly stand out. There is disagreement regarding which is generally spicier. They have differing flavor due to the presence of certain compounds in the outer fruit layer of the berry that are not found in the seed.

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Black, green, pink (Schinus terebinthifolius), and white peppercorns

Ground black pepper and pepper shaker Green pepper, like black, is made from the unripe berries. Dried green peppercorns are treated in a manner that retains the green colour, such as treatment with sulfur dioxide or freeze-drying. Pickled peppercorns, also green, are unripe berries preserved in brine or vinegar. Fresh, unpreserved green pepper berries, largely unknown in the West, are used in some Asian cuisines, particularly Thai cuisine.[5] Their flavor has been described as piquant and fresh, with a bright aroma.[6] They decay quickly if not dried or preserved. A product called orange pepper or red pepper consists of ripe red pepper berries preserved in brine and vinegar. Ripe red peppercorns can also be dried using the same colour-preserving techniques used to produce green pepper.[7] Pink pepper from Piper nigrum is distinct from the more-common dried "pink peppercorns", which are the fruits of a plant from a different family, the Peruvian pepper tree, Schinus molle, and its relative the Brazilian pepper tree, Schinus terebinthifolius. In years past there was debate as to the health safety of pink peppercorns, which is mostly no longer an issue.[8] Sichuan peppercorn is another "pepper" that is botanically unrelated to black pepper. Peppercorns are often categorised under a label describing their region or port of origin. Two well-known types come from India's Malabar Coast: Malabar pepper and Tellicherry pepper. Tellicherry is a higher-grade pepper, made from the largest, ripest 10% of berries from Malabar plants grown on Mount Tellicherry.[9] Sarawak pepper is produced in the Malaysian portion of Borneo, and Lampong pepper on Indonesia's island of Sumatra. White Muntok pepper is another Indonesian product, from Bangka Island.[10]

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Plant

Piper nigrum from an 1832 print The pepper plant is a perennial woody vine growing to four metres in height on supporting trees, poles, or trellises. It is a spreading vine, rooting readily where trailing stems touch the ground. The leaves are alternate, entire, five to ten centimetres long and three to six centimetres broad. The flowers are small, produced on pendulous spikes four to eight centimetres long at the leaf nodes, the spikes lengthening to seven to 15 centimeters as the fruit matures.[11] Black pepper is grown in soil that is neither too dry nor susceptible to flooding, moist, well-drained and rich in organic matter. The plants are propagated by cuttings about 40 to 50 centimetres long, tied up to neighbouring trees or climbing frames at distances of about two metres apart; trees with rough bark are favoured over those with smooth bark, as the pepper plants climb rough bark more readily. Competing plants are cleared away, leaving only sufficient trees to provide shade and permit free ventilation. The roots are covered in leaf mulch and manure, and the shoots are trimmed twice a year. On dry soils the young plants require watering every other day during the dry season for the first three years. The plants bear fruit from the fourth or fifth year, and typically continue to bear fruit for seven years. The cuttings are usually cultivars, selected both for yield and quality of fruit. A single stem will bear 20 to 30 fruiting spikes. The harvest begins as soon as one or two berries at the base of the spikes begin to turn red, and before the fruit is mature, but when full grown and still hard; if allowed to ripen, the berries lose pungency, and ultimately fall off and are lost. The spikes are collected and spread out to dry in the sun, then the peppercorns are stripped off the spikes.[11] Black pepper is native to India.[12][13] Within the genus Piper, it is most closely related to other Asian species such as Piper caninum.[13]

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History

Pepper before ripening

High resolution picture

Peppercorn close-up Pepper has been used as a spice in India since prehistoric times. Pepper is native to India and has been known to Indian cooking since at least 2000 BCE.[14] J. Innes Miller notes that while pepper was grown in southern Thailand and in Malaysia, its most important source was India, particularly the Malabar Coast, in what is now the state of Kerala.[15] Peppercorns were a much prized trade good, often referred to as "black gold" and used as a form of commodity money. The term "peppercorn rent" still exists today. The ancient history of black pepper is often interlinked with (and confused with) that of long pepper, the dried fruit of closely related Piper longum. The Romans knew of both and often referred to either as just "piper". In fact, it was not until the discovery of the New World and of chile peppers that the popularity of long pepper entirely declined. Chile peppers, some of which when dried are similar in shape and taste to long pepper, were easier to grow in a variety of locations more convenient to Europe.

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Until well after the Middle Ages, virtually all of the black pepper found in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa travelled there from India's Malabar region. By the 16th century, pepper was also being grown in Java, Sunda, Sumatra, Madagascar, Malaysia, and elsewhere in Southeast Asia, but these areas traded mainly with China, or used the pepper locally.[16] Ports in the Malabar area also served as a stop-off point for much of the trade in other spices from farther east in the Indian Ocean. Black pepper, along with other spices from India and lands farther east, changed the course of world history. It was in some part the preciousness of these spices that led to the European efforts to find a sea route to India and consequently to the European colonial occupation of that country, as well as the European discovery and colonisation of the Americas.[17]

Ancient times Black peppercorns were found stuffed in the nostrils of Ramesses II, placed there as part of the mummification rituals shortly after his death in 1213 BCE.[18] Little else is known about the use of pepper in ancient Egypt, nor how it reached the Nile from India. Pepper (both long and black) was known in Greece at least as early as the 4th century BCE, though it was probably an uncommon and expensive item that only the very rich could afford. Trade routes of the time were by land, or in ships which hugged the coastlines of the Arabian Sea. Long pepper, growing in the north-western part of India, was more accessible than the black pepper from further south; this trade advantage, plus long pepper's greater spiciness, probably made black pepper less popular at the time.

A possible trade route from Italy to south-west India By the time of the early Roman Empire, especially after Rome's conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, open-ocean crossing of the Arabian Sea directly to southern India's Malabar Coast was near routine. Details of this trading across the Indian Ocean have been passed down in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. According to the Roman geographer Strabo, the early Empire sent a fleet of around 120 ships on an annual one-year trip to India and back. The fleet timed its travel across the Arabian Sea to take advantage of the predictable monsoon winds. Returning from India, the ships travelled up the Red Sea, from where the cargo was carried overland or via the Nile Canal to the Nile River, barged to Alexandria, and shipped from there to Italy and Rome. The rough geographical outlines of this same trade route would dominate the pepper trade into Europe for a millennium and a half to come. 102 | P a g e

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With ships sailing directly to the Malabar coast, black pepper was now travelling a shorter trade route than long pepper, and the prices reflected it. Pliny the Elder's Natural History tells us the prices in Rome around 77 CE: "Long pepper ... is fifteen denarii per pound, while that of white pepper is seven, and of black, four." Pliny also complains "there is no year in which India does not drain the Roman Empire of fifty million sesterces," and further moralises on pepper: It is quite surprising that the use of pepper has come so much into fashion, seeing that in other substances which we use, it is sometimes their sweetness, and sometimes their appearance that has attracted our notice; whereas, pepper has nothing in it that can plead as a recommendation to either fruit or berry, its only desirable quality being a certain pungency; and yet it is for this that we import it all the way from India! Who was the first to make trial of it as an article of food? and who, I wonder, was the man that was not content to prepare himself by hunger only for the satisfying of a greedy appetite? (N.H. 12.14)[19] Black pepper was a well-known and widespread, if expensive, seasoning in the Roman Empire. Apicius' De re coquinaria, a 3rd-century cookbook probably based at least partly on one from the 1st century CE, includes pepper in a majority of its recipes. Edward Gibbon wrote, in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, that pepper was "a favourite ingredient of the most expensive Roman cookery".

Postclassical Europe Pepper was so valuable that it was often used as collateral or even currency. The taste for pepper (or the appreciation of its monetary value) was passed on to those who would see Rome fall. It is said that Alaric the Visigoth and Attila the Hun each demanded from Rome a ransom of more than a ton of pepper when they besieged the city in 5th century. After the fall of Rome, others took over the middle legs of the spice trade, first the Persians and then the Arabs; Innes Miller cites the account of Cosmas Indicopleustes, who travelled east to India, as proof that "pepper was still being exported from India in the sixth century".[20] By the end of the Dark Ages, the central portions of the spice trade were firmly under Islamic control. Once into the Mediterranean, the trade was largely monopolised by Italian powers, especially Venice and Genoa. The rise of these city-states was funded in large part by the spice trade. A riddle authored by Saint Aldhelm, a 7th-century Bishop of Sherborne, sheds some light on black pepper's role in England at that time: I am black on the outside, clad in a wrinkled cover, Yet within I bear a burning marrow. I season delicacies, the banquets of kings, and the luxuries of the table, Both the sauces and the tenderized meats of the kitchen. But you will find in me no quality of any worth, Unless your bowels have been rattled by my gleaming marrow.[21] It is commonly believed that during the Middle Ages, pepper was used to conceal the taste of partially rotten meat. There is no evidence to support this claim, and historians view it as highly unlikely: in the Middle Ages, pepper was a luxury item, affordable only to the wealthy, who certainly had unspoiled meat available as well.[22] In addition, people of the time certainly knew that eating spoiled food would make them sick. Similarly, the belief that pepper was widely used as a preservative is questionable: it is true that piperine, the 103 | P a g e

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compound that gives pepper its spiciness, has some antimicrobial properties, but at the concentrations present when pepper is used as a spice, the effect is small.[23] Salt is a much more effective preservative, and salt-cured meats were common fare, especially in winter. However, pepper and other spices probably did play a role in improving the taste of longpreserved meats.

A depiction of Calicut, India published in 1572 during Portugal's control of the pepper trade Its exorbitant price during the Middle Ages—and the monopoly on the trade held by Italy— was one of the inducements which led the Portuguese to seek a sea route to India. In 1498, Vasco da Gama became the first person to reach India by sailing around Africa; asked by Arabs in Calicut (who spoke Spanish and Italian) why they had come, his representative replied, "we seek Christians and spices." Though this first trip to India by way of the southern tip of Africa was only a modest success, the Portuguese quickly returned in greater numbers and used their superior naval firepower to eventually gain complete control of trade on the Arabian sea. It was given additional legitimacy (at least from a European perspective) by the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, which granted Portugal exclusive rights to the half of the world where black pepper originated. The Portuguese proved unable to maintain their stranglehold on the spice trade for long. The old Arab and Venetian trade networks successfully smuggled enormous quantities of spices through the patchy Portuguese blockade, and pepper once again flowed through Alexandria and Italy, as well as around Africa. In the 17th century, the Portuguese lost almost all of their valuable Indian Ocean possessions to the Dutch and the English. The pepper ports of Malabar fell to the Dutch in the period 1661–1663.

Pepper harvested for the European trader, from a manuscript Livre des merveilles de Marco Polo (The book of the wonders of Marco Polo) As pepper supplies into Europe increased, the price of pepper declined (though the total value of the import trade generally did not). Pepper, which in the early Middle Ages had been an item exclusively for the rich, started to become more of an everyday seasoning among those of more average means. Today, pepper accounts for one-fifth of the world's spice trade.[24] 104 | P a g e

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China It is possible that black pepper was known in China in the 2nd century BCE, if poetic reports regarding an explorer named Tang Meng (唐蒙) are correct. Sent by Emperor Wu to what is now south-west China, Tang Meng is said to have come across something called jujiang or "sauce-betel". He was told it came from the markets of Shu, an area in what is now the Sichuan province. The traditional view among historians is that "sauce-betel" is a sauce made from betel leaves, but arguments have been made that it actually refers to pepper, either long or black.[25] In the 3rd century CE, black pepper made its first definite appearance in Chinese texts, as hujiao or "foreign pepper". It does not appear to have been widely known at the time, failing to appear in a 4th-century work describing a wide variety of spices from beyond China's southern border, including long pepper.[26] By the 12th century, however, black pepper had become a popular ingredient in the cuisine of the wealthy and powerful, sometimes taking the place of China's native Sichuan pepper (the tongue-numbing dried fruit of an unrelated plant). Marco Polo testifies to pepper's popularity in 13th-century China when he relates what he is told of its consumption in the city of Kinsay (Zhejiang): "... Messer Marco heard it stated by one of the Great Kaan's officers of customs that the quantity of pepper introduced daily for consumption into the city of Kinsay amounted to 43 loads, each load being equal to 223 lbs."[27] Marco Polo is not considered a very reliable source regarding China, and this second-hand data may be even more suspect, but if this estimated 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) a day for one city is anywhere near the truth, China's pepper imports may have dwarfed Europe's.

As medicine

'There's certainly too much pepper in that soup!' Alice said to herself, as well as she could for sneezing. — Alice in Wonderland (1865). Chapter VI: Pig and Pepper. Note the cook's pepper mill. Like many eastern spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and a medicine. Long pepper, being stronger, was often the preferred medication, but both were used. Black peppercorns figure in remedies in Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani medicine in India. The 5th century Syriac Book of Medicines prescribes pepper (or perhaps long pepper) for such illnesses as constipation, diarrhea, earache, gangrene, heart disease, hernia, hoarseness, indigestion, insect bites, insomnia, joint pain, liver problems, lung disease, oral abscesses, 105 | P a g e

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sunburn, tooth decay, and toothaches.[28] Various sources from the 5th century onward also recommend pepper to treat eye problems, often by applying salves or poultices made with pepper directly to the eye. There is no current medical evidence that any of these treatments has any benefit; pepper applied directly to the eye would be quite uncomfortable and possibly damaging.[29] Pepper is known to cause sneezing. Some sources say that piperine, a substance present in black pepper, irritates the nostrils, causing the sneezing;[30] some say that it is just the effect of the fine dust in ground pepper, and some say that pepper is not in fact a very effective sneeze-producer at all. Few, if any, controlled studies have been carried out to answer the question. It has been shown that piperine can dramatically increase absorption of selenium, vitamin B, beta-carotene and curcumin as well as other nutrients.[31] As a medicine, pepper appears in the Buddhist Samaññaphala Sutta, chapter five, as one of the few medicines allowed to be carried by a monk.[32] Pepper contains small amounts of safrole, a mildly carcinogenic compound.[31] Also, it is eliminated from the diet of patients having abdominal surgery and ulcers because of its irritating effect upon the intestines, being replaced by what is referred to as a bland diet.

Flavor

A handheld pepper mill Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly from the piperine compound, which is found both in the outer fruit and in the seed. Refined piperine, milligram-for-milligram, is about one percent as hot as the capsaicin in chilli peppers. The outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also contains important odour-contributing terpenes including pinene, sabinene, limonene, caryophyllene, and linalool, which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes. These scents are mostly missing in white pepper, which is stripped of the fruit layer. White pepper can gain some different odours (including musty notes) from its longer fermentation stage.[33]

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Pepper tree in Kolli Hills in India. Pepper loses flavor and aroma through evaporation, so airtight storage helps preserve pepper's original spiciness longer. Pepper can also lose flavor when exposed to light, which can transform piperine into nearly tasteless isochavicine.[33] Once ground, pepper's aromatics can evaporate quickly; most culinary sources recommend grinding whole peppercorns immediately before use for this reason. Handheld pepper mills (or "pepper grinders"), which mechanically grind or crush whole peppercorns, are used for this, sometimes instead of pepper shakers, dispensers of pre-ground pepper. Spice mills such as pepper mills were found in European kitchens as early as the 14th century, but the mortar and pestle used earlier for crushing pepper remained a popular method for centuries after as well.[34]

World trade

Black peppercorns Peppercorns are, by monetary value, the most widely traded spice in the world, accounting for 20 percent of all spice imports in 2002. The price of pepper can be volatile, and this figure fluctuates a great deal year to year; for example, pepper made up 39 percent of all spice imports in 1998.[35] By weight, slightly more chilli peppers are traded worldwide than peppercorns. The International Pepper Exchange is located in Kochi, India. As of 2008, Vietnam is the world's largest producer and exporter of pepper, producing 34% of the worlds Piper nigrum crop as of 2008. Other major producers include Indonesia (9%), India (19%), Brazil (13%), Malaysia (8%), Sri Lanka (6%), Thailand (4%), and China (6%). Global pepper production peaked in 2003 with over 355,000 t (391,000 short tons), but has fallen to just over 271,000 t (299,000 short tons) by 2008 due to a series of issues including 107 | P a g e

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poor crop management, disease and weather. Vietnam dominates the export market, using almost none of its production domestically; however its 2007 crop fell by nearly 10% from the previous year to about 90,000 t (99,000 short tons). Similar crop yields occurred in 2007 across the other pepper producing nations as well.[36]

Notes 1. ^ "Piper nigrum information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov. http://www.arsgrin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?28589. Retrieved 2008-03-02. 2. ^ Pippali is Sanskrit for long pepper. Black pepper is marica. Ancient Greek and Latin borrowed pippali to refer to either. 3. ^ Douglas Harper's Online Etymology Dictionary entries for pepper and pep. Retrieved 13 November 2005. 4. ^ "Cleaner technology for white pepper production". The Hindu Business line. 200803-27. http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2008/03/27/stories/2008032751741300.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 5. ^ See Thai Ingredients Glossary. Retrieved 6 November 2005. 6. ^ Ochef, Using fresh green peppercorns. Retrieved 6 November 2005. 7. ^ Katzer, Gernot (2006). Pepper. Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages. Retrieved 12 August 2006. 8. ^ pink peppercorn Definition in the Food Dictionary at Epicurious.com 9. ^ Peppercorns, from Penzey's Spices. Retrieved 17 October 2006. 10. ^ Pepper varieties information from A Cook's Wares. Retrieved 6 November 2005. 11. ^ a b "BLACK PEPPER" (PDF). The Philippine Department of Agriculture. 2006-1120. http://www.da.gov.ph/wps/wcm/resources/file/ebb81841763712b/black%20pepper.pd f. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 12. ^ "Piper nigrum Linnaeus". Flora of China. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200005581. 13. ^ a b Jaramillo, M. Alejandra (2001), "Phylogeny and Patterns of Floral Diversity in the Genus Piper (Piperaceae)", American Journal of Botany 88: 706, doi:10.2307/2657072, PMID 11302858, http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/88/4/706 14. ^ Davidson & Saberi 178 15. ^ J. Innes Miller, The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), p. 80 16. ^ Dalby p. 93. 17. ^ Jack Turner (2004-08-10). Spice. Random House. ISBN 0375407219. 18. ^ Stephanie Fitzgerald (2008-09-08). Ramses II, Egyptian Pharaoh, Warrior, and Builder. Compass Point Books. p. 88. ISBN 075653836X. http://books.google.com/books?id=J8mGcvFkatIC&pg=PT24&lpg=PT24&dq=Rame ses+Peppercorn&source=web&ots=5YpEReILiF&sig=6ESXxaWNnR8x7tpapT1Y7I32P0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9&ct=result#PPT24,M1. Retrieved 2008-01-29. 19. ^ From Bostock and Riley's 1855 translation. Text online. 20. ^ Innes Miller, The Spice Trade, p. 83 21. ^ Translation from Turner, p 94. The riddle's answer is of course pepper.

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22. ^ Dalby p. 156; also Turner pp. 108–109, though Turner does go on to discuss spices (not pepper specifically) being used to disguise the taste of partially spoiled wine or ale. 23. ^ H. J. D. Dorman and S. G. Deans (2000). "Antimicrobial agents from plants: antibacterial activity of plant volatile oils". Journal of Applied Microbiology 88 Issue 2: 308. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.2000.00969.x.. Full text at Blackwell website; purchase required. "Spices, which are used as integral ingredients in cuisine or added as flavoring agents to foods, are present in insufficient quantities for their antimicrobial properties to be significant." 24. ^ Jaffee p. 10. 25. ^ Dalby pp. 74–75. The argument that jujiang was long pepper goes back to the 4th century CE botanical writings of Ji Han; Hui-lin Li's 1979 translation of and commentary on Ji Han's work makes the case that it was piper nigrum. 26. ^ Dalby p. 77. 27. ^ Translation from The Travels of Marco Polo: The Complete Yule-Cordier Edition, Vol. 2, Dover. ISBN 0-486-27587-6. p. 204. 28. ^ Turner p. 160. 29. ^ Turner p. 171. 30. ^ U.S. Library of Congress Science Reference Services "Everyday Mysteries", Why does pepper make you sneeze?. Retrieved November 12, 2005. 31. ^ a b James A. Duke (1993-08-16). CRC Handbook of Alternative Cash Crops. CRC Press. p. 395. ISBN 0849336201. http://books.google.com/books?id=tg7R4hU8hkC&pg=PA395&lpg=PA395&dq=Pepper+safrole&source=web&ots=38F TJNPPOy&sig=JDE99CMOeifZNgGPIhJoscno5kA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result& resnum=3&ct=result. Retrieved 2009-01-29. 32. ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1990-11-30). Buddhist Monastic Code II. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521367085. http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc2/bmc2.ch05.html. Retrieved 2008-01-29. 33. ^ a b McGee p. 428. 34. ^ Montagne, Prosper (2001). Larousse Gastronomique. Hamlyn. pp. 726. ISBN 0600-60235-4. OCLC 47231315 50747863 83960122. "Mill". 35. ^ Jaffee p. 12, table 2. 36. ^ "Karvy's special Reports - Seasonal Outlook Report Pepper". Karvy Comtrade Limited. 2008-05-15. http://www.karvycomtrade.com/downloads/karvySpecialReports/karvysSpecialReport s_20080515_01.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-29.

References Dalby, Andrew (2002). Dangerous Tastes. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520236742. http://books.google.com/books?id=7IHcZ21dyjwC. Davidson, Alan (2002). Wilder Shores of Gastronomy: Twenty Years of the Best Food Writing from the Journal Petits Propos Culinaires. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 9781580084178. Jaffee, Steven (2004). "Delivering and Taking the Heat: Indian Spices and Evolving Process Standards" (PDF). An Agriculture and Rural Development Discussion Paper (Washington: World Bank). http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRANETTRADE/Resources/Topics/Standar ds/IndiaSpices.pdf. 109 | P a g e

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McGee, Harold (2004). "Black Pepper and Relatives". On Food and Cooking (Revised Edition). Scribner. pp. 427–429. ISBN 0-684-80001-2. OCLC 56590708. Turner, Jack (2004). Spice: The History of a Temptation. London: Vintage Books. ISBN 0375707050. OCLC 61213802.

Bell pepper Bell pepper

Red, yellow and green pepper

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order:

Solanales

Family:

Solanaceae

Genus:

Capsicum

Species:

C. annuum

Binomial name Capsicum annuum L.

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Pepper, sweet, green raw Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 20 kcal 80 kJ

4.64 g

Carbohydrates - Sugars 2.40 g - Dietary fiber 1.7 g Fat

0.17 g

Protein

0.86 g

Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.057 mg

4%

Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.028 mg 2% Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.480 mg

3%

Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.099 mg 2% Vitamin B6 0.224 mg

17%

Folate (Vit. B9) 10 μg

3%

Vitamin C 80.4 mg

134%

Calcium 10 mg

1%

Iron 0.34 mg

3%

Magnesium 10 mg

3%

Phosphorus 20 mg

3%

Potassium 175 mg

4%

Zinc 0.13 mg

1%

Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

Bell pepper is a cultivar group of the species Capsicum annuum. Cultivars of the plant produce fruits in different colors, including red, yellow, green and orange. Bell peppers are sometimes grouped with less pungent pepper varieties as "sweet peppers". Peppers are native to Mexico, Central America and northern South America. Pepper seeds were later carried to Spain in 1493 and from there spread to other European and Asian countries. Today, Mexico remains one of the major pepper producers in the world.

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Nomenclature The term "bell pepper" is the American name for some fruits of the Capsicum annuum species of plants. The misleading name "pepper" (pimiento in Spanish) was given by Christopher Columbus upon bringing the plant back to Europe. At that time peppercorns, the fruit of Piper nigrum, an unrelated plant, were a highly prized condiment. The term "bell pepper" or "pepper" or "capsicum" is often used for any of the large bell shaped capsicum fruits, regardless of their color. In British English, the meat is simply referred to as a "pepper", whereas in many Commonwealth of Nations countries, such as Australia, India, Malaysia and New Zealand, they are called "capsicum". Across Europe, the term "paprika", which has its roots in the word for pepper, is used—sometimes referred to by their color (e.g., "groene paprika", "gele paprika", in Dutch, which are green and yellow, respectively). Paprika also refers to the powdered spice made from the same fruit. In France it is called "poivron", with the same root as "poivre" (meaning "pepper"), or "piment. " In Japan, the word ピーマン ("pîman, " from the French) refers only to green bell peppers, whereas パプリカ ("papurika, " from paprika) refers to bell peppers of other colors. In the United States and Canada, the fruit is often referred to simply as a "pepper" or referred to by color (e. g. "red pepper", "green pepper"), although the more specific term "bell pepper" is understood in most regions. In parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Pennsylvania, the fruit is called a "mango"[1]. Bell peppers are botanically fruits, but are generally considered in culinary contexts to be vegetables. When cut off, the top of the bell pepper is referred to as a "pepper pan." In Russia it is commonly called болгарский перец (bolgarskiy perets), meaning Bulgarian pepper. In Denmark the bell pepper is referred to as "peberfrugt", meaning pepper-fruit. In Norway, Sweden, former Yugoslavia and the Netherlands it is known as "paprika". In Brazil it's commonly called Pimentão, meaning Big pepper. It's widely used in a variety of dishes, like pasta, rice and other dishes from Cuisine of Brazil. In Argentina it's called "Morrón", green and red bell peppers are usually found in small grocery stores, the yellow ones tend to be in the supermarket. Grilled, they may form part of the traditional barbecue of this country, called "Asado" (Castilian Spanish for 'roasted' or 'grilled'). In Costa Rica it's called "chile dulce" or sweet chili and many typical dished include it as part of it's ingredients. In Nepal it's called "bhede khursani". It is eaten with fried noodles, and is cooked and eaten with any vegetable, but bhede khursani is never eaten raw. In Sri Lanka it is called "Maalu Miris" in Sinhalese language and used in "curries" as a vegetable. "Miris" is Chilli, the hotter variety which is used as a hot spice, and "Maalu" means Vegetable, hence "Maalu Miris" indicates the less spicy version, which is suitable for cooking as a vegetable, instead of using as a spice. With the similar meaning, bell pepper is called "kaRi miLakaay" ( ) in Tamil language.

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In Egypt it is commonly called "filfil akhdar", where "filfil" means pepper and "akhdar" means green. It is eaten as a raw snack, in salads, in various soups and stews, and is also cooked stuffed with a rice and beef filling.

Varieties The color can be green, red, yellow, orange and, more rarely, white, purple, blue, pink, rainbow, aqua, violet, maroon, black and brown, depending on when they are harvested and the specific cultivar. Green peppers are less sweet and slightly more bitter than red, yellow or orange peppers. The taste of ripe peppers can also vary with growing conditions and postharvest storage treatment; the sweetest are fruit allowed to ripen fully on the plant in full sunshine, while fruit harvested green and after-ripened in storage are less sweet.

Gallery

Green Bell Peppers on display at a Grocery A variety of colored bell peppers Store

Red bell peppers

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Group of yellow peppers

A whole and halved red bell pepper

Japanese green pepper

A whole purple pepper

Green, yellow and red peppers

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Quadrato_d'Asti_Giall o bell pepper flower

References 1. ^ http://www.foodreference.com/html/fmango.html How to Roast Peppers Stuffed Peppers Growing Peppers

Peppermint . Peppermint

Peppermint (Mentha x piperita)

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order:

Lamiales

Family:

Lamiaceae

Genus:

Mentha

Binomial name Mentha × piperita L.

Peppermint (Mentha × piperita, also known as M. balsamea Willd. [1]) is a hybrid mint, a cross between the watermint (Mentha aquatica) and spearmint (Mentha spicata). The plant, indigenous to Europe, is now widespread in cultivation throughout all regions of the world[2]. It is found wild occasionally with its parent species.[2][3]

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Botany

Peppermint flowers Peppermint was first described by Carolus Linnaeus from specimens that had been collected in England; he treated it as a species,[4] but it is now universally agreed to be a hybrid.[5] It is a herbaceous rhizomatous perennial plant growing to 30–90 cm (12–35 in) tall, with smooth stems, square in cross section. The rhizomes are wide-spreading, fleshy, and bare fibrous roots. The leaves are from 4–9 cm (1.6–3.5 in) long and 1.5–4 cm (0.59–1.6 in) cm broad, dark green with reddish veins, and with an acute apex and coarsely toothed margins. The leaves and stems are usually slightly hairy. The flowers are purple, 6–8 mm (0.24– 0.31 in) long, with a four-lobed corolla about 5 mm (0.20 in) diameter; they are produced in whorls (verticillasters) around the stem, forming thick, blunt spikes. Flowering is from mid to late summer. The chromosome number is variable, with 2n counts of 66, 72, 84, and 120 recorded.[3][6][7]

Ecology Peppermint typically occurs in moist habitats, including stream sides and drainage ditches. Being a hybrid, it is usually sterile, producing no seeds and reproducing only vegetatively, spreading by its rhizomes. If placed, it can grow anywhere, with a few exceptions. [3][7] It is an invasive species in the Great Lakes region, noted since 1843[8].

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Uses

Peppermint is sometimes regarded as 'the world's oldest medicine', with archaeological evidence placing its use at least as far back as ten thousand years ago.[citation needed] Peppermint has a high menthol content, and is often used as a flavouring in tea, ice cream, confectionery, chewing gum, and toothpaste. The oil also contains menthone and menthyl esters, particularly menthyl acetate.[9] It is the oldest and most popular flavour of mintflavoured confectionery. Peppermint can also be found in some shampoos and soaps, which give the hair a minty scent and produce a cooling sensation on the skin.

Freeze-dried leaves In 2007, Italian investigators reported that 75% of the patients in their study who took peppermint oil capsules for four weeks had a major reduction in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) symptoms, compared with just 38% of those who took a placebo.[10] Similarly, some poorly designed earlier trials found that peppermint oil has the ability to reduce colicky abdominal pain due to IBS with an NNT (number needed to treat) around 3.1,[11] but the oil is an irritant to the stomach in the quantity required and therefore needs wrapping for delayed release in the intestine. Peppermint relaxes the gastro-esophageal sphincter, thus promoting belching. Restaurants usually take advantage of this effect by 116 | P a g e

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taking advantage of its use as a confectionery ingredient, which they then call "after-dinner mints." Peppermint flowers are large nectar producers and honey bees as well as other nectar harvesting organisms forage them heavily. A mild, pleasant varietal honey can be produced if there is a sufficient area of plants. Peppermint oil is used by commercial pesticide applicators, in the EcoSmart Technologies line of products, as a natural insecticide.[12] Outside of its native range, areas where peppermint was formerly grown for oil often have an abundance of feral plants, and it is considered invasive in Australia, the Galápagos Islands, New Zealand,[13] and in the United States.[14]

Cultivation Peppermint generally thrives in shade and expands quickly by underground stolons. If you choose to grow peppermint, it is advisable to plant it in a container, otherwise it can rapidly take over a whole garden. It needs a good water supply, and is ideal for planting in part-sun to shade areas. The leaves and flowering tops are the usable portion of the plant. They are collected as soon as the flowers begin to open and then are carefully dried. The wild form of the plant is less suitable for this purpose, with cultivated plants having been selected for more and better oil content. Seeds sold at stores labelled peppermint generally will not germinate into true peppermint, but into a particularly poor-scented spearmint plant. The true peppermint might rarely produce seeds, but only by fertilization from a spearmint plant, and contribute only their own spearmint genes.

Toxicology The toxicity studies of the plant have received controversial results. Some authors reported that the plant may induce hepatic diseases, while others found that it is of protective functions against the liver damages which are caused by heavy metal inductions [15], [16]. In addition to that, the toxicities of the plant seem to variate from one cultivar to another [17] and are dose dependent [15], [18]. This is probably attributed from the content level of pulegone [19]. Some of the toxic components may come from herbicides [20], [21].

List of the cultivars A number of cultivars have been selected for garden use:[6] Mentha × piperita 'Candymint'. Stems reddish. Mentha × piperita 'Citrata' (Orange Mint, Eau De Cologne Mint). Leaves aromatic, hairless. Mentha × piperita 'Crispa'. Leaves wrinkled. Mentha × piperita 'Lime Mint'. Foliage lime-scented. Mentha × piperita 'Variegata'. Leaves mottled green and pale yellow.

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Mentha × piperita 'Chocolate Mint'. Flowers open from bottom up; reminiscent of flavour in Andes Chocolate Mints, a popular confection.[22] Commercial cultivars may include Dulgo pole [23] Zefir [23] Bulgarian population #2 [23] Clone 11-6-22 [23] Clone 80-121-33 [23] Mitcham Digne 38 [24] Mitcham Ribecourt 19 [24] Todd's#x2019 [24]

Standaridization of its products and services ISO 676:1995 - contains the information about the nomenclature of the variety and cultivars [25] ISO 5563:1984 - a specification for its dried leaves of Mentha piperita Linnaeus [26] Aromatherapy Candy cane Chewing gum Peppermint oil - ISO 856:2006 [27] Insect repellent Mint chocolate Peppermint tea Peppermint candy

Notes 1. ^ World Health Organization. "WHO monographs on selected medicinal plants Volume 2". http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2002/9241545372.pdf. Retrieved 3 June 2009. 2. ^ a b Euro+Med Plantbase Project: Mentha × piperita 3. ^ a b c Flora of NW Europe: Mentha × piperita 4. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1753). Species Plantarum 2: 576–577. 5. ^ Harley, R. M. (1975). Mentha L. In: Stace, C. A., ed. Hybridization and the flora of the British Isles page 387. 6. ^ a b Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5. 7. ^ a b Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). Flora of Britain and Northern Europe. ISBN 0-34040170-2 8. ^ "List of invasive species in the Great Lakes Great Lakes United / Union Saint-Laurent Grands Lacs". http://www.glu.org/en/node/199. Retrieved 2009-02-07. 9. ^ PDR for Herbal Medicines, 4th Edition, Thomson Healthcare, page 640. ISBN 978-1563636783 10. ^ Cappello, G.; et al. (2007). "Peppermint oil (Mintoil) in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: A prospective double blind placebo-controlled randomized trial". Digestive and Liver Disease 39 (6): 530–536. doi:10.1016/j.dld.2007.02.006. 11. ^ Bandolier Journal: Peppermint oil for irritable bowel syndrome 12. ^ EcoSMART Product label 13. ^ Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk: Mentha x piperita 14. ^ USDA Plants Profile: Mentha x piperita 15. ^ a b Akdogan, Mehmet (2004). "Investigation of biochemical and histopathological effects of Mentha piperitaLabiatae and Mentha spicata Labiatae on liver tissue in rats". Human &

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16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22. 23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

Experimental Toxicology 23 (1): 21 - 28. http://het.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/23/1/21. Retrieved 3 June. ^ Sharma, Ambika et al. (2007). "Protective Effect of Mentha piperita against Arsenic-Induced Toxicity in Liver of Swiss Albino Mice". Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology 100 (4): 249 - 257. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118500486/abstract. Retrieved 3 June. ^ Akdogan, Mehmet (2003). "Investigation of biochemical and histopathological effects of Mentha piperita L. and Mentha spicata L. on kidney tissue in rats". Human & Experimental Toxicology 22 (4): 213 - 219. http://het.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/22/4/213. Retrieved 3 June. ^ Akdogan, Mehmet et al. (2004). "Effect of Mentha piperita (Labiatae) and Mentha spicata (Labiatae) on iron absorption in rats". Toxicology and Industrial Health 20 (6 - 10): 119 - 122. http://tih.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/6-10/119. Retrieved 3 June. ^ Farley, Derek R.; Valerie Howland (2006). "The natural variation of the pulegone content in various oils of peppermint". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 31 (11): 1143 - 1151. doi:10.1002/jsfa.2740311104. ^ Edwards, J.; F.E. Bienvenu (1999). "Investigations into the use of flame and the herbicide, paraquat, to control peppermint rust in north-east Victoria, Australia". Australasian Plant Pathology 28 (3): 212 - 224. doi:10.1071/AP99036. ^ Adamovic, D.S. et al.. "Variability of herbicide efficiency and their effect upon yield and quality of peppermint (Mentha X Piperital L.)". http://www.actahort.org/books/249/249_8.htm. Retrieved 6 June 2009. ^ Mountain Valley Growers: Mentha piperita cv. Chocolate Mint ^ a b c d e Stanev, S.; V.D. Zheljazkov. "Study on essential oil and free menthol accumulation in 19 cultivars, populations, and clones of peppermint (Mentha X Piperita)". http://www.actahort.org/books/629/629_21.htm. Retrieved 6 June 2009. ^ a b c Jullien, Frédéric et al.; F.E. Bienvenu (1998). "An optimising protocol for protoplast regeneration of three peppermint cultivars ( Mentha x piperita)". Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture 54 (3): 153 - 159. doi:10.1023/A:1006185103897. ^ International Organization for Standardization. "ISO 676:1995 Spices and condiments -Botanical nomenclature". http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=4844. Retrieved 8 June 2009. ^ International Organization for Standardization. "ISO 5563:1984 Dried peppermint (Mentha piperita Linnaeus) -- Specification". http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=11633. Retrieved 7 June 2009. ^ International Organization for Standardization. "ISO 856:2008 Oil of peppermint (Mentha x piperita L.)". http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=32041. Retrieved 7 June 2009.

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Leek Leek

Scientific classification Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Monocots Order:

Asparagales

Family:

Alliaceae

Genus:

Allium

Species:

A. ampeloprasum

Subspecies: A. ampeloprasum var. porrum Trinomial name Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum (L.) J.Gay

The leek, Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum (L.), also sometimes known as Allium porrum, is a vegetable which belongs, along with the onion and garlic, to the Alliaceae family. Two related vegetables, the elephant garlic and kurrat, are also variant subspecies of Allium ampeloprasum, although different in their uses as food. The edible part of the leek plant is a bundle of leaf sheaths which is sometimes called a stem or stalk.

Form

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Rather than forming a tight bulb like the onion, the leek produces a long cylinder of bundled leaf sheaths which are generally blanched by pushing soil around them (trenching). They are often sold as small seedlings in flats which are started off early in greenhouses, to be planted out as weather permits. Once established in the garden, leeks are hardy; many varieties can be left in the ground during the winter to be harvested as needed.

Cultivars Leek cultivars can be subdivided in several ways, but the most common types are ―summer leeks‖, intended for harvest in the season when planted, and overwintering leeks, meant to be harvested in the spring of the year following planting. Summer leek types are generally smaller than overwintering types; overwintering types are generally more strongly flavored. Varieties include King Richard and Tadorna Blue.

Growing

Leek field in Houthulst, Belgium Leeks are easy to grow from seed and tolerate standing in the field for an extended harvest. Leeks usually reach maturity in the autumn months, and they have few pest or disease problems. Leeks can be bunched and harvested early when they are about the size of a finger or pencil, or they can be thinned and allowed to grow to a much larger mature size. Hilling leeks can produce better specimens.

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Cuisine

Leeks for sale. The edible portions of the leek are the white onion base and light green stalk. The onion-like layers form around a core. The tender core may be eaten; but, as the leek ages, the core becomes woody and very chewy and better replanted than eaten. Leek has a mild onion-like taste, although less bitter than scallion. The taste might be described as a mix of mild onion and cucumber. It has a fresh smell similar to scallion. In its raw state, the vegetable is crunchy and firm. Leek is typically chopped into slices 5-10mm thick. The slices have a tendency to fall apart, due to the layered structure of the leek. There are different ways of preparing the vegetable: Boiled, which turns it soft and mild in taste. Fried, which leaves it more crunchy and preserves the taste. Raw, which can be used in salads, doing especially well when they are the prime ingredient. A traditional Welsh cawl (a form of soup) is made with leek; the cawl is made using root vegetables such as swede, carrots and potatoes and different meats. Lamb is the most popular. Cawl has been enjoyed by the nation since the 14th century and has great significance to the ancient Welsh King Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. Leeks are an ingredient of cock-a-leekie soup, leek and potato soup and vichyssoise, along with leek soup. Because of their symbolism in Wales (see below), they have come to be used extensively in that country‘s cuisine, while in the rest of Britain leeks have only come back into favour in the last fifty years or so, having been overlooked for several centuries[1].

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Health Benefits Mireille Guiliano sang the praises of leeks in her #1 bestseller French Women Don't Get Fat, providing a now famous "Magical Leek Soup" recipe, as well as other recipes with leeks. In her book, Guiliano claims that leeks are an important part of the French woman's diet, pointing out that leeks are a mild diuretic as well as highly flavorful and nutritious. [2]

Historical consumption Dried specimens from archaeological sites in ancient Egypt, as well as wall carvings and drawings, led Zohary and Hopf to conclude that the leek was a part of the Egyptian diet ―from at least the 2nd millennium B.C.E. onwards.‖ They also allude to surviving texts that show it had been also grown in Mesopotamia from the beginning of the 2nd millennium B.C.E.[3] The leek was the favorite vegetable of the Emperor Nero, who consumed it most often in soup.

Cultural significance Raw Leeks, bulb & lower leafs Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 60 kcal 260 kJ

Carbohydrates

14.15 g

- Sugars 3.9 g - Dietary fiber 1.8 g Fat

0.3 g

- saturated 0.04 g - monounsaturated 0.004 g - polyunsaturated 0.166 g Protein

1.5 g

Water

83 g

Vitamin A equiv. 83 μg

9%

Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.06 mg 5% Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.03 mg 2% Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.4 mg

3%

Vitamin B6 0.233 mg

18%

Folate (Vit. B9) 64 μg

16%

Vitamin B12 0 μg

0%

Vitamin C 12 mg

20%

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Vitamin E 0.92 mg

6%

Vitamin K 47 μg

45%

Calcium 59 mg

6%

Iron 2.1 mg

17%

Magnesium 28 mg

8%

Phosphorus 35 mg

5%

Potassium 180 mg

4%

Sodium 20 mg

1%

Zinc 0.12 mg

1%

Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

The leek is one of the national emblems of Wales, and is worn—or the daffodil—on St. David‘s Day. According to one legend, King Cadwaladr of Gwynedd ordered his soldiers to identify themselves by wearing the vegetable on their helmets in an ancient battle against the Saxons that took place in a leek field. This story may have been made up by the English poet Michael Drayton, but it is known that the leek has been a symbol of Wales for a long time; Shakespeare, for example, refers to the custom of wearing a leek as an ―ancient tradition‖ in Henry V. In the play, Henry tells Fluellen that he is wearing a leek ―for I am Welsh, you know, good countryman.‖ The 1985 and 1990 British one pound coins bear the design of a leek in a coronet, representing Wales. Perhaps most visibly however is the leek‘s use as the cap badge of the Welsh Guards, a regiment within the Household Division of the British Army.

Gallery

Two blooming flower heads

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A largely spent flower head showing open flowers as well as developing seed pods.

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Notes 1. ^ Jane Grigson, Jane Grigson's Vegetable Book, (Penguin Books, 1978, ISBN 0140468595) p 291 2. ^ Guiliano, Mireille. French Women Don't Get Fat. Knopf,. 3. ^ Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of plants in the Old World, third edition (Oxford: University Press, 2000),p. 195

Celery Celery

Scientific classification Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots 125 | P a g e

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(unranked): Asterids Order:

Apiales

Family:

Apiaceae

Genus:

Apium

Species:

A. graveolens

Binomial name Apium graveolens L.

Celery, raw Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 10 kcal 60 kJ

Carbohydrates

3g

- Sugars 2 g - Dietary fibre 1.6 g Fat

0.2 g

Protein

0.7 g

Water

95 g

Vitamin C 3 mg 5% Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

See also: Vallisneria americana Apium graveolens is a plant species in the family Apiaceae commonly known as celery (var. dulce) or celeriac (var. rapaceum) depending on whether the petioles (stalks) or roots are eaten.

Taxonomy Celery was described by Carolus Linnaeus in Volume One of his Species Plantarum in 1753.[1] The closely related Apium bermejoi from the island of Minorca is one of the rarest plants in Europe, with fewer than 100 individuals left.[2]

Uses Apium graveolens is used around the world as a vegetable, either for the crisp petiole (leaf stalk) or the fleshy taproot.

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In temperate countries, celery is also grown for its seeds. Actually very small fruit, these "seeds" yield a valuable volatile oil used in the perfume and pharmaceutical industries. They also contain an organic compound called apiol. Celery seeds can be used as flavouring or spice, either as whole seeds or ground and mixed with salt, as celery salt. Celery salt can also be made from an extract of the roots. Celery salt is used as a seasoning, in cocktails (notably to enhance the flavour of Bloody Mary cocktails), on the Chicago-style hot dog, and in Old Bay Seasoning. Celery, onions, and bell peppers are the holy trinity of Louisiana Creole and Cajun cuisine. Celery, onions, and carrots make up the French mirepoix, often used as a base for sauces and soups. Celery is a staple in many soups, such as chicken noodle soup. Celery is an important ingredient in Indian cuisines including in Indian Curry[citation needed]. Celery is widely eaten by guinea pigs, dogs, horses, birds, squirrels, and small rodents.

Medicine

Celery seeds

Cross-section of a Pascal celery rib. The use of celery seed in pills for relieving pain was described by Aulus Cornelius Celsus ca. 30 AD.[3] Celery seeds contain a compound called 3-N-butyl-phthalide that has been demonstrated to lower blood pressure in rats.

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Nutrition Celery is valuable in weight-loss diets, where it provides low-calorie dietary fiber bulk. Celery contains androstenone.[4] Bergapten in the seeds can increase photosensitivity, so the use of essential oil externally in bright sunshine should be avoided. The oil and large doses of seeds should be avoided during pregnancy: they can act as a uterine stimulant. Seeds intended for cultivation are not suitable for eating as they are often treated with fungicides. There is a common belief that celery is so difficult for humans to digest, that it has negative calories because human digestion burns more calories than can be extracted.[5] Celery seeds are also a great source of calcium, and are regarded as a good alternative to animal products.[6]

Allergies Celery is amongst a small group of foods (headed by peanuts) that appear to provoke the most severe allergic reactions; for people with celery allergy, exposure can cause potentially fatal anaphylactic shock.[7] The allergen does not appear to be destroyed at cooking temperatures. Celery root—commonly eaten as celeriac, or put into drinks—is known to contain more allergen than the stalk. Seeds contain the highest levels of allergen content. Exercise-induced anaphylaxis may be exacerbated. An allergic reaction also may be triggered by eating foods that have been processed with machines that have previously processed celery, making avoiding such foods difficult. In contrast with peanut allergy being most prevalent in the US, celery allergy is most prevalent in Central Europe.[8] In the European Union, foods that contain or may contain celery, even in trace amounts, have to be clearly marked as such.

History Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf[9] note that celery leaves and inflorescences were part of the garlands found in the tomb of pharaoh Tutankhamun (died 1323 BC), and celery mericarps dated to the 7th century BC were recovered in the Heraion of Samos. However, they note "since A. graveolens grows wild in these areas it is hard to decide whether these remains represent wild or cultivated forms." Only by classical times is it certain that celery was cultivated. M. Fragiska mentions an archeological find of celery dating to the 9th century BC, at Kastanas; however, the literary evidence for ancient Greece is far more abundant. In Homer's Iliad, the horses of the Myrmidons graze on wild celery that grows in the marshes of Troy, and in Odyssey there is mention of the meadows of violet and wild celery surrounding the cave of Calypso.[10]

Cultural depictions A chthonian symbol among the ancient Greeks, celery was said to have sprouted from the blood of Kadmilos, father of the Cabeiri, chthonian divinities celebrated in Samothrace, Lemnos and Thebes. The spicy odour and dark leaf colour encouraged this association with the cult of death. In classical Greece celery leaves were used as garlands for the dead, and the wreaths of the winners at the Isthmian Games were first made of celery before being replaced by crowns made of pine. According to Pliny the Elder[11] in Achaea the garland worn by the winners of the sacred Nemean Games was also made of celery.[10] 128 | P a g e

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The name celery retraces the plant's route of successive adoption in European cooking, as the English celery (1664) is derived from the French céleri coming from the Lombard term, seleri, from the Latin selinon, borrowed from Greek.[12] Celery's Mediterranean origins are still commemorated in the French expression céleri d'Italie. Celery's surprisingly late arrival in the English kitchen is an end-product of the long tradition of seed selection needed to reduce the sap's bitterness and increase its sugars. By 1699 John Evelyn could recommend it in his Acetaria. A Discourse of Sallets: "Sellery, apium Italicum, (and of the Petroseline Family) was formerly a stranger with us (nor very long since in Italy) is an hot and more generous sort of Macedonian Persley or Smallage...and for its high and grateful Taste is ever plac'd in the middle of the Grand Sallet, at our Great Mens tables, and Praetors feasts, as the Grace of the whole Board".

Cultivation Apium graveolens grows to 1 m tall. The leaves are pinnate to bipinnate leaves with rhombic leaflets 3–6 cm long and 2–4 cm broad. The flowers are creamy-white, 2–3 mm diameter, produced in dense compound umbels. The seeds are broad ovoid to globose, 1.5–2 mm long and wide. In North America, commercial production of celery is dominated by the varieties called Pascal celery.[13] Gardeners can grow a range of cultivars, many of which differ little from the wild species, mainly in having stouter leaf stems. They are ranged under two classes, white and red; the white cultivars being generally the best flavoured, and the most crisp and tender. The wild form of celery is known as smallage. It has a furrowed stalk with wedge-shaped leaves, the whole plant having a coarse, earthy taste, and a distinctive smell. The stalks are not usually eaten (except in soups or stews in French cuisine), but the leaves may be used in salads, and its seeds are those sold as a spice.[14] With cultivation and blanching, the stalks lose their acidic qualities and assume the mild, sweetish, aromatic taste particular to celery as a salad plant. The plants are raised from seed, sown either in a hot bed or in the open garden according to the season of the year, and after one or two thinnings out and transplantings they are, on attaining a height of 15–20 cm, planted out in deep trenches for convenience of blanching, which is affected by earthing up to exclude light from the stems. In the past, celery was grown as a vegetable for winter and early spring; it was perceived as a cleansing tonic, welcomed to counter the salt-sickness of a winter diet. By the 19th century the season for celery had been extended, to last from the beginning of September to late in April.[15]

Harvesting and storage Harvesting occurs when the average size of celery in a field is marketable; due to extremely uniform crop growth, fields are harvested only once. Petioles and leaves are removed and harvested celery are packed by size and quality (determined by color, shape, straightness and thickness of petiole, stalk and midrib length and absence of disease, cracks, splits, insect damage and rot). Under optimal conditions, celery can be stored for up to seven weeks 129 | P a g e

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between 0 to 2°C (32 to 36°F). Inner stalks may continue growing if kept at temperatures above 0°C (32°F). Freshly-cut petioles of celery are prone to decay, which can be prevented or reduced through the use of sharp blades during processing, gentle handling, and proper sanitation.[16]

References 1. ^ (Latin) Linnaeus, C (1753). Species Plantarum: Tomus I. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii).. 2. ^ IUCN Redlist: Apium bermejo. 3. ^ Celsus, de Medicina, Thayer translation [1] 4. ^ Teng CM, Lee LG, Ko SN, et al., (1985) "Inhibition of platelet aggregation by apigenin from Apium graveolens". Asia Pacific Journal of Pharmacology 3:85 5. ^ snopes.com: Celery and Negative Calories 6. ^ Calcium sources 7. ^ Celestin J, Heiner DC. West J, "Allergy and Immunology: Food-Induced Anaphylaxis". Western Journal of Medicine 158.6 (June 1993): 610-611. 8. ^ Bublin M, Radauer C, Wilson IBH, Kraft D, Scheiner O, Breiteneder H and Hoffmann-Sommergruber K Cross-reactive N-glycans of Api g 5, a high molecular weight glycoprotein allergen from celery, are required for immunoglobulin E binding and activation of effector cells from allergic patients The FASEB Journal. 2003;17:1697-1699. 9. ^ D. Zohary and M. Hopf, Domestication of Plants in the Old World, (3rd ed. 2000) p.202. 10. ^ a b Fragiska, M. (2005). "Wild and Cultivated Vegetables, Herbs and Spices in Greek Antiquity". Environmental Archaeology 10 (1): 73-82. 11. ^ Pliny, Natural History XIX.46. 12. ^ OED, s.v. "Celery". 13. ^ R.L. de Vilmorin (1950) Pascal celery and its origin Journal of the New York Botanical Garden 51 pp 39-41. 14. ^ "Smallage". Practically Edible: The World's Biggest Food Encyclopedia. http://www.practicallyedible.com/edible.nsf/pages/smallage. Retrieved 2009-05-03. 15. ^ William Robinson and W. P. Thomson, The Vegetable Garden (3rd ed., 1920), p. 227. 16. ^ Cantwell, M; Suslow, T. (2002-06-10). "Celery: Recommendations for Maintaining Postharvest Quality". Post-harvest technology research and information center. http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu/Produce/ProduceFacts/Veg/celery.shtml. Retrieved 2008-03-04.

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Sugar It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Sucrose. (Discuss) For other uses, see Sugar (disambiguation). For the common table sugar, see sucrose.

Magnification of grains of sugar, showing their monoclinic hemihedral crystalline structure. Sugar, granulated Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 390 kcal 1620 kJ

99.98 g

Carbohydrates - Sugars 99.91 g - Dietary fiber 0 g Fat

0g

Protein

0g

Water

0.03 g

Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.019 mg 1% Calcium 1 mg

0%

Iron 0.01 mg

0%

Potassium 2 mg

0%

Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

Sugars, brown Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 380 kcal 1580 kJ

Carbohydrates

97.33 g

- Sugars 96.21 g - Dietary fiber 0 g Fat

0g

Protein

0g

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1.77 g

Water

Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.008 mg 1% Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.007 mg 0% Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.082 mg

1%

Vitamin B6 0.026 mg

2%

Folate (Vit. B9) 1 μg

0%

Calcium 85 mg

9%

Iron 1.91 mg

15%

Magnesium 29 mg

8%

Phosphorus 22 mg

3%

Potassium 346 mg

7%

Sodium 39 mg

2%

Zinc 0.18 mg

2%

Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

Magnified crystals of refined sugar. Sugar is a class of edible crystalline substances, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose. Human taste buds interpret its flavor as sweet. Sugar as a basic food carbohydrate primarily comes from sugar cane and from sugar beet, but also appears in fruit, honey, sorghum, sugar maple (in maple syrup), and in many other sources. It forms the main ingredient in candy. Excessive consumption of sugar has been associated with increased incidences of type 2 diabetes, obesity and tooth decay.[1] Sugar consumption varies by country depending on the cultural traditions. Brazil has the highest per capita consumption and India has the highest per-country consumption.[2]

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Popular In non-scientific use, the term sugar refers to sucrose (also called "table sugar" or "saccharose") — a white crystalline solid disaccharide. In this informal sense, the word "sugar" principally refers to crystalline sugars. Humans most commonly use sucrose as their sugar of choice for altering the flavor and properties (such as mouthfeel, preservation, and texture) of beverages and food. Commercially produced table sugar comes either from sugar cane or from sugar beet. Manufacturing and preparing food may involve other sugars, including palm sugar and fructose, generally obtained from corn (maize) or from fruit. Sugar may dissolve in water to form a syrup. A great many foods exist which principally contain dissolved sugar. Generically known as "syrups", they may also have other more specific names such as "honey", molasses or treacle.

Scientific Scientifically, sugar refers to any monosaccharide or disaccharide. Monosaccharides (also called "simple sugars"), such as glucose, store chemical energy which biological cells convert to other types of energy. In a list of ingredients, any word that ends with "-ose" (such as "glucose", "dextrose", "fructose", etc.) will likely denote a sugar. Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of carbohydrates soluble in water. Glucose (a type of sugar found in human blood plasma) has the molecular formula C6 H12 O6.

Culinary/nutritional In culinary terms, the foodstuff known as sugar delivers a primary taste sensation of sweetness. Apart from the many forms of sugar and of sugar-containing foodstuffs, alternative non-sugar-based sweeteners exist, and these particularly attract interest from people who have problems with their blood sugar level (such as diabetics) and people who wish to limit their calorie-intake while still enjoying sweet foods. Both natural and synthetic substitutes exist with no significant carbohydrate (and thus low-calorie) content: for instance stevia (a herb), and saccharin (produced from naturally occurring but not necessarily naturally edible substances by inducing appropriate chemical reactions).

Etymology In the case of sugar, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word "sugar" originates from the Arabic and Persian word shakar,[3] itself derived from Sanskrit Sharkara.[4] It came to English by way of French, Spanish and/or Italian, which derived their word for sugar from the Arabic and Persian shakar (whence the Portuguese word açúcar, the Spanish word azúcar, the Italian word zucchero, the Old French word zuchre and the contemporary French word sucre). (Compare the OED.) The Greek word for "sugar", zahari, means "pebble". Note that the English word jaggery (meaning "coarse brown Indian sugar") has similar ultimate etymological origins (presumably in Sanskrit). 133 | P a g e

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Culinary sugars

Grainier, raw sugar. The World Health Organisation and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations expert report (WHO Technical Report Series 916 Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases) defines free sugars as all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups and fruit juices. This includes all the sugars referred to above. The term distinguishes these forms from all other culinary sugars added in their natural form with no refining at all. Natural sugars comprise all completely unrefined sugars: effectively all sugars not defined as free sugars. The WHO Technical Report Series 916 Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases approves only natural sugars as carbohydrates for unrestricted consumption. Natural sugars come in fruit, grains and vegetables in their natural or cooked form.

Chemistry

Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose (right), important molecules in the body. Biochemists regard sugars as relatively simple carbohydrates. Sugars include monosaccharides, disaccharides, trisaccharides and the oligosaccharides - containing 1, 2, 3, and 4 or more monosaccharide units respectively. Sugars contain either aldehyde groups (CHO) or ketone groups (C=O), where there are carbon-oxygen double bonds, making the sugars reactive. Most simple sugars (monosaccharides) conform to (CH2O)n where n is between 3 and 7. A notable exception, deoxyribose, as its name suggests, has a "missing" oxygen atom. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of 134 | P a g e

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water (H2O) per bond. Sugars can also be used as monomers to create biopolymers such as cellulose, which is made of glucose, or DNA, which uses deoxyribose as a backbone. As well as using classifications based on their reactive group, chemists may also subdivide sugars according to the number of carbons they contain. Derivatives of trioses (C3H6O3) are intermediates in glycolysis. Pentoses (5-carbon sugars) include ribose and deoxyribose, which form part of nucleic acids. Ribose also forms a component of several chemicals that have importance in the metabolic process, including NADH and ATP. Hexoses (6-carbon sugars) include glucose, a universal substrate for the production of energy in the form of ATP. Through photosynthesis plants produce glucose, which has the formula C6H12O6, and convert it for storage as an energy reserve in the form of other carbohydrates such as starch, or (as in cane and beet) as sucrose (table sugar). Sucrose has the chemical formula C12H22O11. Many pentoses and hexoses can form ring structures. In these closed-chain forms, the aldehyde or ketone group remains unfree, so many of the reactions typical of these groups cannot occur. Glucose in solution exists mostly in the ring form at equilibrium, with less than 0.1% of the molecules in the open-chain form. Monosaccharides in a closed-chain form can form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides, creating disaccharides (such as sucrose) and polysaccharides (such as starch). Enzymes must hydrolyse or otherwise break these glycosidic bonds before such compounds become metabolised. After digestion and absorption. the principal monosaccharides present in the blood and internal tissues include glucose, fructose, and galactose. The prefix "glyco-" indicates the presence of a sugar in an otherwise non-carbohydrate substance. Note for example glycoproteins, proteins connected to one or more sugars. Monosaccharides include fructose, glucose, galactose and mannose. Disaccharides occur most commonly as sucrose (cane or beet sugar - made from one glucose and one fructose), lactose (milk sugar - made from one glucose and one galactose) and maltose (made of two glucoses). These disaccharides have the formula C12H22O11. Hydrolysis can convert sucrose into a syrup of fructose and glucose, producing invert sugar. This resulting syrup, sweeter than the original sucrose,[5] has uses in making confections because it does not crystallize as easily and thus produces a smoother finished product. If combined with fine ash, sugar will burn with a blue flame.

Measuring sugar See also International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis The purity (sucrose content) of table sugar by polarimetry — the measurement of the rotation of planepolarized light by a solution of sugar.

Baking weight/mass volume relationship Different culinary sugars have different densities due to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture. 135 | P a g e

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The Domino Sugar Company has established the following volume to weight conversions: Brown sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 195 g = 6.88 oz Granular sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 200 g = 7.06 oz Powdered sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 120 g = 4.23 oz Bulk Density[6] Dextrose Sugar 0.62 g/ml Granulated Sugar 0.70 g/ml Powdered Sugar 0.56 g/ml Beet Sugar 0.80 g/ml

Notes 1. ^ Wuebben, Joseph and Mike Carlson. "Sugar: What Kinds to Eat and When." http://men.webmd.com/features/sugar-what-kinds-eat-when 2. ^ International sugar statistics http://www.illovosugar.com/worldofsugar/internationalSugarStats.htm 3. ^ Compare the OED and the Online Etymology Dictionary. 4. ^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part III: Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries, History of Science and Technology in Islam. 5. ^ scientificpsychic.com: link inaccessible as of 2008-06-04 6. ^ "Engineering Resources - Bulk Density Chart," Powder and Bulk

References Adas, Michael (January 2001). Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History. Temple University Press. ISBN 1566398320. OCLC 44493265. James, Glyn (2004). Sugarcane. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 063205476X. OCLC 51837990 84251137. A C Hannah, The International Sugar Trade, Cambridge: Woodhead, 1996. ISBN 185573-069-3 William Dufty, Sugar Blues, ISBN 0-446-34312-9

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Brown sugar

Brown sugar crystals. Brown sugar is a sucrose sugar product with a distinctive brown color due to the presence of molasses. It is either an unrefined or partially refined soft sugar consisting of sugar crystals with some residual molasses content or produced by the addition of molasses to refined white sugar. Brown sugar contains from 3.5% molasses (light brown sugar) to 6.5% molasses (dark brown sugar). The product is naturally moist from the hygroscopic nature of the molasses and is often labelled as "soft." The product may undergo processing to give a product that flows better for industrial handling. The addition of dyes and/or other chemicals may be permitted in some areas or for industrial products. Particle size is variable but generally less than granulated white sugar. Products for industrial use (e.g. the industrial production of cakes) may be based on castor sugar which has crystals of approximately 0.35 mm.

Manufacture Many brown sugar producers produce brown sugar by adding cane molasses to completely refined white sugar crystals in order to more carefully control the ratio of molasses to sugar crystals and to reduce manufacturing costs. This also allows the production of brown sugars to be based predominantly on beet sugar. Brown sugar prepared in this manner is often much coarser than its unrefined equivalent and its molasses may be easily separated from the crystals by simple washing to reveal the underlying white sugar crystals; with unrefined brown there is inclusion of molasses within the crystal which will appear off-white if washed. This is mainly done for inventory control and convenience. The molasses usually used is that obtained from sugar cane, because the flavor is generally preferred over beet sugar molasses. Although in some areas, especially in the Netherlands, sugar beet molasses is used. The white sugar used can be from either beet or cane as odour and color differences will be covered by the molasses. Brown sugar can be made at home by mixing white granulated sugar with molasses, using one tablespoon of molasses for every cup of white sugar (one-sixteenth or 6.25% of the total volume). Thorough blending will yield dark brown sugar; for light brown sugar, between one and two teaspoons of molasses per cup should be used instead. It is, however, simpler to substitute molasses for an equal portion of white sugar while cooking, without mixing them separately. 137 | P a g e

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When a recipe calls for "brown sugar" it is usually referring to light brown sugar; dark brown sugar should be used only when specified.[citation needed] This is relevant primarily when baking recipes sensitive to moisture and density (such as cakes), because of the difference in moisture content between the two types. In other applications, substituting dark brown sugar over light brown will yield a deeper flavor with more caramel, much like adding molasses would do.

Nutritional value Brown sugar has a slightly lower caloric value by weight than white sugar due to the presence of water. One hundred grams of brown sugar contains 373 calories, as opposed to 396 calories in white sugar.[1] However, brown sugar packs more densely than white sugar due to the smaller crystal size and may have more calories when measured by volume. One tablespoon of brown sugar has 48 calories against 45 calories for white sugar.[2] John Yudkin, in his studies (cited in "Pure, White and Deadly" - UK title) that rats fed brown sugar, as opposed to white sugar, suffered all the same ills from such consumption as did the control group fed white sugar, while their offspring did not exhibit the same abnormalities related to the offspring of the rats fed on white sugar. This led to the conclusion that there are some trace nutritional aspects he was unable to detect in brown sugar that made it less harmful than white sugar, though the impact could only be detected in their offspring. Nutritionally, apart from pure carbohydrate, he was not able to detect any nutritional component to white or brown sugar, and such pure carbohydrate is on the list to avoid in the World Health Organization and FAO study[3] on obesity and chronic preventable diseases. Note this study does state that carbohydrates in their intrinsic or unrefined form are nutritionally highly beneficial and should make up 55-75% of our diet, but they are fundamentally different from extrinsic carbohydrates such as both white and brown sugar.

History In the late 1800s, the newly consolidated refined white sugar industry, which did not have full control over brown sugar production, mounted a smear campaign against brown sugar, reproducing microscopic photographs of harmless but repulsive-looking microbes living in brown sugar. The effort was so successful that by 1900, a best-selling cookbook warned that brown sugar was of inferior quality and was susceptible to infestation by "a minute insect."[4]

Natural brown sugar

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A measuring cup containing muscovado (left); on the right is a measuring cup containing regular (light) brown sugar. Natural brown sugar is a name for raw sugar which is a brown sugar produced from the first crystallisation of the sugar cane. As such "natural brown sugar" is free of additional dyes and chemicals. There is more molasses in natural brown sugar, giving it a higher mineral content. Some natural brown sugars have particular names and characteristics, and are sold as Turbinado sugar, Muscovado, or Demerara sugar. Turbinado sugar is made by crushing freshly cut sugar cane to obtain a juice, which is heated and evaporated to a thick syrup, which is then crystallized. The crystals are then spun in a centrifuge (thus "turbin-") to remove the excess juice, resulting in the characteristic large, light brown, crystals.[5][6] Muscovado (also moscovado) is an unrefined, dark brown sugar that is produced without centrifuging and has much smaller crystals than turbinado sugar. The sugar cane extract is heated to thicken it and then pan-evaporated in the sun and pounded to yield an unprocessed, damp sugar that retains all of the natural minerals.[7] Demerara (also spelled "demerera") sugar's name comes from the Demerera River area of Guyana, where sugar cane was grown. Demerara is another unrefined, centrifuged, largecrystalled, light brown, cane sugar; it is slightly sticky and sometimes molded into sugar cubes. Some Demerara is still produced in South America, but most is now produced in Mauritius, an island off Africa.

References 1. 2. 3. 4.

^ New Scientist. I'm Sweet Enough 21 January 2006 ^ Sugar Association ^ http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/AC911E/ac911e07.htm#bm07.1.3 fao.org ^ Levenstein, Harvey. Revolution at the Table Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003. 32-33 5. ^ "Organic Turbinado Sugar". http://www.wholesomesweeteners.com/brands/Wholesome_Sweeteners/Organic_Tur binado_Sugar.html. Retrieved 2008-09-20. 6. ^ "Press release describes manufacturing process for organic turbinado sugar". http://www.csrwire.com/PressRelease.php?id=3026. Retrieved 2008-09-20. 7. ^ "This is how Muscovado Sugar is made.". http://www.wildernessfamilynaturals.com/muscovado_sugar.htm#sugarmade. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

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Salt

Salt is mostly sodium chloride (NaCl). This salt shaker also contains grains of rice, which some use to prevent caking.

Brine being boiled down to pure salt in Zigong, People's Republic of China Salt is a dietary mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride that is essential for animal life, but toxic to most land plants. Salt flavor is one of the basic tastes, an important preservative and a popular food seasoning. Salt for human consumption is produced in different forms: unrefined salt (such as sea salt), refined salt (table salt), and iodized salt. It is a crystalline solid, white, pale pink or light gray in color, normally obtained from sea water or rock deposits. Edible rock salts may be slightly grayish in color because of mineral content. Chloride and sodium ions, the two major components of salt, are necessary for the survival of all known living creatures, including humans. Salt is involved in regulating the water content (fluid balance) of the body. Salt cravings may be caused by trace mineral deficiencies as well as by a deficiency of sodium chloride itself.[citation needed] Conversely, overconsumption of salt increases the risk of health problems, including high blood pressure.

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History Main article: History of salt

Table Salt (NaCl) Crystal Human beings have used canning and artificial refrigeration for the preservation of food for approximately the last two hundred years, however, in the millennia before then, salt provided the best-known food preservative, especially for meat.[1] The harvest of salt from the surface of Xiechi Lake near Yuncheng in Shanxi, China dates back to at least 6000 BC, making it one of the oldest verifiable saltworks.[2]:18–19 Salt was included among funereal offerings found in ancient Egyptian tombs from the third millennium BC, as were salted birds and salt fish.[2]:38 From about 2800 BC, the Egyptians began exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians in return for Lebanon Cedar, glass, and the dye Tyrian purple; the Phoenicians traded Egyptian salt fish and salt from North Africa throughout their Mediterranean trade empire.[2]:44 Along the Sahara, the Tuareg maintain routes especially for the transport of salt by Azalai (salt caravans). In 1960, the caravans still transported some 15,000 tons of salt, but this trade has now declined to roughly a third of this figure.[3] 141 | P a g e

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Salzburg, Hallstatt, and Hallein lie on the river Salzach in central Austria, within a radius of no more than 17 kilometres. Salzach literally means "salt water" and Salzburg "salt city", both taking their names from the Germanic root for salt, salz. Hallstatt literally means "salt town" and Hallein "saltwork", taking their names from hal(l)-, a root for salt found in Celtic, Greek, and Egyptian.[citation needed] The root hal(l)- also gave us Gaul, the Roman exonym for the Celts, Halle and Schwäbisch Hall in Germany, Halych in Ukraine, and Galicia in Spain: this list of places named for Celtic saltworks is far from complete.[4][5][6] Hallstatt gave its name to the Celtic archaeological culture that began mining for salt in the area in around 800 BC Around 400 BC, the Hallstatt Celts, who had heretofore mined for salt, began open pan salt making. During the first millennium BC, Celtic communities grew rich trading salt and salted meat to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in exchange for wine and other luxuries.[1] It is widely, though incorrectly,[7] believed that troops in the Roman army were paid in salt. Even widely-respected historical works repeat this error.[2]:63 The word salad literally means "salted," and comes from the ancient Roman practice of salting leaf vegetables.[2]:64 Mahatma Gandhi led at least 100, 000 people on the "Dandi March" or "Salt Satyagraha", in which protesters made their own salt from the sea, which was illegal under British rule, as it avoided paying the "salt tax". This civil disobedience inspired millions of common people, and elevated the Indian independence movement from an elitist struggle to a national struggle.

In religion According to Strong's Concordance, there are forty-one verses which reference salt in the English translation of the King James Bible, the earliest being the story of Lot's wife, who was turned into a pillar of salt when she disobediently looked back at the wicked cities of Sodom (Genesis 19:26). When King Abimelech destroyed the city of Shechem he is said to have "sowed salt on it;" a phrase expressing the completeness of its ruin. (Judges 9:45.) In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus referred to his followers as the "salt of the earth". The apostle Paul also encouraged Christians to "let your conversation be always full of grace, seasoned with salt" (Colossians 4:6). In one of the Hadith recorded in Sunan Ibn Majah, Prophet Muhammad is reported to have said that: "Salt is the master of your food. God sent down four blessings from the sky - fire, water, iron and salt" Salt is mandatory in the rite of the Tridentine Mass.[8] Salt is used in the third item (which includes an Exorcism) of the Celtic Consecration (cf. Gallican rite) that is employed in the consecration of a church. Salt may be added to the water "where it is customary" in the Roman Catholic rite of Holy water. Salt is considered to be a very auspicious substance in Hindu mythology, and is used in particular religious ceremonies like housewarmings and weddings. In many Pagan religions esp. Wicca salt is symbolic of the element Earth. It is also used as a purifier of sacred space. 142 | P a g e

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In the native Japanese religion Shinto, salt is used for ritual purification of locations and people, such as in Sumo Wrestling. In Aztec mythology, Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water. In order to preserve the covenant between their people and God, Jews dip the Sabbath bread in salt.[9] The Ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water. This is thought to be the origin of the Holy Water used in the Christian faith.[9]

In weather

Clouds above the Pacific Small particles of sea salt are the dominant cloud condensation nuclei well out at sea, which allow the formation of clouds in otherwise non-polluted air.[10] Salt is used for Snow removal, to make travel easier and safer and decrease the long term impact of a heavy snowfall on human populations. Salt and other chloride-based chemicals eliminate snow and ice from road surfaces and sidewalks by lowering the temperature at which ice melts.[11]

Forms of salt Unrefined salt Main articles: Sea salt, Halite, and Fleur de sel

A commercial pack of sea salt

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Different natural salts have different mineralities, giving each one a unique flavor. Fleur de sel, natural sea salt harvested by hand, has a unique flavor varying from region to region. Some advocates for sea salt assert that unrefined sea salt is healthier than refined salts.[12] However, completely raw sea salt is bitter because of magnesium and calcium compounds, and thus is rarely eaten. The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough iodine salts to prevent iodine deficiency diseases.[13] Unrefined sea salts are also commonly used as ingredients in bathing additives and cosmetic products. One example are bath salts, which uses sea salt as its main ingredient and combined with other ingredients used for its healing and therapeutic effects.

Refined salt

Salt mounds in Bolivia. Refined salt, which is most widely used presently, is mainly sodium chloride. Food grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt production in industrialised countries (3% in Europe[14]) although worldwide, food uses account for 17.5% of salt production.[15] The majority is sold for industrial use. Salt has great commercial value because it is a necessary ingredient in the manufacturing of many things. A few common examples include: the production of pulp and paper, setting dyes in textiles and fabrics, and the making of soaps and detergents. The manufacture and use of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries.[16] Salt can be obtained by evaporation of sea water, usually in shallow basins warmed by sunlight;[17] salt so obtained was formerly called bay salt, and is now often called sea salt or solar salt. Today, most refined salt is prepared from rock salt: mineral deposits high in salt.[citation needed] These rock salt deposits were formed by the evaporation of ancient salt lakes,[18] and may be mined conventionally or through the injection of water. Injected water dissolves the salt, and the brine solution can be pumped to the surface where the salt is collected. After the raw salt is obtained, it is refined to purify it and improve its storage and handling characteristics. Purification usually involves recrystallization. In recrystallization, a brine solution is treated with chemicals that precipitate most impurities (largely magnesium and calcium salts).[19] Multiple stages of evaporation are then used to collect pure sodium chloride crystals, which are kiln-dried.

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Salt Crystals at Devil's Golf Course in Death Valley National Park.

Single-serving salt packets. Since the 1950s it has been common to add a trace of sodium ferrocyanide to the brine in the United Kingdom; this acts as an anticaking agent by promoting irregular crystals.[20] Sodium ferrocyanide has been banned in the United States and a similar ban has been discussed in the United Kingdom, but was determined to be unnecessary.[21][22] Other anticaking agents (and potassium iodide, for iodised salt) are generally added after crystallization.[citation needed] These agents are hygroscopic chemicals which absorb humidity, keeping the salt crystals from sticking together. Some anti-caking agents used are tricalcium phosphate, calcium or magnesium carbonates, fatty acid salts (acid salts), magnesium oxide, silicon dioxide, calcium silicate, sodium aluminosilicate, and calcium aluminosilicate. Concerns have been raised regarding the possible toxic effects of aluminium in the latter two compounds[citation needed] ; however, both the European Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) permit their use.[23] The refined salt is then ready for packing and distribution.

Table salt Table salt is refined salt, which may be as little as 60% or as high as 99% sodium chloride.[24][25][26] It usually contains substances that make it free-flowing (anti-caking agents) such as sodium silicoaluminate or magnesium carbonate. Some people also add a desiccant, such as a few grains of uncooked rice,[27] in salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up clumps when anti-caking agents are not enough. Table salt has a particle density of 2.165 g/cm3, and a bulk density (dry, ASTM D 632 gradation) of about 1.154 g/cm3.[28]

Salty condiments In many East Asian cultures, salt is not traditionally used as a condiment.[29] However, condiments such as soy sauce, fish sauce and oyster sauce tend to have a high salt content and

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fill much the same role as a salt-providing table condiment that table salt serves in western cultures. Additives See also: Iodised salt Iodized salt (BrE: iodised salt) is table salt mixed with a minute amount of potassium iodide, sodium iodide, or sodium iodate. Iodized salt is used to help reduce the incidence of iodine deficiency in humans. Iodine deficiency commonly leads to thyroid gland problems, specifically endemic goiter, a disease characterized by a swelling of the thyroid gland, usually resulting in a bulbous protrusion on the neck. While only tiny quantities of iodine are required in the diet to prevent goiter, the United States Food and Drug Administration recommends (21 CFR 101.9 (c)(8)(iv)) 150 micrograms of iodine per day for both men and women. Iodized table salt has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency in countries where it is used.[30] Iodine is important to prevent the insufficient production of thyroid hormones (hypothyroidism), which can cause goitre, cretinism in children, and myxedema in adults. Table salt is mainly employed in cooking and as a table condiment. The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt varies from country to country. In the United States, iodized salt contains 46-77 ppm, while in the UK the iodine content of iodized salt is recommended to be 10-22 ppm.[31] Today, iodized salt is more common in the United States, Australia and New Zealand than in the United Kingdom. In some European countries where drinking water fluoridation is not practiced, fluorinated table salt is available. In France, 35% of sold table salt contains either sodium fluoride or potassium fluoride.[32] Another additive, especially important for pregnant women, is Folic acid (Vitamin B9), which gives the table salt a yellow color. In Canada, at least one brand (Windsor salt) contains invert sugar. The reason for this is unclear.

Health effects

SEM image of a grain of table salt. Sodium is one of the primary electrolytes in the body. All four cationic electrolytes (sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium) are available in unrefined salt, as are other vital minerals needed for optimal bodily function. Too much or too little salt in the diet can lead to muscle cramps, dizziness, or even an electrolyte disturbance, which can cause severe, even fatal, neurological problems.[33] Drinking too much water, with insufficient salt intake, puts a 146 | P a g e

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person at risk of water intoxication (hyponatremia). Salt is even sometimes used as a health aid, such as in treatment of dysautonomia.[34] The risk for disease due to insufficient or excessive salt intake varies because of biochemical individuality. Some have asserted that while the risks of consuming too much salt are real, the risks have been exaggerated for most people, or that the studies done on the consumption of salt can be interpreted in many different ways.[35][36] Many (though not all scientists)[37] believe that excess salt consumption has been linked to: exercise-induced asthma.[38] heartburn.[39] osteoporosis: One report shows that a high salt diet does reduce bone density in women.[40] Yet "While high salt intakes have been associated with detrimental effects on bone health, there are insufficient data to draw firm conclusions." ([41], p3) Gastric cancer (Stomach cancer) is associated with high levels of sodium, "but the evidence does not generally relate to foods typically consumed in the UK." ([41], p18) However, in Japan, salt consumption is higher.[42] hypertension (high blood pressure): "Since 1994, the evidence of an association between dietary salt intakes and blood pressure has increased. The data have been consistent in various study populations and across the age range in adults." ([41] p3). A large scale study from 2007 has shown that people with high-normal blood pressure who significantly reduced the amount of salt in their diet decreased their chances of developing cardiovascular disease by 25% over the following 10 to 15 years. Their risk of dying from cardiovascular disease decreased by 20%.[43] left ventricular hypertrophy (cardiac enlargement): "Evidence suggests that high salt intake causes left ventricular hypertrophy, a strong risk factor for cardiovascular disease, independently of blood pressure effects." ([41] p3) "…there is accumulating evidence that high salt intake predicts left ventricular hypertrophy." ([44], p12) Excessive salt (sodium) intake, combined with an inadequate intake of water, can cause hypernatremia. It can exacerbate renal disease.[33] edema (BE: oedema): A decrease in salt intake has been suggested to treat edema (fluid retention).[33][45] duodenal ulcers and gastric ulcers[46] Death. Ingestion of large amounts of salt in a short time (about 1 g per kg of body weight) can be fatal. Salt solutions have been used in ancient China as a method of suicide (especially by the nobility, since salt was quite valuable). Deaths have also resulted from attempted use of salt solutions as emetics, forced salt intake, and accidental confusion of salt with sugar in child food.[47] Some scientists believe that excess salt intake has no significant role in hypertension and coronary heart disease, as adults' kidneys are able to remove excess salt.[37] Sea salt (an unrefined form of salt made by evaporating sea water) is often sold for use as a condiment. Sea salt contains trace amounts of other minerals which are removed in the refining process. Certain sea salts are also used in the production of bath salts and cosmetic products.

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Rock and sea salt is usually referred and sold as Natrum Muriaticum in homeopathy, and purported by followers to be a deep acting and powerful curative when taken over long periods of time. Some isolated cultures, such as the Yanomami in South America, have been found to consume little salt, possibly an adaptation originated in the predominantly vegetarian diet of human primate ancestors.[48]

Recommended intake

Sea salt and peppercorns.

A salt mill for sea salt. In the United Kingdom the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) recommended in 2003 that, for a typical adult, the Reference Nutrient Intake is 4 g salt per day (1.6 g or 70 mmol sodium). However, average adult intake is two and a half times the Reference Nutrient Intake for sodium. SACN states, "The target salt intakes set for adults and children do not represent ideal or optimum consumption levels, but achievable population goals."[41] The Food Safety Authority of Ireland endorses the UK targets.[44] Health Canada recommends an Adequate Intake (AI) and an Upper Limit (UL) in terms of sodium,[49] as does the Auckland District Health Board in New Zealand.[50].

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The NHMRC in Australia was not able to define a recommended dietary intake (RDI). It defines an Adequate Intake (AI) for adults of 460-920 mg/day and an Upper Level of intake (UL) of 2300 mg/day.[51] In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration itself does not make a recommendation,[52] but refers readers to Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005. These suggest that US citizens should consume less than 2,300 mg of sodium (= 2.3 g sodium = 5.8 g salt) per day.[53]

Labeling UK: The Food Standards Agency defines the level of salt in foods as follows: "High is more than 1.5g salt per 100g (or 0.6g sodium). Low is 0.3g salt or less per 100g (or 0.1g sodium). If the amount of salt per 100g is in between these figures, then that is a medium level of salt." In the UK, foods produced by some supermarkets and manufacturers have ‗traffic light‘ colors on the front of the pack: Red (High), Amber (Medium), or Green (Low).[54] USA: The FDA Food Labeling Guide stipulates whether a food can be labelled as "free", "low", or "reduced/less" in respect of sodium. When other health claims are made about a food (e.g. low in fat, calories, etc.), a disclosure statement is required if the food exceeds 480 mg of sodium per 'serving.'[55]

Campaigns In 2004, Britain's Food Standards Agency started a public health campaign called "Salt Watch it", which recommends no more than 6g of salt per day; it features a character called Sid the Slug and was criticised by the Salt Manufacturers Association (SMA).[56] The Advertising Standards Authority did not uphold the SMA complaint in its adjudication.[57] In March 2007, the FSA launched the third phase of their campaign with the slogan "Salt. Is your food full of it?" fronted by comedienne Jenny Eclair.[58] The Menzies Research Institute in Tasmania, Australia, maintains a website[59] dedicated to educating people about the potential problems of a salt-laden diet. Consensus Action on Salt and Health (CASH)[60] established in 1996, actively campaigns to raise awareness of the harmful health effects of salt. The 2008 focus includes raising awareness of high levels of salt hidden in sweet foods and marketed towards children.[61]

Salt substitutes Main article: Salt substitute Salt intake can be reduced by simply reducing the quantity of salty foods in a diet, without recourse to salt substitutes. Salt substitutes have a taste similar to table salt and contain mostly potassium chloride, which will increase potassium intake. Excess potassium intake can cause hyperkalemia. Various diseases and medications may decrease the body's excretion of potassium, thereby increasing the risk of hyperkalemia. Those who have kidney failure, heart failure or diabetes should seek medical advice before using a salt substitute. One manufacturer, LoSalt, has issued an advisory statement[62] that those taking the following 149 | P a g e

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prescription drugs should not use a salt substitute: Amiloride, Triamterene, Dytac, Spironolactone (Brand name Aldactone), Eplerenone and Inspra.

Production

Salt output in 2005 Salt is produced by evaporation of seawater or brine from other sources, such as brine wells and salt lakes, and by mining rock salt, called halite. In 2002, total world production was estimated at 210 million tonnes, the top five producers being the United States (40.3 million tonnes), China (32.9), Germany (17.7), India (14.5), and Canada (12.3).[63] Note that these figures are not just for table salt but for sodium chloride in general.

Salt disturbance in coastal industries The omnipresence of salt posts a problem in any coastal coating application. Salts that are trapped under a coating cause great problems in coating adhesion. Costs can reach staggering amounts. Naval authorities and ship builders keep a close eye on salt concentrations on surfaces during construction. Maximum salt concentrations on surfaces are dependent on the authority and application. The IMO regulation is mostly used and sets salt levels to a maximum of 50 mg/m2 soluble salts measured as sodium chloride. These measurements are done by means of a Bresle test.

Notes 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

^ a b Barber 1999:136 ^ a b c d e Kurlansky 2002 ^ Onbekende Wereld by Wim Offeciers (based on Doucan Gersi's travels) ^ Included among the other, less well-known continental salt sites with hal(l)- in their names are Reichenhall and Schwäbisch Hall in Germany, and Hall in Austria. (Barber 1999:137) ^ Barber 1999:135–137 ^ Kurlansky 2002:52–55 ^ "The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition". Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/salary. Retrieved 2008-12-14. ^ "Salt". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Salt.

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9. ^ a b "10+1 Things you may not know about Salt", Epikouria Magazine, Fall/Winter 2006 10. ^ B. J. Mason (2006-12-19). "The role of sea-salt particles as cloud condensation nuclei over the remote oceans". The Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 127 (576): 2023-2032. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/114028130/abstract. Retrieved 2009-0708. 11. ^ David A. Kuemmel (1994). Managing roadway snow and ice control operations. Transportation Research Board. p. 10. ISBN 9780309056663. http://books.google.com/books?id=I3gxuwTE5_MC&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=effe ct+of+snowfall+on+infrastructure&source=bl&ots=kmDWQqfCno&sig=yMOXi2gv 5_LJf_o3qNA36e0FSO8&hl=en&ei=nKxUStpAY7ElAeIoZXkCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1. Retrieved 200907-08. 12. ^ Sea Salt is good for you 13. ^ References on food salt & health issues. Salt Institute. 14. ^ European Salt Producers' Association http://www.eu-salt.com/index3.htm 15. ^ Roskill Information Services http://www.roskill.com/reports/salt 16. ^ Salt made the world go round 17. ^ Nauticus - Weather Curriculum 18. ^ UK Salt Manufacturers' Association http://www.saltsense.co.uk/aboutsaltwhat01.htm 19. ^ The Salt Manufacturers Association ::: saltsense, salt history, salt manufacture, salt uses, sodium. Key information on salt from the Salt Industry 20. ^ The Salt Manufacturers Association ::: saltsense, salt history, salt manufacture, salt uses, sodium. Key information on salt from the Salt Industry 21. ^ Halen Môn sea salt information page 22. ^ Discussions of the safety of sodium hexaferrocyanate in table salt 23. ^ HE-620 24. ^ Nutritional analysis provided with Tesco Table Salt, from Tesco Stores Ltd (UK) states 38.9% sodium by weight which equals 98.9% sodium chloride 25. ^ Calculating the listed 590mg of Sodium in a 1.5g serving size (of Smart & Final iodized salt), it is clear that it is not 99% sodium chloride since pure NaCl should contain about 870mg of Sodium 26. ^ Table 27. ^ "Rice in Salt Shakers". Ask a Scientist. http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/gen01/gen01420.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-29. 28. ^ What is Salt?, Salt Institute, 2008 29. ^ The Seattle Times: Pacific Northwest Magazine 30. ^ Iodized Salt 31. ^ Iodized Salt 32. ^ http://www.afssa.fr/Ftp/Afssa/26447-26448.pdf 33. ^ a b c Australia: Better Health Channel (Australia, Victoria) Salt 34. ^ Cleveland Clinic Health Information Center Dysautonomia page 35. ^ Why Files article Salt and other wounds 36. ^ Gary Taubes, "The (Political) Science of Salt", Science, 14 August 1998, Vol. 281. no. 5379, pp. 898 - 907 37. ^ a b http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/medical_notes/393201.stm 38. ^ Exercise-induced asthma more clearly linked to high-salt diet 39. ^ Everybody Study adds salt to suspected triggers for heartburn 151 | P a g e

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40. ^ High salt diet reduces bone density in girls 41. ^ a b c d e Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health (PDF) 42. ^ Salt raises 'stomach cancer risk' 43. ^ Cook NR, Cutler JA, Obarzanek E et al. Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the trials of hypertension prevention (TOHP). BMJ. 2007;334(7599):885. PMID 17449506 Free full-text 44. ^ a b Food Safety Authority of Ireland Salt and Health: Review of the Scientific Evidence and Recommendations for Public Policy in Ireland 45. ^ Australia: Better Health Channel (Australia, Victoria) Fluid retention 46. ^ BBC High-salt diet link to ulcer risk 22 May 2007 47. ^ Elisabeth Elena Türk, Friedrich Schulz, Erwin Koops, Axel Gehl and Michael Tsokos. Fatal hypernatremia after using salt as an emetic—report of three autopsy cases. Legal Medicine 2005, 7, 47-50. doi:10.1016/j.legalmed.2004.06.005 48. ^ Yanomami Indians in the INTERSALT study, (accessed13 January 2007) 49. ^ Health Canada Dietary Reference Intakes 50. ^ Auckland District Health Board Public Health Nutrition Advice (PDF) 51. ^ NHMRC Reference Nutrient Values, Sodium 52. ^ U. S. Food and Drug Administration A Pinch of Controversy Shakes Up Dietary Salt 53. ^ Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Department of Agriculture (USDA) Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 "Sodium and Potassium" 54. ^ Understanding labels 55. ^ Food and Drug Administration A Food Labeling Guide--Appendix A 56. ^ Salt Manufacturers Association press release New salt campaign under attack 57. ^ Advertising Standards Authority Broadcast Advertising Adjudications: 20 April 2005 (PDF) 58. ^ Salt TV ads 59. ^ Salt Matters 60. ^ "CASH Consensus Action on Salt". http://www.hyp.ac.uk/cash/. 61. ^ "Child health fears over high salt levels in sweet foods". 28 January 2008. http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2008/jan/28/foodanddrink.healthandwellbeing. 62. ^ LoSalt Advisory Statement (PDF) 63. ^ Susan R. Feldman. Sodium chloride. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published online 2005. doi:10.1002/0471238961.1915040902051820.a01.pub2

References Kurlansky, Mark (2002), Salt: A World History, New York: Walker & Co., ISBN 0802713734, OCLC 48573453. Barber, Elizabeth Wayland (1999), The Mummies of Ürümchi, New York: W.W. Norton & Co., ISBN 0393320197, OCLC 48426519.

Further reading Kurlansky, Mark, and S. D. Schindler. The Story of Salt. New York, NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2006. ISBN 0399239987—a children's book about salt.

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Laszlo, Pierre. Salt: Grain of Life. Arts and traditions of the table. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001. Department of Health, Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for the UK: Report of the Panel on DRVs of the Committee on the Medical Aspects of Food Policy , The Stationery Office.

Salt and health Government bodies Many other government bodies are listed in the References section above. Ireland: Food Safety Authority of Ireland Salt and Health UK: Food Standards Agency Salt campaign UK: Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health (PDF) and Salt Subgroup minutes UK: Why 6g? A summary of the scientific evidence for the salt intake target Medical authorities The Cochrane Collaboration "Effect of longer-term modest salt reduction on blood pressure" Menzies Research Institute Salt Matters Web Site Charities and campaigns British Nutrition Foundation article "Salt in the Diet" Consensus Action on Salt and Health (UK charity) Action on Salt and Health CSPI page Salt: The Forgotten Killer Irish Heart Foundation booklet Time to cut down on salt (PDF format) Journalism BBC article "Salt: friend or foe?" BBC medical notes "Salt" Guardian article The sceptic Ockham's Razor Salt matters - talk by Dr Trevor Beard, Menzies Research Institute (ABC Radio National 4 February 2007) Salt industry EuSalt Position papers LoSalt (salt substitute manufacturer) Salt Manufacturers' Association Salt and health Salt Institute Sodium and health ^ Bloch, David: Economics of NaCl: Salt made the world go round.

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Thai pepper Thai pepper / Bird's Eye Chili

Bird's Eye Chili

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order:

Solanales

Family:

Solanaceae

Genus:

Capsicum

Species:

C. frutescens

Thai pepper (Thai: , phrik khi nu(lit. mouse dropping chili)) refers to any of three cultivars of chili pepper, found commonly in Thailand, as well as in neighbouring countries, such as Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Singapore. It can also be found in India, mainly Kerala, where it is used in traditional dishes of the Kerala cuisine (pronounced in Malayalam as kanthari mulagu).

Non-pungent "Thai Pepper" "Thai pepper" can also refer to black pepper, as it is a literal translation of the Thai word for it, phrik thai. This term refers to the peppercorns used in many Thai dishes, as well as ground black or white pepper and derives from the distinction between peppercorns being traditionally Thai versus chili peppers, which only arrived in Thailand in the sixteenth century.

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Cultivars Bird's eye chili pepper

The main Thai pepper seen in South-East Asian cuisine. These tiny fiery chilis characteristically point upward from the main plant, and can be found with colors maturing from green to red. They can commonly be found in many South-East Asian countries, but are more frequently seen in Thailand and Cambodia. Although small in size compared to other types of chili, the chili padi is relatively strong at 50,000 to 100,000 on the Scoville pungency scale.

Proverb Bird's eye chili can be found in South-East Asian markets alongside larger chilies, often times surprising people who are unaware that such a small pepper can be much hotter than the larger ones. This is the source of a proverb heard in many South-East Asian countries that roughly translates to "small like the bird's eye chili," which can best be described by the English equivalent, "Big things come in small packages." " " Thai "Kecil-kecil cili padi" Malaysian "Kecil-kecil cabe rawit" Indonesian

Common Names

A basket of Chilli Padi displayed in supermarket The chilies may also be referred to as cili padi (cili pronounced "chili") in Malay because their small size reminds people of the small grained rice eaten as a staple in the region. 155 | P a g e

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As well as the Malay word, Thai chilies can also be referred to as cabe rawit (Indonesian), phrik khii nuu ( , Thai), Thai hot, Thai dragon (due to its resemblance to claws), Siling Labuyo (Filipino), Ladâ, and boonie pepper (the Anglicized name).

Thai Ornamental

Thai Ornanmental hot peppers growing wild on Saipan. The more decorative, but slightly less pungent variety, sometimes known as Thai Ornamental, has peppers that point upward on the plant, and go from green to yellow, orange, and then red. It is the basis for the hybrid Numex twilight, essentially the same but less pungent and starting with purple fruit, creating a rainbow effect, and among the group of capsicum annuum. These peppers can grow wild in places like Saipan and Guam. The Chinese in SE Asia call this pepper 'the chili that points to the sky'. v•d•e

Capsicum Cultivars C. annuum

Aleppo · Anaheim · Ancho · Banana pepper · Bell pepper · Cascabel · Cayenne · Chilaca · Chiltepin · Cubanelle · De árbol · Dundicut · Fresno · Guajillo · Hungarian wax · Italian sweet · Jalapeño · Japanese · Mirasol · Macho · Mulato · New Mexico (Anaheim) · Pasilla · Pepperoncini · Piquín · Pimento · Poblano · Puya · Serrano · Tien Tsin

C. Adjuma · Ají Limo · Ají dulce · Datil · Fatalii · Habanero · Red Savina · chinense Madame Jeanette · Naga Jolokia · Scotch bonnet C. African birdseye · Malagueta · Thai pepper · Tabasco · Demon Red frutescens C Ají · Piquanté baccatum C. Rocoto pubescens Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_pepper" 156 | P a g e

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Categories: Spices | Chili peppers | Thai ingredients | Malaysian ingredients | Indonesian ingredients | Filipino ingredients | Singaporean ingredients | Indian ingredients

Celeriac Celeriac Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order:

Apiales

Family:

Apiaceae

Genus:

Apium

Species:

A. graveolens

Cultivar Group Apium graveolens Rapaceum Group

Celeriac (Apium graveolens Rapaceum Group) is also known as 'celery root,' 'turnip-rooted celery' or 'knob celery'. It is a kind of celery, grown as a root vegetable for its large and bulbous hypocotyl rather than for its stem and leaves. The swollen hypocotyl is typically used when it is about 10–12 cm in diameter; about the size of a large potato. Unlike other root vegetables, which store a large amount of starch, celery root is only about 5-6% starch by weight. Celeriac may be used raw or cooked. It has a tough, furrowed, outer surface which is usually sliced off before use because it is too rough to peel. Celeriac has a celery flavour, and is often used as a flavouring in soups and stews; it can also be used on its own, usually mashed, or used in casseroles, gratins and baked dishes.

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The hollow stalk of the upper plant is sometimes cut into drinking straw lengths, rinsed, and used in the serving of tomato-based drinks such as the Bloody Mary cocktail. The tomato juice is lightly flavoured with celery as it passes through the stalk.

Celeriac soup. Celeriac is not as widely used as some other root vegetables, perhaps because it is harder to prepare and clean. There are a number of cultivars available, especially in Europe. Among them are 'Prinz', 'Diamant', 'Ibis', and 'Kojak', which all received Royal Horticultural Society Award of Garden Merit designation in the trial in 2000. Celeriac normally keeps well and should last three to four months if stored between 0°C (32 degrees Fahrenheit) and 5°C (41 degrees Fahrenheit) and not allowed to dry out. Celeriac, raw Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 40 kcal 180 kJ

Carbohydrates

9.2 g

- Sugars 1.6 g - Dietary fiber 1.8 g Fat

0.3 g

Protein

1.5 g

Water

88 g

Vitamin K 41 μg

39%

Phosphorus 115 mg16% Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

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Eggplant Eggplant / Aubergine

Scientific classification Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order:

Solanales

Family:

Solanaceae

Genus:

Solanum

Species:

S. melongena

Binomial name Solanum melongena L.

Synonyms Solanum ovigerum Dunal Solanum trongum Poir. and see text The eggplant, aubergine, or brinjal (Solanum melongena), is a plant of the family Solanaceae (also known as the nightshades) and genus Solanum. It bears a fruit of the same name, commonly used as a vegetable in cooking. As a nightshade, it is closely related to the tomato and potato and is native to India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. It is a delicate perennial often cultivated as an annual. It grows 40 to 150 cm (16 to 57 in) tall, with large coarsely lobed leaves that are 10 to 20 cm (4-8 in) long and 5 to 10 cm (2-4 in) broad. (Semi-)wild types can grow much larger, to 225 cm (7 ft) with large leaves over 30 cm (12 in) long and 15 cm (6 in) broad. The stem is often spiny. The flowers are white to purple, 159 | P a g e

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with a five-lobed corolla and yellow stamens. The fruit is fleshy, less than 3 cm in diameter on wild plants, but much larger in cultivated forms. The fruit is botanically classified as a berry, and contains numerous small, soft seeds, which are edible, but are bitter because they contain (an insignificant amount of) nicotinoid alkaloids, unsurprising as it is a close relative of tobacco.

History

Solanum melongena, flower The plant is native to India.[1][2] It has been cultivated in southern and eastern Asia since prehistory[citation needed] but appears to have become known to the Western world no earlier than ca. 1500 CE. The first known written record of the plant is found in Qí mín yào shù, an ancient Chinese agricultural treatise completed in 544 CE.[3] The numerous Arabic and North African names for it, along with the lack of ancient Greek and Roman names, indicate that it was introduced throughout the Mediterranean area by the Arabs in the early Middle Ages. The scientific name Solanum melongena is derived from a 16th century Arabic term for one variety. The name eggplant, used in the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada refers to the fact that the fruits of some 18th century European cultivars were yellow or white and resembled goose or hen's eggs. The name aubergine, which is used in British English, is an adoption from the French word (derived from Catalan albergínia, from Arabic al-badinjan, from Persian bad'en-j'aan, from Sanskrit vatin-ganah). In Indian and South African English, the fruit is known as a "brinjal." Aubergine and brinjal, with their distinctive br-jn or brn-jl aspects, derive from Persian and Sanskrit. In the Caribbean Trinidad, it also goes by the Latin derivative "meloongen". Because of the plant's relationship with the Solanaceae (nightshade) family, the fruit was at one time believed to be extremely dangerous.

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Cultivated varieties

Three varieties of eggplant

In Thai cuisine small and round varieties are preferred. Different varieties of the plant produce fruit of different size, shape and color, especially purple, green, or white. There are even orange varieties. The most widely cultivated varieties (cultivars) in Europe and North America today are elongated ovoid, 12–25 cm wide (4 1/2 to 9 in) and 6–9 cm broad (2 to 4 in) in a dark purple skin. A much wider range of shapes, sizes and colors is grown in India and elsewhere in Asia. Larger varieties weighing up to a kilogram (2 pounds) grow in the region between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, while smaller varieties are found elsewhere. Colors vary from white to yellow or green as well as reddish-purple and dark purple. Some cultivars have a color gradient, from white at the stem to bright pink to deep purple or even black. Green or purple cultivars in white striping also exist. Chinese varieties are commonly shaped like a narrower, slightly pendulous cucumber, and were sometimes called Japanese eggplants in North America. Oval or elongated oval-shaped and black-skinned cultivars include Harris Special Hibush, Burpee Hybrid, Black Magic, Classic, Dusky, and Black Beauty. Slim cultivars in purpleblack skin include Little Fingers, Ichiban, Pingtung Long, and Tycoon; in green skin Louisiana Long Green and Thai (Long) Green; in white skin Dourga. Traditional, whiteskinned, egg-shaped cultivars include Casper and Easter Egg. Bicolored cultivars with color gradient include Rosa Bianca and Violetta di Firenze. Bicolored cultivars in striping include 161 | P a g e

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Listada de Gandia and Udumalapet. In some parts of India, miniature varieties (most commonly called Vengan) are popular. A particular variety of green brinjal known as Matti Gulla is grown in Matti village of Udupi district in Karnataka state in India.

Cooking The raw fruit can have a somewhat bitter taste, but becomes tender when cooked and develops a rich, complex flavor. Salting and then rinsing the sliced fruit (known as "degorging") can soften and remove much of the bitterness though this is often unnecessary. Some modern varieties do not need this treatment, as they are far less bitter. The fruit is capable of absorbing large amounts of cooking fats and sauces, allowing for very rich dishes, but the salting process will reduce the amount of oil absorbed. The fruit flesh is smooth; as in the related tomato, the numerous seeds are soft and edible along with the rest of the fruit. The thin skin is also edible, so that peeling is not required.

Melanzane alla Parmigiana, or Eggplant Parmesan. The plant is used in cuisines from Japan to Spain. It is often stewed, as in the French ratatouille, the Italian melanzane alla parmigiana, the Arabian moussaka, and Middle-Eastern and South Asian dishes. It may also be roasted in its skin until charred, so that the pulp can be removed and blended with other ingredients such as lemon, tahini, and garlic, as in the Middle Eastern dish baba ghanoush and the similar Greek dish melitzanosalata or the Indian dishes of Baigan Bhartha or Gojju. In Iranian cuisine, it can be blended with whey as kashk ebademjan, tomatoes as mirza ghasemi or made into stew as khoresh-e-bademjan. It can be sliced, battered, and deep-fried, then served with various sauces which may be based on yoghurt, tahini, or tamarind. Grilled and mashed and mixed with onions, tomatoes, and spices it makes the Indian dish baingan ka bhartha. The fruit can also be stuffed with meat, rice, or other fillings and then baked. In the Caucasus, for example, it is fried and stuffed with walnut paste to make nigvziani badrijani. It can also be found in Chinese cuisine, braised (紅燒茄子), stewed (魚香茄子) or stuffed (釀茄子). As a native plant, it is widely used in Indian cuisine, for example in sambhar, chutney, curries, and achaar. Owing to its versatile nature and wide use in both everyday and festive Indian food, it is often described (under the name brinjal) as the 'King of Vegetables'. In one dish, Brinjal is stuffed with ground coconut, peanuts, and masala and then cooked in oil. In Bangladesh, it is called Begun ( ). It, along with the fish Hilsa, is used to cook a famous wedding dish[citation needed]. Slices of eggplant are marinated with salt and chilli powder,

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covered with a batter of bashone and deep-fried and eaten as a snack. This is called Beguni ( ).

Cultivation In tropical and subtropical climates, eggplant can be sown directly into the garden. Eggplant grown in temperate climates fares better when transplanted into the garden after all danger of frost is passed. Seeds are typically started eight to ten weeks prior to the anticipated frost-free date. Many pests and diseases which afflict other solanaceous vegetables, such as tomato, pepper (capsicum), and potato, are also troublesome to eggplants. For this reason, it should not be planted in areas previously occupied by its close relatives. Four years should separate successive crops of eggplants. Common North American pests include the potato beetle, flea beetle, aphids, and spider mites. Many of these can be controlled using Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a bacterium that attacks the soft-bodied larvae. (Adults can be removed by hand, though flea beetles can be especially difficult to control.) Good sanitation and crop-rotation practices are extremely important for controlling fungal disease, the most serious of which is Verticillium. Spacing should be 45 cm (18 in.) to 60 cm (24 in.) between plants, depending on cultivar, and 60 cm to 90 cm (24 to 36 in.) between rows, depending on the type of cultivation equipment being used. Mulching will help conserve moisture and prevent weeds and fungal diseases. The flowers are relatively unattractive to bees and the first blossoms often do not set fruit. Hand pollination will improve the set of the first blossoms. Fruits are typically cut from the vine just above the calyx owing to the semi-woody stems. Flowers are complete, containing both female and male structures, and may be self-pollinated or cross-pollinated. [4]

Statistics

A purple eggplant which has been sliced in half, showing the inside. The flesh surrounding the seeds is already beginning to oxidize and will turn brown just minutes after slicing. Production of eggplant is highly concentrated, with 85 percent of output coming from three countries. China is the top producer (56% of world output) and India is second (26%); Egypt, Turkey and Indonesia round out the top producing nations. More than 4 million acres 163 | P a g e

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(2,043,788 hectares) are devoted to the cultivation of eggplant in the world.[5] In the United States, New Jersey is the largest producing state. Top ten eggplant/aubergine producers — 11 June 2008 Country

Production Footnote (Tonnes)

People's Republic of China

18 033 000

India

8 450 200

Egypt

1 000 000

F

F

Turkey

791 190

Indonesia

390 000

F

Iraq

380 000

F

Japan

375 000

F

Italy

271 358

Sudan

230 000

F

United Kingdom

198 000

F

World

32 072 972

A

No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semiofficial/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate(may include official, semi-official or estimates); Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Devision[not in citation given]

Health properties Eggplant, raw Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 20 kcal 100 kJ

Carbohydrates

5.7 g

- Sugars 2.35 g - Dietary fiber 3.4 g Fat

0.19 g

Protein

1.01 g

Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.039 mg

3%

Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.037 mg 2% 164 | P a g e

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Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.649 mg

4%

Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.281 mg 6% Vitamin B6 0.084 mg

6%

Folate (Vit. B9) 22 μg

6%

Vitamin C 2.2 mg

4%

Calcium 9 mg

1%

Iron 0.24 mg

2%

Magnesium 14 mg

4%

Phosphorus 25 mg

4%

Potassium 230 mg

5%

Zinc 0.16 mg

2%

Manganese 0.25 mg Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

Studies of the Institute of Biology of São Paulo State University, Brazil, would have shown that eggplant is effective in the treatment of high blood cholesterol[citation needed]. Another study from Heart Institute of the University of São Paulo found no effects at all and does not recommend eggplant as a replacement to statins.[6] It helps to block the formation of free radicals and is also a source of folic acid and potassium.[7] Eggplant is richer in nicotine than any other edible plant, with a concentration of 100 ng/g (or 0.01 mg/100g). However, the amount of nicotine from eggplant or any other food is negligible compared to passive smoking.[8] On average, 20lbs (9 kg) of eggplant contains about the same amount of nicotine as a cigarette.

Allergies Case reports of itchy skin and/or mouth after handling and/or eating eggplant have been reported anecdotally and published in medical journals (see also oral allergy syndrome). A recent (2008) study of a sample of 741 people in India (where eggplant is commonly consumed) found that nearly 10% reported some allergic symptoms after consuming eggplant, while 1.4% showed symptoms in less than 2 hours.[9] Contact dermatitis from eggplant leaves[10] and allergy to eggplant flower pollen[11] have also been reported. Individuals who are atopic (genetically predisposed to hypersensitivity, such as hayfever) are more likely to have a reaction to eggplant, which may be due to the fact that eggplant is high in histamines. A few proteins and at least one secondary metabolite have been identified as potential allergens.[12] Cooking eggplant thoroughly seems to preclude reactions in some individuals, but at least one of the allergenic proteins survives the cooking process. 165 | P a g e

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Varieties Solanum melongena var. esculentum common eggplant (Ukrainian Beauty)[13] Solanum melongena var. depressum dwarf eggplant Solanum melongena var. serpentium snake eggplant

Synonyms The eggplant is quite often featured in the older scientific literature under the junior synonyms S. ovigerum and S. trongum. A list of other now-invalid names have been uniquely applied to it:[14] Melongena ovata Mill. Solanum album Noronha Solanum insanum L. Solanum longum Roxb. Solanum melanocarpum Dunal Solanum melongenum St.-Lag. Solanum oviferum Salisb. An inordinate number of subspecies and varieties have been named, mainly by Dikii, Dunal, and (invalidly) by Sweet. Names for various eggplant types, such as agreste, album, divaricatum, esculentum, giganteum, globosi, inerme, insanum, leucoum, luteum, multifidum, oblongo-cylindricum, ovigera, racemiflorum, racemosum, ruber, rumphii, sinuatorepandum, stenoleucum, subrepandum, tongdongense, variegatum, violaceum and viride, are not considered to refer to anything more than cultivar groups at best. On the other hand, Solanum incanum and Cockroach Berry (S. capsicoides), other eggplant-like nightshades described by Linnaeus and Allioni respectively, were occasionally considered eggplant varieties. But this is not correct.[14] The eggplant has a long history of taxonomic confusion with the Scarlet and Ethiopian eggplants, known as gilo and nakati and described by Linnaeus as S. aethiopicum. The eggplant was sometimes considered a variety violaceum of that species. S. violaceum of de Candolle applies to Linnaeus' S. aethiopicum. There is an actual S. violaceum, an unrelated plant described by Ortega, which used to include Dunal's S. amblymerum and was often confused with the same author's S. brownii.[14] Like the potato and Solanum lichtensteinii—but unlike the tomato which back then was generally put in a different genus—the eggplant was also described as S. esculentum, in this case once more in the course of Dunal's work. He also recognized varieties aculeatum, inerme and subinerme at that time. Similarly, H.C.F. Schuhmacher & Peter Thonning named the eggplant as S. edule, which is also a junior synonym of Sticky Nightshade (S sisymbriifolium). Scopoli's S. zeylanicum refers to the eggplant, that of Blanco to S. lasiocarpum.[14]

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Image gallery

Matti Gulla

Japanese eggplant

Purple eggplants

fruit

Eggplant flower

Japanese eggplant flower

The flowers of the Thai eggplant

The fruit of the Thai eggplant. The white A long slender residue on the leaves is eggplant. common.

Footnotes 1. ^ Tsao and Lo in "Vegetables: Types and Biology". Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering by Yiu H. Hui (2006). CRC Press. ISBN 1574445510. 2. ^ Doijode, S. D. (2001). Seed storage of horticultural crops (pp 157). Haworth Press: ISBN 1560229012 167 | P a g e

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3. ^ Fuchsia Dunlop (2006), Revolutionary Chinese Cookbook: Recipes from Hunan Province, Ebury Press, pp. 202 4. ^ Westerfield, Robert (2008-11-14). "Pollination of Vegetable Crops" (pdf). http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubs/PDF/C934.pdf. Retrieved 2009-07-01. 5. ^ "FAOSTAT". FAO. 2008-11-11. http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor. Retrieved 2007-04-24. 6. ^ Juliana Marchiori Praça, Andréa Thomaz, Bruno Caramelli. "Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Extract Does Not Alter Serum Lipid Levels". Arq Bras Cardiol, volume 82 (nº 3), 273-6, 2004. 7. ^ Health24.com - Aubergine 8. ^ Edward F. Domino, Erich Hornbach, Tsenge Demana, The Nicotine Content of Common Vegetables, The New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 329:437 August 5, 1993 Number 6 9. ^ B. N. Harish Babu * , P. A. Mahesh † and Y. P. Venkatesh * A cross-sectional study on the prevalence of food allergy to eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) reveals female predominance. Clinical & Experimental Allergy 38(11):1795-1802, 2008 10. ^ Kabashima K, Miyachi Y. Contact dermatitis due to eggplant Contact Dermatitis 2004;50(2):101-102 11. ^ Gerth van Wijk R, Toorenenbergen AW, Dieges PH. Occupational pollinosis in commercial gardeners. [Dutch] Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 1989;133(42):2081-3 12. ^ SN Pramod,* YP Venkatesh. Allergy to Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Caused by a Putative Secondary Metabolite. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2008; Vol. 18(1): 59-62 13. ^ Solanum melongena var. esculentum 'Ukrainian Beauty' PlantFiles 14. ^ a b c d Solanaceae Source [2008]

References SOLANACEAE SOURCE [2008]: Solanum melongena. Retrieved 2008-SEP-25. Categories: Eggplants | Flora of the Maldives | Native crops of India | Tropical fruit | Fruits originating in Asia

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Tomato Tomato

Cross-section and full view of a ripe tomato

Scientific classification Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots Order:

Solanales

Family:

Solanaceae

Genus:

Solanum

Species:

S. lycopersicum

Binomial name Solanum lycopersicum L.

Synonyms Lycopersicon lycopersicum Lycopersicon esculentum The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum, syn. Lycopersicon lycopersicum & Lycopersicon esculentum[1]) is a herbaceous, usually sprawling plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family that is typically cultivated for the purpose of harvesting its fruit for human consumption. Savory in flavor (and accordingly termed a vegetable; see section Fruit or vegetable below), the fruit of most varietals ripens to a distinctive red color. Tomato plants typically reach to 1– 3 metres (3–10 ft) in height, and have a weak, woody stem that often vines over other plants. The leaves are 10–25 centimetres (4–10 in) long, odd pinnate, with 5–9 leaflets on petioles,[2] each leaflet up to 8 centimetres (3 in) long, with a serrated margin; both the stem and leaves are densely glandular-hairy. The flowers are 1–2 centimetres (0.4–0.8 in) across, yellow, with five pointed lobes on the corolla; they are borne in a cyme of 3–12 together. It is a perennial, often grown outdoors in temperate climates as an annual. The tomato is native to South America. Genetic evidence shows that the progenitors of tomatoes were herbaceous green plants with small green fruit with a center of diversity in the highlands of Peru.[3] These early Solanums diversified into the dozen or so species of tomato recognized today. One species, Solanum lycopersicum, was transported to Mexico where it 169 | P a g e

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was grown and consumed by prehistoric humans. The exact date of domestication is not known. Evidence supports the theory that the first domesticated tomato was a little yellow fruit, ancestor of L. cerasiforme,[citation needed] grown by the Aztecs of Central Mexico who called it xitomatl (pronounced [ʃ iˈˈtomatɬ ]), meaning plump thing with a navel, and later called tomatl by other Mesoamerican peoples. Aztec writings mention tomatoes were prepared with peppers, corn and salt, likely to be the original salsa recipe. Many historians[who?] believe that the Spanish explorer Cortez may have been the first to transfer the small yellow tomato to Europe after he captured the Aztec city of Tenochtítlan, now Mexico City in 1521. Yet others[who?] believe Christopher Columbus, an Italian working for the Spanish monarchy, was the first European to take back the tomato, earlier in 1493. The earliest discussion of the tomato in European literature appeared in a herbal written in 1544 by Pietro Andrea Mattioli, an Italian physician and botanist, who named it pomo d‘oro, golden apple. The word tomato comes from a word in the Nahuatl language, tomatl. The specific name, lycopersicum, means "wolf-peach". Aztecs and other peoples in the region used the fruit in their cooking; it was being cultivated in southern Mexico and probably other areas by 500BC. It is thought that the Pueblo people believed that those who witnessed the ingestion of tomato seeds were blessed with powers of divination.[4] The large, lumpy tomato, a mutation from a smoother, smaller vegetable , originated and was encouraged in Mesoamerica. Smith states this variant is the direct ancestor of some modern cultivated tomatoes.[5] According to Andrew F Smith's The Tomato in America,[5] the tomato probably originated in the highlands of the west coast of South America. However, Smith notes there is no evidence the tomato was cultivated or even eaten in Peru before the Spanish arrived. Two modern tomato cultivar groups, one represented by the Matt's Wild Cherry tomato, the other by currant tomatoes, originate by recent domestication of the wild tomato plants apparently native to eastern Mexico[citation needed].

Spanish distribution After the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the Spanish distributed the tomato throughout their colonies in the Caribbean. They also took it to the Philippines, whence it moved to southeast Asia and then the entire Asian continent. The Spanish also brought the tomato to Europe. It grew easily in Mediterranean climates, and cultivation began in the 1540s. It was probably eaten shortly after it was introduced, and was certainly being used as food by the early 1600s in Spain. The earliest discovered cookbook with tomato recipes was published in Naples in 1692, though the author had apparently obtained these recipes from Spanish sources. However, in certain areas of Italy, such as Florence, the fruit was used solely as tabletop decoration before it was incorporated into the local cuisine in the late 17th or early 18th century.

In Britain Tomatoes were not grown in England until the 1590s, according to Smith. One of the earliest cultivators was John Gerard, a barber-surgeon.[6] Gerard's Herbal, published in 1597 and 170 | P a g e

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largely plagiarized from continental sources, is also one of the earliest discussions of the tomato in England. Gerard knew that the tomato was eaten in Spain and Italy.[6] Nonetheless, he believed that it was poisonous[6] (tomato leaves and stems actually contain poisonous glycoalkaloids, but the fruit is safe). Gerard's views were influential, and the tomato was considered unfit for eating (though not necessarily poisonous) for many years in Britain and its North American colonies.[6] But by the mid-1700s, tomatoes were widely eaten in Britain; and before the end of that century, the Encyclopædia Britannica stated that the tomato was "in daily use" in soups, broths, and as a garnish. In Victorian times, cultivation reached an industrial scale in glasshouses, most famously in Worthing. Pressure for housing land in the 1930s to 1960s saw the industry move west to Littlehampton, and to the market gardens south of Chichester. Over the past 15 years, the British tomato industry has declined as more competitive imports from Spain and the Netherlands have reached the supermarkets.

Middle East The tomato was introduced to cultivation in the Middle East by John Barker, British consul in Aleppo c. 1799 – c. 1825[7][8] Nineteenth century descriptions of its consumption are uniformly as an ingredient in a cooked dish. In 1881 it is described as only eaten in the region, ―within the last forty years.‖[9] The tomato entered Iran through two separate routes[citation needed]. One route was through Turkey and Armenia and the second route was through the Qajar royal family's frequent travels to France. The early name used for tomato in Iran was "Armani Badenjan" (Armenian Eggplant). The Spanish tomato dish, Paella, is called "Istanbuli Polao" (Istanbul Pilaf) by Iranians. Currently, the name used for tomato in Iran is "Gojeh Farangi" (Foreign Plum).

North America The earliest reference to tomatoes being grown in British North America is from 1710, when herbalist William Salmon reported seeing them in what is today South Carolina. They may have been introduced from the Caribbean. By the mid-18th century, they were cultivated on some Carolina plantations, and probably in other parts of the Southeast as well. It is possible that some people continued to think tomatoes were poisonous at this time; and in general, they were grown more as ornamental plants than as food. Thomas Jefferson, who ate tomatoes in Paris, sent some seeds back to America. Because of their longer growing season for this heat-loving crop, several states in the US Sun Belt became major tomato-producers, particularly Florida and California. In California tomatoes are grown under irrigation for both the fresh fruit market and for canning and processing. The University of California, Davis (UC Davis) became a major center for research on the tomato. The C.M. Rick Tomato Genetics Resource Center at UC Davis is a genebank of wild relatives, monogenic mutants and miscellaneous genetic stocks of tomato.[10] The Center is named for the late Dr. Charles M. Rick, a pioneer in tomato genetics research.[11] Research on processing tomatoes is also conducted by the California Tomato Research Institute in Escalon, California.

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125 million tons of tomatoes were produced in the world in 2008. China, the largest producer, accounted for about one quarter of the global output, followed by United States and Turkey. For processing tomatoes, California accounts for 90% of U.S. production and 35% of world production.[12] According to FAOSTAT, the top producers of tomatoes (in tonnes) in 2007 were: Top Tomato Producers — 2007 (in tonnes) 33 645 000 China United States

11 500 000

Turkey

9 919 673

India

8 585 800

Egypt

7 550 000

World Total

126 246 708

Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)[13]

Cultivation and uses

This file is a candidate for speedy deletion. It may be deleted after Friday, 18 September 2009.

The tomato is now grown worldwide for its edible fruits, with thousands of cultivars having been selected with varying fruit types, and for optimum growth in differing growing conditions. Cultivated tomatoes vary in size from tomberries, about 5mm in diameter, through cherry tomatoes, about the same 1–2 centimetres (0.4–0.8 in) size as the wild tomato, up to "beefsteak" tomatoes 10 centimetres (4 in) or more in diameter. The most widely grown commercial tomatoes tend to be in the 5–6 centimetres (2.0–2.4 in) diameter range. Most cultivars produce red fruit; but a number of cultivars with yellow, orange, pink, purple, green, black, or white fruit are also available. Multicolored and striped fruit can also be quite striking. Tomatoes grown for canning and sauces are often elongated, 7–9 centimetres (3– 4 in) long and 4–5 centimetres (1.6–2.0 in) diameter; they are known as plum tomatoes, and have a lower water content. Roma-type tomatoes are important cultivars in the Sacramento

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Valley where a 120-acre Morning Star cannery handles 1.2 million pounds[14] of tomatoes an hour during the harvest season where the fields yield about 40 tons to the acre.[15] Tomatoes are one of the most common garden fruits in the United States and, along with zucchini, have a reputation for outproducing the needs of the grower. As in most sectors of agriculture, there is increasing demand in developed countries for organic tomatoes, as well as heirloom tomatoes, to make up for flavor and texture faults in commercial tomatoes.[16] Quite a few seed merchants and banks provide a large selection of heirloom seeds. Tomato seeds are occasionally organically produced as well, but only a small percentage of organic crop area is grown with organic seed[citation needed]. The definition of an heirloom tomato is vague, but unlike commercial hybrids, all are self-pollinators who have bred true for 40 years or more.[17]

Varieties See List of tomato cultivars There are many (around 7500) tomato varieties grown for various purposes. Heirloom tomatoes are becoming increasingly popular, particularly among home gardeners and organic producers, since they tend to produce more interesting and flavorful[citation needed] crops at the cost of disease resistance,[18] and productivity.[19] Hybrid plants remain common, since they tend to be heavier producers and sometimes combine unusual characteristics of heirloom tomatoes with the ruggedness of conventional commercial tomatoes.

A variety of heirloom tomatoes Tomato varieties are roughly divided into several categories, based mostly on shape and size. "Slicing" or "globe" tomatoes are the usual tomatoes of commerce; beefsteak are large tomatoes often used for sandwiches and similar applications - their kidney-bean shape makes commercial use impractical along with a thinner skin and being not bred for a long shelf life; globe tomatoes are of the category of canners used for a wide variety of processing and fresh eating; oxheart tomatoes can range in size up to beefsteaks, and are shaped like large strawberries; plum tomatoes, or paste tomatoes (including pear tomatoes), are bred with a higher solid content for use in tomato sauce and paste and are usually oblong; pear tomatoes are obviously pear shaped and based upon the San Marzano types for a richer gourmet paste; 173 | P a g e

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cherry tomatoes are small and round, often sweet tomatoes generally eaten whole in salads; and grape tomatoes which are a more recent introduction are smaller and oblong used in salads; campari tomatoes are also sweet and noted for their juiciness, low acidity, and lack of mealiness; they are bigger then cherry tomatoes, but are smaller than plum tomato. Early tomatoes and cool-summer tomatoes bear fruit even where nights are cool, which usually discourages fruit set.[20] There are also varieties high in beta carotenes and vitamin A, hollow tomatoes and tomatoes which keep for months in storage.[21] Tomatoes are also commonly classified as determinate or indeterminate. Determinate, or bush, types bear a full crop all at once and top off at a specific height; they are often good choices for container growing. Determinate types are preferred by commercial growers who wish to harvest a whole field at one time, or home growers interested in canning. Indeterminate varieties develop into vines that never top off and continue producing until killed by frost. They are preferred by home growers and local-market farmers who want ripe fruit throughout the season. As an intermediate form, there are plants sometimes known as "vigorous determinate" or "semi-determinate"; these top off like determinates but produce a second crop after the initial crop. The majority of heirloom tomatoes are indeterminate, although some determinate heirlooms exist.

A variety of specific cultivars, including Brandywine (biggest red), Black Krim (lower left corner), Green Zebra (top right), et cetera. Most modern tomato cultivars are smooth surfaced, but some older tomato cultivars and most modern beefsteaks often show pronounced ribbing, a feature that may have been common to virtually all pre-Columbian cultivars. While virtually all commercial tomato varieties are red, some tomato cultivars - especially heirlooms - produce fruit in colors other than red, including yellow, orange, pink, black, brown, ivory, white, and purple, though such fruit is not widely available in grocery stores, nor are their seedlings available in typical nurseries, but must be bought as seed, often via mail-order. Less common variations include fruit with stripes (Green Zebra), fuzzy skin on the fruit (Fuzzy Peach, Red Boar), multiple colors (Hillbilly, Burracker's Favorite, Lucky Cross), etc. There is also a considerable gap between commercial and home-gardener cultivars; home cultivars are often bred for flavor to the exclusion of all other qualities, while commercial cultivars are bred for such factors as consistent size and shape, disease and pest resistance,

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and suitability for mechanized picking and shipping, as well as their ability to be picked before fully ripening. The most commonly home grown tomato is the Beefsteak variety. [22] Tomatoes grow well with 7 hours of sunlight a day. A fertilizer with the ratio 5-10-10, often sold as tomato fertilizer or vegetable fertilizer can be used for extra growth and production, but manure or compost work well, too.

Diseases and pests Main article: List of tomato diseases Tomato cultivars vary widely in their resistance to disease. Modern hybrids focus on improving disease resistance over the heirloom plants. One common tomato disease is tobacco mosaic virus, and for this reason smoking or use of tobacco products are discouraged around tomatoes, although there is some scientific debate over whether the virus could possibly survive being burned and converted into smoke.[23] Various forms of mildew and blight are also common tomato afflictions, which is why tomato cultivars are often marked with a combination of letters which refer to specific disease resistance. The most common letters are: V - verticillium wilt, F - fusarium wilt strain I, FF - fusarium wilt strain I & II, N nematodes, T - tobacco mosaic virus, and A - alternaria. Another particularly dreaded disease is curly top, carried by the beet leafhopper, which interrupts the lifecycle, ruining a nightshade plant as a crop. As the name implies, it has the symptom of making the top leaves of the plant wrinkle up and grow abnormally. Some common tomato pests are stink bugs, cutworms, tomato hornworms and tobacco hornworms, aphids, cabbage loopers, whiteflies, tomato fruitworms, flea beetles, red spider mite, slugs,[24] and Colorado potato beetles.

Pollination

The flower and leaves are visible in this photo of a tomato plant. In the wild, original state, tomatoes required cross-pollination; they were much more selfincompatible than domestic cultivars. As a floral device to reduce selfing, the pistils of wild tomatoes extended farther out of the flower than today's cultivars. The stamens were, and remain, entirely within the closed corolla. As tomatoes were moved from their native areas, their traditional pollinators, (probably a species of halictid bee) did not move with them. The trait of self-fertility (or self-pollenizing) 175 | P a g e

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became an advantage and domestic cultivars of tomato have been selected to maximize this trait. This is not the same as self-pollination, despite the common claim that tomatoes do so. That tomatoes pollinate themselves poorly without outside aid is clearly shown in greenhouse situations where pollination must be aided by artificial wind, vibration of the plants (one brand of vibrator is a wand called an "electric bee" that is used manually), or more often today, by cultured bumblebees. The anther of a tomato flower is shaped like a hollow tube, with the pollen produced within the structure rather than on the surface, as with most species. The pollen moves through pores in the anther, but very little pollen is shed without some kind of outside motion. The best source of outside motion is a sonicating bee such as a bumblebee or the original wild halictid pollinator. In an outside setting, wind or biological agents provide sufficient motion to produce commercially viable crops.

Hydroponic and greenhouse cultivation Tomatoes are often grown in greenhouses in cooler climates, and there are cultivars such as the British 'Moneymaker' and a number of cultivars grown in Siberia that are specifically bred for indoor growing. In more temperate climates, it is not uncommon to start seeds in greenhouses during the late winter for future transplant. Hydroponic tomatoes are also available, and the technique is often used in hostile growing environments as well as high-density plantings.

Picking and ripening

Unripe tomatoes Tomatoes are often picked unripe (and thus colored green) and ripened in storage with ethylene. Unripe tomatoes are firm. As they ripen they soften until reaching the ripe state where they are red or orange in color and slightly soft to the touch. Ethylene is a hydrocarbon gas produced by many fruits that acts as the molecular cue to begin the ripening process. Tomatoes ripened in this way tend to keep longer but have poorer flavor and a mealier, starchier texture than tomatoes ripened on the plant. They may be recognized by their color, which is more pink or orange than the other ripe tomatoes' deep red, depending on variety. In 1994 Calgene introduced a genetically modified tomato called the 'FlavrSavr' which could be vine ripened without compromising shelf life. However, the product was not commercially successful (see main article for details) and was only sold until 1997. 176 | P a g e

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Recently, stores have begun selling "tomatoes on the vine", which are determinate varieties that are ripened or harvested with the fruits still connected to a piece of vine. These tend to have more flavor than artificially ripened tomatoes (at a price premium), but still may not be the equal of local garden produce. Slow-ripening cultivars of tomato have been developed by crossing a non-ripening cultivar with ordinary tomato cultivars. Cultivars were selected whose fruits have a long shelf life and at least reasonable flavor.

Modern uses and nutrition Red tomatoes, raw Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 20 kcal 80 kJ

Carbohydrates

4g

- Sugars 2.6 g - Dietary fiber 1 g Fat

0.2 g

Protein

1g

Water

95 g

Vitamin C 13 mg 22% Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.

Tomatoes are now eaten freely throughout the world, and their consumption is believed to benefit the heart among other things. They contain lycopene, one of the most powerful natural antioxidants. In some studies lycopene, especially in cooked tomatoes, has been found to help prevent prostate cancer[25] but other research contradicts this claim.[26] Lycopene has also been shown to improve the skin's ability to protect against harmful UV rays.[27] Natural genetic variation in tomatoes and their wild relatives has given a genetic treasure trove of genes that produce lycopene, carotene, anthocyanin, and other antioxidants. Tomato varieties are available with double the normal vitamin C (Doublerich), 40 times normal vitamin A (97L97), high levels of anthocyanin (P20 Blue), and two to four times the normal amount of lycopene (numerous available cultivars with the high crimson gene). Though it is botanically a berry, a subset of fruit, the tomato is nutritionally categorized as a vegetable (see below). Since "vegetable" is not a botanical term, there is no contradiction in a plant part being a fruit botanically while still being considered a vegetable. Tomatoes are used extensively in Mediterranean cuisine, especially Italian and Middle Eastern cuisines. The tomato is acidic; this acidity makes tomatoes especially easy to preserve in home canning whole, in pieces, as tomato sauce, or paste. Tomato juice is often canned and sold as a beverage; Unripe green tomatoes can also be breaded and fried, used to

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make salsa, or pickled. The fruit is also preserved by drying, often by sun, and sold either in bags or in jars in oil.

Cultural impact The town of Buñol, Spain, annually celebrates La Tomatina, a festival centered on an enormous tomato fight. Tomatoes are also a popular "non-lethal" throwing weapon in mass protests; and there was a common tradition of throwing rotten tomatoes at bad performers on a stage during the 19th century; today it is usually referenced as a mere metaphor (see Rotten Tomatoes). Embracing it for this protest connotation, the Dutch Socialist party adopted the tomato as their logo. Known for its tomato growth and production, the Mexican state of Sinaloa takes the tomato as its symbol.[28] In October 1965, Reynoldsburg Ohio City Council dedicated a plaque commemorating a proclamation from the Franklin County Historical Society that named Reynoldsburg as the birthplace of the commercial tomato

Storage Most tomatoes today are picked before fully ripened. They are bred to continue ripening, but the enzyme[clarification needed] that ripens tomatoes stops working when it reaches temperatures below 12.5 °C (54.5 °F). Once an unripe tomato drops below that temperature, it will not continue to ripen.[citation needed] Once fully ripe, tomatoes can be stored in the refrigerator but are best kept at room temperature. Tomatoes stored in the refrigerator tend to lose flavor but will still be edible;[29] thus the "Never Refrigerate" stickers sometimes placed on tomatoes in supermarkets.

Botanical description Tomato plants are vines, initially decumbent, typically growing six feet or more above the ground if supported, although erect bush varieties have been bred, generally three feet tall or shorter. Indeterminate types are "tender" perennials, dying annually in temperate climates (they are originally native to tropical highlands), although they can live up to three years in a greenhouse in some cases. Determinate types are annual in all climates. Tomato plants are dicots, and grow as a series of branching stems, with a terminal bud at the tip that does the actual growing. When that tip eventually stops growing, whether because of pruning or flowering, lateral buds take over and grow into other, fully functional, vines.[30] Tomato plant vines are typically pubescent, meaning covered with fine short hairs. These hairs facilitate the vining process, turning into roots wherever the plant is in contact with the ground and moisture, especially if there is some issue with the vine's contact to its original root. Most tomato plants have compound leaves, and are called regular leaf (RL) plants. But some cultivars have simple leaves known as potato leaf (PL) style because of their resemblance to that close cousin. Of regular leaves, there are variations, such as rugose leaves, which are 178 | P a g e

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deeply grooved, variegated, angora leaves, which have additional colors where a genetic mutation causes chlorophyll to be excluded from some portions of the leaves.[31] Their flowers, appearing on the apical meristem, have the anthers fused along the edges, forming a column surrounding the pistil's style. Flowers tend to be self-fertilizing. This is because they are native to the Americas, where there were no honeybees (which are native to the old world). Similarly, many plants of the Americas are self-fertilizing,[32] while others are pollinated by flies, butterflies, moths, other insects, or other external forces that present in the Americas, that made it possible for some new world plants to originally require biotic pollination. Tomato fruit is classified as a berry. As a true fruit, it develops from the ovary of the plant after fertilization, its flesh comprising the pericarp walls. The fruit contains hollow spaces full of seeds and moisture, called locular cavities. These vary, among cultivated species, according to type. Some smaller varieties have two cavities, globe-shaped varieties typically have three to five, beefsteak tomatoes have a great number of smaller cavities, while paste tomatoes have very few, very small cavities. The seeds need to come from a mature fruit, and be dried/fermented before germination.

Botanical classification In 1753 the tomato was placed in the genus Solanum by Linnaeus as Solanum lycopersicum L. (derivation, 'lyco', wolf, plus 'persicum', peach, i.e., "wolf-peach"). Other species in that family are potatoes, chili peppers, tobacco, eggplant and the poisonous belladonna. However, in 1768 Philip Miller placed it in its own genus, and he named it Lycopersicon esculentum. This name came into wide use but was in breach of the plant naming rules. Technically, the combination Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) H.Karst. would be more correct, but this name (published in 1881) has hardly ever been used (except in seed catalogs, which frequently used it and still do). Therefore, it was decided to conserve the well-known Lycopersicon esculentum, making this the correct name for the tomato when it is placed in the genus Lycopersicon. However, genetic evidence (e.g., Peralta & Spooner 2001) has now shown that Linnaeus was correct in the placement of the tomato in the genus Solanum, making the Linnaean name correct;[1] if Lycopersicon is excluded from Solanum, Solanum is left as a paraphyletic taxon. Despite this, it is likely that the exact taxonomic placement of the tomato will be controversial for some time to come, with both names found in the literature. Two of the major reasons that some still consider the genera separate are the leaf structure (tomato leaves are markedly different from any other Solanum), and the biochemistry (many of the alkaloids common to other Solanum species are conspicuously absent in the tomato). The tomato can with some difficulty be crossed with a few species of diploid Potato with viable offspring that are capable of reproducing. Such hybrids provide conclusive evidence of the close relationship between these genera. The Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research began sequencing the tomato genome in 2004 and is creating a database of genomic sequences and information on the tomato and related plants.[33] A draft version of the full genome expected to be published by 2008. The

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genomes of its organelles (mitochondria and chloroplast) are also expected to be published as part of the project.

Breeding Active breeding programs are ongoing by individuals, universities, corporations, and organizations. The Tomato Genetic Resource Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service-Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN)[2], AVRDC, and numerous seed banks around the world store seed representing genetic variations of value to modern agriculture. These seed stocks are available for legitimate breeding and research efforts. While individual breeding efforts can produce useful results, the bulk of tomato breeding work is at universities and major agriculture related corporations. University breeding programs are active in Florida, North Carolina, New York, Oregon, and several other states as well as in numerous countries worldwide. These efforts have resulted in significant regionally adapted breeding lines and hybrids such as the Mountain series from North Carolina. Corporations including Heinz, Monsanto, BHNSeed, Bejoseed, etc, have breeding programs that attempt to improve production, size, shape, color, flavor, disease tolerance, pest tolerance, nutritional value, and numerous other traits.

Fruit or vegetable? Botanically, a tomato is the ovary, together with its seeds, of a flowering plant: therefore it is a fruit. However, the tomato is not as sweet as those foodstuffs usually called fruits and, from a culinary standpoint, it is typically served as part of a salad or main course of a meal, as are vegetables, rather than at dessert in the case of most fruits. As noted above, the term vegetable has no botanical meaning and is purely a culinary term. Originally the controversy was that tomatoes are treated as a fruit in home canning practices. Tomatoes are acidic enough to be processed in a water bath rather than a pressure cooker as "vegetables" require. This argument has had legal implications in the United States. In 1887, U.S. tariff laws that imposed a duty on vegetables but not on fruits caused the tomato's status to become a matter of legal importance. The U.S. Supreme Court settled the controversy on May 10, 1893 by declaring that the tomato is a vegetable, based on the popular definition that classifies vegetables by use, that they are generally served with dinner and not dessert (Nix v. Hedden (149 U.S. 304)).[34] The holding of the case applies only to the interpretation of the Tariff Act of March 3, 1883, and the court did not purport to reclassify the tomato for botanical or other purpose. Tomatoes have been designated the state vegetable of New Jersey. Arkansas took both sides by declaring the "South Arkansas Vine Ripe Pink Tomato" to be both the state fruit and the state vegetable in the same law, citing both its culinary and botanical classifications. In 2006, the Ohio House of Representatives passed a law that would have declared the tomato to be the official state fruit, but the bill died when the Ohio Senate failed to act on it. However, in April 2009 a new form of the bill passed, making the tomato the official fruit of the state of Ohio. Tomato juice has been the official beverage of Ohio since 1965. A.W. Livingston, of Reynoldsburg, Ohio, played a large part in popularizing the tomato in the late 1800s. Due to the scientific definition of a fruit, the tomato remains a fruit when not dealing with US tariffs. Nor is it the only culinary vegetable that is a botanical fruit: eggplants, cucumbers, and squashes of all kinds (such as zucchini and pumpkins) share the same ambiguity. 180 | P a g e

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Pronunciation The pronunciation of tomato differs in different English-speaking countries; the two most common variants are /təˈmɑ ˈtoʊ / and /təˈmeɪ toʊ /. Speakers from the British Isles, most of the Commonwealth, and older generations among speakers of Southern American English typically say /təˈmɑ ˈtoʊ /, while most American and Canadian speakers usually say /təˈmeɪ ɾ oʊ /. The word's dual pronunciations were immortalized in Ira and George Gershwin's 1937 song "Let's Call the Whole Thing Off" (You like /pə‫ر‬teɪ toʊ / and I like /pə‫ر‬tɑ ‫ر‬toʊ / / You like /tə‫ر‬meɪ toʊ / and I like /tə‫ر‬mɑ ‫ر‬toʊ /) and have become a symbol for nitpicking pronunciation disputes. In this capacity it has even become an American and British slang term: saying /təˈmeɪ toʊ , təˈmɑ ˈtoʊ / when presented with two choices can mean "What's the difference?" or "It's all the same to me."[original research?]

Safety Plant toxicity The leaves, stems, and green unripe fruit of the tomato plant,[35] as a member of the plant genus Solanum (Nightshade), contain the poison Solanine, which is toxic to humans and animals. Children have been poisoned by a tea produced from the leaves of the tomato plant. The fresh fruit is, however, harmless.[35]

2006

A sign posted at a Havelock, North Carolina Burger King telling customers that no tomatoes are available due to the salmonella outbreak. On October 30, 2006, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) announced that tomatoes might have been the source of a salmonella outbreak causing 172 illnesses in 18 states.[36] The affected states included Arkansas, Connecticut, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, North Carolina, New Hampshire, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Virginia, Vermont and Wisconsin. Tomatoes have been linked to seven salmonella outbreaks since 1990 (from the Food Safety Network).[37]

2008

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A 2008 salmonella outbreak caused the removal of tomatoes from stores and restaurants across the United States and parts of Canada.[38] As of July 8, 2008, from April 10, 2008, the rare Saintpaul serotype of Salmonella enterica caused at least 1017 cases of salmonellosis food poisoning in 41 states throughout the United States, the District of Columbia, and Canada. As of July 2008, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration suspected that the contaminated food product was a common ingredient in fresh salsa, such as raw tomato, fresh jalapeño pepper, fresh serrano pepper, and fresh cilantro. It is the largest reported salmonellosis outbreak in the United States since 1985. New Mexico and Texas were proportionally the hardest hit by far, with 49.7 and 16.1 reported cases per million, respectively. The greatest number of reported cases occurred in Texas (384 reported cases), New Mexico (98), Illinois (100), and Arizona (49).[39] There were at least 203 reported hospitalizations linked to the outbreak, it caused at least one death, and it may have been a contributing factor in at least one additional death.[40] The CDC maintains that "it is likely many more illnesses have occurred than those reported." Applying a previous CDC estimated ratio of non-reported salmonellosis cases to reported cases (38.6:1), one would arrive at an estimated 40,273 illnesses from this outbreak.[41]

Tomato records

The tomato tree as seen by guests on the Living with the Land boat ride at Epcot, Lake Buena Vista, Florida. The heaviest tomato ever was one of 3.51 kg (7 lb 12 oz), of the cultivar 'Delicious', grown by Gordon Graham of Edmond, Oklahoma in 1986.[citation needed] The largest tomato plant grown was of the cultivar 'Sungold' and reached 19.8 m (65 ft) length, grown by Nutriculture Ltd (UK) of Mawdesley, Lancashire, UK, in 2000.[citation needed] The massive "tomato tree" growing inside the Walt Disney World Resort's experimental greenhouses in Lake Buena Vista, Florida may be the largest single tomato plant in the world. The plant has been recognized as a Guinness World Record Holder, with a harvest of more than 32,000 tomatoes and a total weight of 1,151.84 pounds (522 kg). It yields thousands of tomatoes at one time from a single vine. Yong Huang, Epcot's manager of agricultural science, discovered the unique plant in Beijing, China. Huang brought its seeds to Epcot and created the specialized greenhouse for the fruit to grow. The vine grows golf ball-sized tomatoes which are served at Walt Disney World restaurants. The world record-setting tomato tree can be seen by guests along the Living With the Land boat ride at Epcot. On August 30, 2007, 40,000 Spaniards gathered in Buñol to throw 115,000 kilograms (250,000 lb) of tomatoes at each other in the yearly Tomatina festival. Bare-chested tourists also included hundreds of British, French and Germans.[42] 182 | P a g e

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Varieties commonly grown by home gardeners include[citation needed]: 'Beefsteak VFN' (a common hybrid resistant to Verticillium, Fusarium, and Nematodes) 'Big Boy' (a very common determinate hybrid in the United States) 'Black Krim' (a purple-and-red cultivar from the Crimea) 'Brandywine' (a pink, indeterminate beefsteak type with a considerable number of substrains) 'Burpee VF' (an early attempt by W. Atlee Burpee at disease resistance in a commercial tomato) 'Early Girl' (an early maturing globe type) 'Gardener's Delight' (a smaller English variety) 'Juliet' (an oblong cherry tomato) 'Marmande' (a heavily ridged variety from southern France; similar to a small beefsteak and available commercially in the U.S. as UglyRipe) 'Moneymaker' (an English greenhouse strain) Mortgage Lifter (a popular heirloom beefsteak known for gigantic fruit) 'Patio' (bred specifically for container gardens) 'Purple Haze' (large cherry, indeterminate. Derived from Cherokee Purple, Brandywine and Black Cherry) 'Roma VF' (a plum tomato common in supermarkets) 'Rutgers' (a commercial variety but considered an heirloom) 'San Marzano' (a plum tomato popular in Italy) 'Santa F1' (a Chinese grape tomato hybrid popular in the U.S. and parts of southeast Asia) 'Shephard's Sack' (a large variety popular in parts of Wales) 'Sungold F1' (orange cherry variety with distinctive candy like sweetness) 'Sweet 100' (a very prolific, indeterminate cherry tomato) 'Yellow Pear'' (a yellow, pear-shaped heirloom cultivar) 'Cherry' Small, cherry shaped Many varieties of processing tomatoes are grown commercially, but just five hybrid cultivars grown in California constitute over 60% of total production of processing tomatoes.[12] Heritage and heirloom varieties include: 'Aunt Ruby's German Green' (spicy green beefsteak type) 'Azoykcha' (Russian yellow variety) 'Andrew Rahart Jumbo Red' (red beefsteak) 'Backfield' (deep red indeterminate beefsteak type) 'Black Cherry' (black/brown cherry) 'Box Car Willie' (red beefsteak) 'Brandywine' (red beefsteak, Sudduth strain) 'Cherokee Purple' (purple beefsteak) 'Crnkovic Yugoslavian' (red beefsteak) 'Earl‘s Faux' (pink/red beefsteak) 'Elbe' (orange beefsteak) 'German Johnson (sweet beefsteak type) 'Great Divide' (red beefsteak) 'Ispolin' (pink Siberian strain) 183 | P a g e

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'Lucky Cross' (bi-color red/orange) 'Marianna‘s Peace' (red beefsteak) 'Mortgage Lifter' (red beefsteak, various strains) 'Red Pear' (pear shaped salad cherry type with beefsteak flavor) 'Rose' (very large sweet Amish beefsteak type) 'Urbikany' (Siberian variety)

Gallery

Unripe tomatoes on a Small cherry tomatoes vine, good for Tomatoes on a vine. in Korea. pickling.

Young tomato plant.

Tomato fruit.

Tomato plants in the garden.

Tomato Flower.

Tomato slices.

Heirloom tomatoes in Pico de gallo.

'P20 blue tomato from Vine Ripened Tomato OSU'

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Pa amb tomàquet

Suquet de peix (Catalan cuisine) Barbecue sauces Bloody Mary Bruschetta Fried green tomatoes (food) Gazpacho (Andalusian cuisine) Insalata Caprese Neapolitan cuisine Ketchup Pa amb tomàquet (Catalan cuisine) Pizza Esqueixada Salsa Tomato juice Tomato paste Tomato pie Tomato purée Tomato sauce (common in Italian cuisine) Tomato soup

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Smith, A. F. (1994). The Tomato in America. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252-07009-7. Peralta, I. E. & Spooner, D. M. (2001). Granule-bound starch synthase (Gbssi) gene phylogeny of wild tomatoes (Solanum L. section Lycopersicon Mill. Wettst. Subsection Lycopersicon). American Journal of Botany 88 (10): 1888–1902 (available online).

Footnotes 1. ^ a b "Molecular phylogenetic analyses have established that the formerly segregate genera Lycopersicon, Cyphomandra, Normania, and Triguera are nested within Solanum, and all species of these four genera have been transferred to Solanum." See: Natural History Museum, Solanaceae Source: Phylogeny of the genus Solanum. 2. ^ Acquaah, G. (2002). Horticulture: Principles and Practices. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 3. ^ Tomato history 4. ^ "Killer Tomatoes - The East Hampton Star - Food & Wine". Easthamptonstar.com. October 26, 2008. http://www.easthamptonstar.com/dnn/Archive/Home20080814/FoodWine/Seasons/ta bid/6280/Default.aspx. Retrieved 2008-10-27. 5. ^ a b Smith, Andrew F (1994). The tomato in America: early history, culture, and cookery. Columbia, S.C, USA: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003000-6. 6. ^ a b c d The Tomato in America: Early History, Culture, and Cookery, Andrew F. Smith, 1994, p.17, webpage: books-google-TTp17. 7. ^ "British Consuls in Aleppo - Your Archives". Yourarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk. 2009-01-26. http://yourarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk/index.php?title=British_Consuls_in_Alep po. Retrieved 2009-04-02. 8. ^ Syria under the last five Turkish Sultans, Appletons' journal Published by D. Appleton and Co., 1876, p. 519 [1] 9. ^ The Friend, 1881, p. 223 10. ^ "C.M. Rick Tomato Genetics Resource Center". Tgrc.ucdavis.edu. http://tgrc.ucdavis.edu/. Retrieved 2009-04-02. 11. ^ "UC Newsroom, UC Davis Tomato Geneticist Charles Rick Dies at 87. (2002-0508)". Universityofcalifornia.edu. 2002-05-08. http://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/article/4319. Retrieved 2009-04-02. 12. ^ a b Hartz, T. et al. Processing Tomato Production in California. UC Vegetable Research and Information Center. 13. ^ http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567 14. ^ "http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-tomatoes.html". http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-tomatoes.html. Retrieved December 11 2009. In the August 2008 issue of Smithsonian magazine, page 56: "This 120-acre facility is the largest of its type in the world. During the three months of the local harvest, it handles more than 1.2 million pounds of tomatoes every hour." 15. ^ "http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-tomatoes.html". http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-tomatoes.html. Retrieved December 11 2009. In the August 2008 issue of Smithsonian magazine, page 57: "...five tons to the acre, or about one-eighth of a Morning Star harvest from one acre." 186 | P a g e

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16. ^ "A Passion for Tomatoes | Science & Nature | Smithsonian Magazine". Smithsonianmag.com. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-fortomatoes.html. Retrieved 2009-04-02. 17. ^ "http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-tomatoes.html". http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-tomatoes.html. Retrieved December 11 2009. In the August 2008 issue of Smithsonian magazine, page 60: "The definition of an heirloom is somewhat vague, but all are self-pollinators that have been bred true for 40 years or more." 18. ^ "http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-tomatoes.html". http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-tomatoes.html. Retrieved December 11 2009. In the August 2008 issue of Smithsonian magazine, page 56: "The Heinz 2401 is also bred for resistance to tomato pathogens, of which there are many: beetles and nematodes, fungi such as fusarium and verticillium, and viruses such as yellow leaf curl and spotted wilt, which are carried in the wind, the soil or the mouths of pests such as whitefly and thrips. Because it doesn't really matter what processing tomatoes look like, they require fewer applications of pesticides than do fresh-market varieties. The Romas I saw being harvested had been sprayed only once." 19. ^ "http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-tomatoes.html". http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-tomatoes.html. Retrieved December 11 2009. In the August 2008 issue of Smithsonian magazine, page 57: "The plants are still growing, and Brait will be happy if they yield as little as five tons to the acre, or about one-eighth of a Morning Star harvest from one acre." 20. ^ http://www.plants.am/wiki/Tomato#Early_tomatoes 21. ^ http://www.plants.am/wiki/Tomato#Novelty_tomatoes 22. ^ http://www.ufseeds.com/All-About-Tomatoes_a6fd3933f91c4.html 23. ^ Tomato-Tobacco Mosaic Virus Disease Extension.umn.edu. Retrieved June 30, 2006. 24. ^ Slugs in Home Gardens Extension.umn.edu. Retrieved July 14, 2006. 25. ^ "Health benefits of tomatoes". http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=44. Retrieved 200705-24. 26. ^ "No magic tomato? Study breaks link between lycopene and prostate cancer prevention". http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-05/aafc-nmt051607.php. Retrieved 2007-05-24. 27. ^ "Tomato dishes 'may protect skin'". http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7370759.stm. 28. ^ "Gobierno del Estado de Sinaloa". Sinaloa.gob.mx. http://www.sinaloa.gob.mx. Retrieved 2008-10-27. 29. ^ "Selecting, Storing and Serving Ohio Tomatoes, HYG-5532-93". Ohioline.osu.edu. http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/5000/5532.html. Retrieved 2008-10-27. 30. ^ "Crop Profiles - Tomato". Ncsu.edu. http://www.ncsu.edu/sustainable/profiles/bot_tom.html. Retrieved 2008-10-27. 31. ^ "Are there different types of tomato leaves?". Faq.gardenweb.com. http://faq.gardenweb.com/faq/lists/tomato/2004111539004321.html. Retrieved 200810-27. 32. ^ "Tomato Anatomy Home". Plb.ucdavis.edu. http://wwwplb.ucdavis.edu/labs/rost/Tomato/tomhome.html. Retrieved 2008-10-27. 33. ^ Krishna Ramanujan (30 January 2007). "Tomato genome project gets $1.8M". News.cornell.edu. http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Jan07/SolanacaeNSF.kr.html. Retrieved 2008-10-27.

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34. ^ "Vegetarians in Paradise/Tomato History, Tomato Nutrition, Tomato Recipe". Vegparadise.com. http://www.vegparadise.com/highestperch8.html. Retrieved 200904-02. 35. ^ a b Pittenger, Dennis R. (2002). California Master Gardener Handbook. ANR Publications. p. 643. ISBN 1879906546, 9781879906549. http://www.google.com/books?id=WhWjHB1Zjf8C&pg=PA643. Retrieved 2009-0721. 36. ^ "CDC Probes Salmonella Outbreak, Health Officials Say Bacteria May Have Spread Through Some Form Of Produce - CBS News". Cbsnews.com. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/30/national/main2138331.shtml. Retrieved 2008-10-27. 37. ^ "Food Safety Network: Researchers > From the Food Safety Network > Food Safety Network Publications and Documents > Articles > A selection of North American tomato related outbreaks from 1990-2005". Foodsafetynetwork.ca. http://www.foodsafetynetwork.ca/en/article-details.php?a=3&c=32&sc=419&id=953. Retrieved 2008-10-27. 38. ^ "Tomatoes taken off menus". Nationalpost.com. http://www.nationalpost.com/news/canada/story.html?id=585498. Retrieved 2008-1027. 39. ^ "Cases infected with the outbreak strain of Salmonella Saintpaul, United States, by state". http://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/saintpaul/map.html. 40. ^ "August 8, 2008: Investigation of Outbreak of Infections Caused by Salmonella Saintpaul | Salmonella CDC". Cdc.gov. http://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/saintpaul/. Retrieved 2008-10-27. 41. ^ Voetsch, et al. (2004-04-15). "FoodNet Estimate of the Burden of Illness Caused by Nontyphoidal Salmonella Infections in the United States". Clinical Infectious Diseases, 2004; 38:S3. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/381578. 42. ^ "ITN.co.uk, "Spain's tomato fighters see red"". Itn.co.uk. 2007-08-30. http://itn.co.uk/news/9a5a1671ceba4f43741dc008f237c1ea.html. Retrieved 2009-0402.

Nutmeg Nutmeg

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Myristica fragrans

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Magnoliids Order:

Magnoliales

Family:

Myristicaceae

Genus:

Myristica Gronov.

Species About 100 species, including: Myristica argentea Myristica fragrans Myristica inutilis Myristica malabarica Myristica macrophylla Myristica otoba Myristica platysperma

Nutmeg or Myristica fragrans is an evergreen tree indigenous to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas of Indonesia, or Spice Islands. Until the mid 19th century this was the world's only source. The nutmeg tree is important for two spices derived from the fruit, nutmeg and mace.[1] Nutmeg is the actual seed of the tree, roughly egg-shaped and about 20 to 30 mm (0.8 to 1 in) long and 15 to 18 mm (0.6 to 0.7 in) wide, and weighing between 5 and 10 g (0.2 and 0.4 oz) dried, while mace is the dried "lacy" reddish covering or arillus of the seed. This is the only tropical fruit that is the source of two different spices. Several other commercial products are also produced from the trees, including essential oils, extracted oleoresins, and nutmeg butter (see below). The outer surface of the nutmeg bruises easily. The pericarp (fruit/pod) is used in Grenada to make a jam called "Morne Delice". In Indonesia, the fruit is also made into jam, called selei buah pala, or sliced finely, cooked and crystallised to make a fragrant candy called manisan pala ("nutmeg sweets"). The most important species commercially is the Common or Fragrant Nutmeg Myristica fragrans, native to the Banda Islands of Indonesia; it is also grown in Penang Island in Malaysia and the Caribbean, especially in Grenada. It also grows in Kerala, a state in the south part of India. Other species include Papuan Nutmeg M. argentea from New Guinea, and Bombay Nutmeg M. malabarica from India, called Jaiphal in Hindi; both are used as adulterants of M. fragrans products. 189 | P a g e

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Culinary uses Nutmeg and mace have similar taste qualities, nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate flavour. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for the bright orange, saffronlike hue it imparts. Nutmeg is a tasty addition to cheese sauces and is best grated fresh (see nutmeg grater). Nutmeg is a traditional ingredient in mulled cider, mulled wine, and eggnog. In Penang cuisine, nutmeg is made into pickles and these pickles are even shredded as toppings on the uniquely Penang Ais Kacang. Nutmeg is also blended (creating a fresh, green, tangy taste and white colour juice) or boiled (resulting in a much sweeter and brown juice) to make Iced Nutmeg juice or as it is called in Penang Hokkien, "Lau Hau Peng". In Indian cuisine, nutmeg is used in many sweet as well as savoury dishes (predominantly in Mughlai cuisine). It is known as Jaiphal in most parts of India and as Jatipatri and Jathi seed in Kerala. It may also be used in small quantities in garam masala. Ground nutmeg is also smoked in India.[citation needed] In Middle Eastern cuisine, nutmeg grounds are often used as a spice for savoury dishes. In Arabic, nutmeg is called Jawzt at-Tiyb. In Greece and Cyprus nutmeg is called μοστοκάρσδο (moschokarydo) (Greek: "musky nut") and is used in cooking and savoury dishes. In European cuisine, nutmeg and mace are used especially in potato dishes and in processed meat products; they are also used in soups, sauces, and baked goods. In Dutch cuisine nutmeg is quite popular, it is added to vegetables like Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and string beans. Japanese varieties of curry powder include nutmeg as an ingredient. In the Caribbean, nutmeg is often used in drinks such as the Bushwacker, Painkiller, and Barbados rum punch. Typically it is just a sprinkle on the top of the drink.

Essential oils

Nutmeg seeds

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Nutmeg The essential oil is obtained by the steam distillation of ground nutmeg and is used heavily in the perfumery and pharmaceutical industries. The oil is colourless or light yellow, and smells and tastes of nutmeg. It contains numerous components of interest to the oleochemical industry, and is used as a natural food flavouring in baked goods, syrups, beverages, and sweets. It replaces ground nutmeg as it leaves no particles in the food. The essential oil is also used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, for instance, in toothpaste, and as a major ingredient in some cough syrups. In traditional medicine nutmeg and nutmeg oil were used for illnesses related to the nervous and digestive systems.

Nutmeg butter Nutmeg butter is obtained from the nut by expression. It is semi-solid, reddish brown in colour, and tastes and smells of nutmeg. Approximately 75% (by weight) of nutmeg butter is trimyristin, which can be turned into myristic acid, a 14-carbon fatty acid which can be used as a replacement for cocoa butter, can be mixed with other fats like cottonseed oil or palm oil, and has applications as an industrial lubricant.

History

Mace (red) within nutmeg fruit There is some evidence to suggest that Roman priests may have burned nutmeg as a form of incense, although this is disputed. It is known to have been used as a prized and costly spice in medieval cuisine, used as flavourings, medicines, preserving agents, that were at the time highly valued in European markets. Saint Theodore the Studite ( ca. 758 – ca. 826) was 191 | P a g e

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famous for allowing his monks to sprinkle nutmeg on their pease pudding when required to eat it. In Elizabethan times it was believed that nutmeg could ward off the plague, so nutmeg was very popular. The small Banda Islands were the world's only source of nutmeg and mace. Nutmeg was traded by Arabs during the Middle Ages and sold to the Venetians for exorbitant prices, but the traders did not divulge the exact location of their source in the profitable Indian Ocean trade and no European was able to deduce their location. In August 1511, on behalf of the king of Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, which at the time was the hub of Asian trade. In November of that year, after having secured Malacca and learning of the Bandas' location, Albuquerque sent an expedition of three ships led by his good friend António de Abreu to find them. Malay pilots, either recruited or forcibly conscripted, guided them via Java, the Lesser Sundas and Ambon to Banda, arriving in early 1512.[2] The first Europeans to reach the Bandas, the expedition remained in Banda for about one month, purchasing and filling their ships with Banda's nutmeg and mace, and with cloves in which Banda had a thriving entrepôt trade.[3] The first written accounts of Banda are in Suma Oriental, a book written by the Portuguese apothecary Tomé Pires based in Malacca from 1512 to 1515. But full control of this trade was not possible and they remained largely participants, rather than overlords since the authority Ternate held over the nutmeg-growing centre of the Banda Islands was quite limited. Therefore, the Portuguese failed to gain a foothold in the islands themselves. The trade in nutmeg later became dominated by the Dutch in the 17th century. The British and Dutch engaged in prolonged struggles to gain control of Run island, then the only source of nutmeg. At the end of the Second Anglo-Dutch War the Dutch gained control of Run in exchange for the British controlling New Amsterdam (New York) in North America. The Dutch managed to establish control over the Banda Islands after an extended military campaign that culminated in the massacre or expulsion of most of the islands' inhabitants in 1621. Thereafter, the Banda Islands were run as a series of plantation estates, with the Dutch mounting annual expeditions in local war-vessels to extirpate nutmeg trees planted elsewhere. As a result of the Dutch interregnum during the Napoleonic Wars, the English took temporary control of the Banda Islands from the Dutch and transplanted nutmeg trees to their own colonial holdings elsewhere, notably Zanzibar and Grenada. Today, a stylised split-open nutmeg fruit is found on the national flag of Grenada. Connecticut gets its nickname ("the Nutmeg State", "Nutmegger") from the legend that some unscrupulous Connecticut traders would whittle "nutmeg" out of wood, creating a "wooden nutmeg" (a term which came to mean any fraud) [2].

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World production

Commercial jar of nutmeg mace World production of nutmeg is estimated to average between 10,000 and 12,000 tonnes (9,800 and 12,000 long tons) per year with annual world demand estimated at 9,000 tonnes (8,900 long tons); production of mace is estimated at 1,500 to 2,000 tonnes (1,500 to 2,000 long tons). Indonesia and Grenada dominate production and exports of both products with a world market share of 75% and 20% respectively. Other producers include India, Malaysia (especially Penang where the trees are native within untamed areas), Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, and Caribbean islands such as St. Vincent. The principal import markets are the European Community, the United States, Japan, and India. Singapore and the Netherlands are major re-exporters. At one time, nutmeg was one of the most valuable spices. It has been said that in England, several hundred years ago, a few nutmeg nuts could be sold for enough money to enable financial independence for life. The first harvest of nutmeg trees takes place 7–9 years after planting and the trees reach their full potential after 20 years.

Psychoactivity and toxicity In low doses, nutmeg produces no noticeable physiological or neurological response. Large doses can be dangerous (potentially inducing convulsions, palpitations, nausea, eventual dehydration, and generalized body pain).[4] In large amounts it is reputed to be a strong deliriant.[5] Users report both negative and positive experiences, involving strong hallucinations, and in some cases quite severe anxiety. Users may feel a sensation of blood rushing to the head, or a strong euphoria and dissociation.[citation needed] Nutmeg contains myristicin, a weak monoamine oxidase inhibitor.

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Speculative comparisons between the effects of nutmeg intoxication and MDMA (or 'ecstasy') have been made.[6] However, nutmeg contains amphetamine derivatives and such are formed in the body of a significant number of people from the main chemical components of nutmeg.[7] Use of nutmeg as a recreational drug is unpopular due to its unpleasant taste and its possible negative side effects, including dizziness, flushes, dry mouth, accelerated heartbeat, temporary constipation, difficulty in urination, nausea, and panic. In addition, experiences usually last well over 24 hours making recreational use rather impractical.[citation needed]

A risk in any large-quantity ingestion of nutmeg is the onset of 'nutmeg poisoning', an acute psychiatric disorder marked by thought disorder, a sense of impending doom/death, and agitation. Some cases have resulted in hospitalization.[citation needed]

Toxicity during pregnancy Nutmeg was once considered an abortifacient, but may be safe for culinary use during pregnancy. However, it inhibits prostaglandin production and contains hallucinogens that may affect the fetus if consumed in large quantities.[8]

In popular culture In a Beavis & Butthead episode featuring a music video for the song "Dang" by John Spencer Blues Explosion, Beavis asks Butthead at the end of the video if he "has any more nutmeg." This refers to nutmeg's psychoactive properties, as the strange video intentionally makes no sense yet greatly appeals to the two music video critics. In his autobiography, Malcom X mentions incidences of prison inmates consuming nutmeg powder, usually diluted in a glass of water, in order to become inebriated. The prison guards eventually catch on to this practice and crack down on nutmeg's use as a psychoactive in the prison system.

See also Run (island): Seventeenth-century British-Dutch rivalry for a source of nutmegs.

Footnotes 1. ^ [1] 2. ^ Hannard (1991), page 7; Milton, Giles (1999). Nathaniel's Nutmeg. London: Sceptre. pp. 5 and 7. ISBN 978-0-340-69676-7. 3. ^ Hannard (1991), page 7 4. ^ "BMJ". http://emj.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/22/3/223. 5. ^ "Erowid". http://www.erowid.org/plants/nutmeg/. 6. ^ "MDMA". http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=5469. 7. ^ Beyer J., Ehlers D., Maurer H.H. (2006). Abuse of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans houtt.) : Studies on the metabolism and the toxicologic detection of its ingredients elemicin, myristicin, and safrole in rat and human urine using gas chromatography/ mass spectrometry. Therapeutic drug monitoring. 28(4):568-575. 8. ^ Herb and drug safety chart Herb and drug safety chart from BabyCentre UK 194 | P a g e

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References Shulgin, A. T., Sargent, T. W., & Naranjo, C. (1967). Chemistry and psychopharmacology of nutmeg and of several related phenylisopropylamines. United States Public Health Service Publication 1645: 202–214. Gable, R. S. (2006). The toxicity of recreational drugs. American Scientist 94: 206– 208. Devereux, P. (1996). Re-Visioning the Earth: A Guide to Opening the Healing Channels Between Mind and Nature. New York: Fireside. pp. 261–262. Milton, Giles (1999), Nathaniel's Nutmeg: How One Man's Courage Changed the Course of History Erowid Nutmeg Information

Monosodium glutamate Monosodium glutamate

IUPAC name CAS number PubChem EC-number SMILES

[show] Identifiers 142-47-2 85314 205-538-1 [show]

ChemSpider ID

76943 Properties Molecular formula C5H8NNaO4 Molar mass 169.111 g/mol Appearance white crystalline powder Melting point 225 °C, 498 K, 437 °F Solubility in water 74g/100mL (what is this?) (verify) Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa) Infobox references

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Crystalline monosodium glutamate Monosodium glutamate, also known as sodium glutamate and MSG, is a sodium salt of the non-essential amino acid glutamic acid. It is used as a food additive and is commonly marketed as a flavour enhancer. It has the HS code 29224220 and the E number E621. Trade names of monosodium glutamate include Ajinomoto, Vetsin, and Accent. It was once predominantly made from wheat gluten, but is now mostly made from bacterial fermentation; it is acceptable for celiacs following a gluten-free diet.[1][2][3][4] Although traditional Asian cuisine had often used seaweed extract, which contains high concentrations of glutamic acid, MSG was not isolated until 1907 by Kikunae Ikeda. MSG was subsequently patented by Ajinomoto Corporation of Japan in 1909. In its pure form, it appears as a white crystalline powder; when immersed in water or saliva, it rapidly dissociates into sodium cations and glutamate anions (glutamate is the anionic form of glutamic acid, a naturally occurring amino acid).

Production and chemical properties MSG is normally obtained by the fermentation of carbohydrates, using bacterial or yeast species from genera such as Brevibacterium, Arthrobacter, Microbacterium, and Corynebacterium. Yields of 100 g/litre[citation needed] can be prepared in this way. From 1909 to the mid 1960s, MSG was prepared by the hydrolysis of wheat gluten, which is roughly 25% glutamic acid. Glutamic acid is one of the least soluble amino acids, which facilitates its purification.[5] Like the sodium salts of other amino acids, MSG is a stable colourless solid that is degraded by strong oxidizing agents. It exists as a pair of mirror image stereoisomers (enantiomers), but only the naturally occurring L-glutamate form is used as a flavour enhancer.

Commercialization The Ajinomoto company was formed to manufacture and market MSG in Japan; the name 'Aji no moto' translates to "essence of taste". It was introduced to the United States in 1947 as Ac'cent flavor enhancer.[6]

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Modern commercial MSG is produced by fermentation[7] of starch, sugar beets, sugar cane, or molasses. About 1.5 million tonnes were sold in 2001, with 4% annual growth expected.[8] MSG is used commercially as a flavour enhancer. Although once associated with foods in Chinese restaurants, MSG is now used by most fast food chains and in many foodstuffs, particularly processed foods.[9][not in citation given] Examples include: Pre-prepared stocks often known as stock cubes or bouillon cubes. Condiments such as barbecue sauce and salad dressing. Canned, frozen, or dried prepared food Common snack foods such as flavoured jerky, flavoured potato chips and flavoured tortilla chips. Seasoning mixtures Only the L-glutamate enantiomer has flavour-enhancing properties.[10] Manufactured MSG contains over 99.6% of the naturally predominant L-glutamate form, which is a higher proportion of L-glutamate than found in the free glutamate ions of naturally occurring foods. Fermented products such as soy sauce, steak sauce, and Worcestershire sauce have levels of glutamate similar to foods with added MSG. However, glutamate in these brewed products may have 5% or more of the D-enantiomer.[10]

Health concerns Main article: Glutamic acid (flavor)#Research into health effects MSG as a food ingredient has been the subject of health studies. A report from the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) compiled in 1995 on behalf of the FDA concluded that MSG was safe for most people when "eaten at customary levels." However, it also said that, based on anecdotal reports, some people may have an MSG intolerance which causes "MSG symptom complex" — commonly referred to as Chinese restaurant syndrome — and/or a worsening of asthmatic symptoms.[11] Subsequent research found that while large doses of MSG given without food may elicit more symptoms than a placebo in individuals who believe that they react adversely to MSG, the frequency of the responses was low and the responses reported were inconsistent, not reproducible, and were not observed when MSG was given with food.[12] While many people believe that MSG is the cause of these symptoms, a statistical association has not been demonstrated under controlled conditions, even in studies with people who were convinced that they were sensitive to it.[12][13][14][15] Adequately controlling for experimental bias includes a placebo-controlled double-blinded experimental design and the application in capsules because of the strong and unique after-taste of glutamates.[13]

United States Monosodium glutamate is one of several forms of glutamic acid found in foods, in large part because glutamic acid is pervasive in nature, being an amino acid. Glutamic acid and its salts can also be present in a wide variety of other additives, including hydrolyzed vegetable proteins, autolyzed yeast, hydrolyzed yeast, yeast extract, soy extracts, and protein isolate, any one of which may appear as "spices" or "natural flavorings." The food additives disodium 197 | P a g e

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inosinate and disodium guanylate are usually used along with monosodium glutamatecontaining ingredients, and provide a likely indicator of the presence of monosodium glutamate in a product. For this reason, the FDA considers labels such as "No MSG" or "No Added MSG" to be misleading if the food contains ingredients that are sources of free glutamate, such as hydrolyzed protein. In 1993, the FDA proposed adding the phrase "(contains glutamate)" to the common or usual names of certain protein hydrolysates that contain substantial amounts of glutamate. In the 2004 version of his book, On Food and Cooking, food scientist Harold McGee states that "[after many studies], toxicologists have concluded that MSG is a harmless ingredient for most people, even in large amounts."

Asia The INTERMAP Cooperative Research Group conducted a study of 752 healthy Chinese (48.7% women), age 40–59 years, randomly sampled from three rural villages in north and south China and determined that MSG intake may be positively correlated to an increased BMI (Body Mass Index).[16]

Australia and New Zealand Standard 1.2.4 of the Australia and New Zealand Food Standards Code requires the presence of MSG as a food additive to be labeled. The label must bear the food additive class name (e.g. flavour enhancer), followed by either the name of the food additive, MSG, or its International Numbering System (INS) number, 621.

References 1. ^ http://www.celiac.com/articles/181/1/Safe-Gluten-Free-Food-List-SafeIngredients/Page1.html 2. ^ Leung, Albert Y.; Foster, Steven (August 2003). "Monosodium Glutamate". Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients: Used in Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. pp. 373-375. ISBN 978-0-471-47128-8. "Monosodium glutamate can generally be produced by three methods: (1) hydrolysis of proteins such as gluten or proteins present in sugar beet wastes, (2) synthesis, and (3) microbial fermentation. In the hydrolysis method, the protein is hydrolyzed with a strong mineral acid to free amino acids, and the glutamic acid is then separated from the mixture, purified, and converted to its monosodium salt, [monosodium glutamate]. This used to be the major method of [monosodium glutamate] manufacture. Currently most of the world production of [monosodium glutamate] is by bacterial fermentation. In this method bacteria (especially strains of Micrococcus glutamicus) are grown aerobically in a liquid nutrient medium containing a carbon source (e.g., dextrose or citrate), a nitrogen source such as ammonium ions or urea, and mineral ions and growth factors. The bacteria selected for this process have the ability to excrete glutamic acid they synthesize outside of their cell membrane into the medium and accumulate there. The glutamic acid is separated from the fermentation broth by filtration, concentration, acidification, and crystallization, followed by conversion to its monosodium salt [monosodium glutamate].". 198 | P a g e

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3. ^ http://www.celiac.ca/Articles/Fall1990-1.html 4. ^ http://www.jstor.org/stable/3421360 5. ^ Kawakita, Tetsuya; Sano, Chiaki; Shioya, Shigeru; Takehara, Masahiro; Yamaguchi, Shizuko (2005). "Monosodium Glutamate". Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a16 711. 6. ^ Sand, Jordan (2005). "A Short History of MSG". Gastronomica 5 (4): pp. 38–49. doi:10.1525/gfc.2005.5.4.38. 7. ^ "Production process". Encyclopedia of Amino Acids. Anjimoto Co., Inc. http://www.ajinomoto.com/amino/eng/product.html. 8. ^ http://www.ajinomoto.co.jp/ajinomoto/ACompany/company/zaimu/pdf/fact/food_biz.pdf 9. ^ Moskin, Julia (2008-03-05). "Yes, MSG, the Secret Behind the Savor". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/05/dining/05glute.html?_r=1&oref=slogin. 10. ^ a b Rundlett, Kimber L; Armstrong, Daniel W (1994). "Evaluation of free Dglutamate in processed foods". Chirality 6 (4): pp. 277–282. doi:10.1002/chir.530060410. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uid s=7915127&dopt=Abstract. 11. ^ http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/msg.html 12. ^ a b Geha RS, Beiser A, Ren C, et al. (April 2000). "Review of alleged reaction to monosodium glutamate and outcome of a multicenter double-blind placebo-controlled study". J. Nutr. 130 (4S Suppl): 1058S–62S. PMID 10736382. http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10736382. 13. ^ a b Tarasoff L., Kelly M.F. (1993). "Monosodium L-glutamate: a double-blind study and review". Food Chem. Toxicol. 31 (12): 1019–1035. doi:10.1016/02786915(93)90012-N. PMID 8282275. 14. ^ Freeman M. (October 2006). "Reconsidering the effects of monosodium glutamate: a literature review". J Am Acad Nurse Pract 18 (10): 482–6. doi:10.1111/j.17457599.2006.00160.x. PMID 16999713. 15. ^ Walker R (October 1999). "The significance of excursions above the ADI. Case study: monosodium glutamate". Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 30 (2 Pt 2): S119–S121. doi:10.1006/rtph.1999.1337. PMID 10597625. 16. ^ He, Ka; Zhao, Liancheng; Daviglus, Martha L; Dyer, Alan R; Van Horn, Linda; Garside, Daniel; Zhu, Linguang; Dongshuang, Guo; Wu, Yangfeng; Zhou, Beifan; Stamler, Jeremiah (August 2008). "Association of monosodium glutamate intake with overweight in Chinese adults: the INTERMAP Study". Obesity (The Obesity Society) 16 (8): pp. 1875–1880. doi:10.1038/oby.2008.274. PMID 18497735.

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Soy sauce Soy sauce

A bottle of Japanese soy sauce.

Chinese name Traditional Chinese

1. 醬油 2. 荳油 3. 豉油

Simplified Chinese

1. 酱油 2. 豆油 3. 豉油

[show]Transliterations

Filipino name toyo

Tagalog

Japanese name 醤油

Kanji

しょうゆ

Hiragana

[show]Transliterations

Korean name Hangul

간장

[show]Transliterations

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Thai name Thai Vietnamese name Quốc ngữ

xì dầu or nước tương

Soy sauce (US and UK), soya sauce (Commonwealth) is produced by fermenting soybeans with the molds Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus soyae[1] along with roasted grain, water, and salt. Soy sauce was invented in China, where it has been used as a condiment for close to 2,500 years. In its various forms, it is widely used in East and Southeast Asian cuisines and increasingly appears in Western cuisine and prepared foods.

History Soy sauce originated in China and spread from there to East and Southeast Asia.[2] Records of the Dutch East India Company first list soy sauce as a commodity in 1737, when seventy-five large barrels were shipped from Dejima, Japan to Batavia (present-day Jakarta) on the island of Java. Thirty-five barrels from that shipment were forwarded by ship to the Netherlands.[3] In the 18th century, Isaac Titsingh published accounts of brewing soy sauce or shōyu (醤油 shōyu?) in Japan. Although many earlier descriptions of soy sauce had been disseminated in the West, this was amongst the earliest to focus specifically on the brewing of the Japanese version. [4] By the mid-19th century, "soy sauce" became synonymous with the Chinese product. The volume of Chinese production overwhelmed all other competitors in the Western market. Europeans of that time were unable to make soy sauce because they didn't understand the function of a crucial ingredient – kōji.[5]

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Production

Soy sauce is made from soybeans.

Traditional Authentic soy sauces are made by mixing the grain and/or soybeans with yeast or kōji (麹, the mold Aspergillus oryzae or A. sojae) and other related microorganisms. Traditionally soy sauces were fermented under natural conditions, such as in giant urns and under the sun, which was believed to contribute to additional flavours. Today, most of the commerciallyproduced counterparts are instead fermented under machine-controlled environments. Although there are many types of soy sauce, all are salty and "earthy"-tasting brownish liquids used to season food while cooking or at the table. Soy sauce has a distinct basic taste called umami by the Japanese (旨味, literally "delicious taste"). Umami was first identified as a basic taste in 1908 by Kikunae Ikeda of the Tokyo Imperial University. The free glutamates which naturally occur in soy sauce are what give it this taste quality.

Artificially hydrolyzed Many cheaper brands of soy sauces are made from hydrolyzed soy protein instead of brewed from natural bacterial and fungal cultures. These soy sauces do not have the natural color of authentic soy sauces and are typically colored with caramel coloring, and are popular in Southeast Asia and China, and are exported to Asian markets around the globe[citation needed]. They are derogatorily called Chemical Soy Sauce ("化學醬油" in Chinese), but despite this name are the most widely used type because they are cheap. Similar products are also sold as "liquid aminos" in the US and Canada. Some artificial soy sauces pose potential health risks due to their content of the chloropropanols carcinogens 3-MCPD (3-chloro-1,2-propanediol) and all artificial soy sauces 202 | P a g e

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came under scrutiny for possible health risks due to the unregulated 1,3-DCP (1,3-dichloro-2propanol) which are minor byproducts of the hydrochloric acid hydrolysis [6].

Types Soy sauce has been integrated into the traditional cuisines of many East Asian and Southeast Asian cultures. Soy sauce is widely used as a particularly important flavoring in Japanese, Thai, Korean, and Chinese cuisine. Despite their rather similar appearance, soy sauces produced in different cultures and regions are very different in taste, consistency, fragrance and saltiness. Soy sauce retains its quality longer when kept away from direct sunlight.

Chinese soy sauce Chinese soy sauce (simplified Chinese: 酱油; traditional Chinese: 醬油; pinyin: jiàngyóu; or 豉油 chǐyóu) is primarily made from soybeans, with relatively low amounts of other grains. There are two main varieties: Light or fresh soy sauce (生抽 shēngchōu; or 酱清 "jiàng qing"; ): A thin (nonviscous), opaque, lighter brown soy sauce. It is the main soy sauce used for seasoning, since it is saltier, but it also adds flavour. Since it is lighter in color, it does not greatly affect the color of the dish. The light soy sauce made from the first pressing of the soybeans is called tóuchōu (simplified Chinese: 头抽; traditional Chinese: 頭抽), which can be loosely translated as first soy sauce or referred to as premium light soy sauce. Touchōu is sold at a premium because, like extra virgin olive oil, the flavor of the first pressing is considered superior. An additional classification of light soy sauce, shuānghuáng (雙璜), is double-fermented to add further complexity to the flavour. These latter two more delicate types are usually for dipping. Dark/old soy sauce (老抽 lǎochōu) : A darker and slightly thicker soy sauce that is aged longer and contains added molasses to give it its distinctive appearance. This variety is mainly used during cooking since its flavour develops under heating. It has a richer, slightly sweeter, and less salty flavour than light soy sauce. Dark soy sauce is partly used to add color and flavour to a dish. In traditional Chinese cooking, one of the two types, or a mixture of both, is employed to achieve a particular flavour and colour for the dish. Another type, thick soy sauce (醬油膏 jiàngyóugāo), is a dark soy sauce that has been thickened with starch and sugar. It is also occasionally flavored with MSG. This sauce is not usually used directly in cooking but more often as a dipping sauce or poured on food as a flavorful addition.

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Japanese soy sauce

Koyo organic tamari sauce Buddhist monks introduced soy sauce into Japan in the 7th century, where it is known as "shōyu". The Japanese word "tamari" is derived from the verb "tamaru" that signifies "to accumulate", referring to the fact that tamari was traditionally from the liquid byproduct produced during the fermentation of miso. Japan is the leading producer of tamari.[citation needed] Japanese soy sauce or shō-yu (しょうゆ, or 醤油), is traditionally divided into 5 main categories depending on differences in their ingredients and method of production. Most but not all Japanese soy sauces include wheat as a primary ingredient, which tends to give them a slightly sweeter taste than their Chinese counterparts. They also tend towards an alcoholic sherry-like flavor, due to the addition of alcohol in the product. Not all soy sauces are interchangeable.[citation needed] Koikuchi (濃口?, "strong flavor") Originating in the Kantō region, its usage eventually spread all over Japan. Over 80% of the Japanese domestic soy sauce production is of koikuchi, and can be considered the typical Japanese soy sauce. It is produced from roughly equal quantities of soybean and wheat. This variety is also called kijōyu (生醤油) or namashōyu (生しょうゆ) when it is not pasteurized. Usukuchi (淡口?, "light flavor") Particularly popular in the Kansai region of Japan, it is both saltier and lighter in color than koikuchi. The lighter color arises from the usage of amazake, a sweet liquid made from fermented rice, that is used in its production. Tamari (たまり?) Produced mainly in the Chūbu region of Japan, tamari is darker in appearance and richer in flavour than koikuchi. It contains little or no wheat; wheat-free tamari is popular among people eating a wheat free diet. It is the "original" Japanese soy sauce, as its recipe is closest to the soy sauce originally introduced to Japan from China. Technically, this variety is known as miso-damari (味噌溜り), as this is the liquid that runs off miso as it matures. Shiro (白?, "white") A very light colored soy sauce. In contrast to "tamari" soy sauce, "shiro" soy sauce uses mostly wheat and very little soybean, lending it a light appearance and sweet taste. It is more commonly used in the Kansai region to highlight the appearances of food, for example sashimi. 204 | P a g e

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Saishikomi (再仕込?, "twice-brewed") This variety substitutes previously-made koikuchi for the brine normally used in the process. Consequently, it is much darker and more strongly flavored. This type is also known as kanro shoyu (甘露醤油) or "sweet shoyu".

Shoyu (koikuchi) and light colored shoyu (usukuchi) as sold in Japan by Kikkoman, 1 litre bottles. Newer varieties of Japanese soy sauce include:[citation needed] Gen'en (減塩?, "reduced salt") Low-salt soy sauces also exist, but are not considered to be a separate variety of soy sauce, since the reduction in salt content is a process performed outside of the standard manufacture of soy sauce. Amakuchi (甘口?, "sweet flavor") Called "Hawaiian soy sauce" in those few parts of the US familiar with it, this is a variant of "koikuchi" soy sauce. All of these varieties are sold in the marketplace in three different grades according to how they were produced:[citation needed] Honjōzō hōshiki (本醸造 方式?) Contains 100% naturally fermented product. Shinshiki hōshiki (新式 方式?) Contains 30–50% naturally fermented product. Tennen jōzō (天然 醸造?) Means no added ingredients except alcohol. All the varieties and grades may be sold according to three official levels of quality:[citation needed]

Hyōjun (標準?) Standard pasteurized. Tokkyū (特級?) Special quality, not pasteurized. 205 | P a g e

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Tokusen (特選?) Premium quality, usually implies limited quantity. Other terms unrelated to the three official levels of quality:[citation needed] Hatsuakane (初茜?) Refers to industrial grade used for flavoring, powder. Chōtokusen (超特選?) Used by marketers to imply the best.

Indonesian soy sauce

Kecap manis Indonesian thick and sweet soy sauce is nearly as thick as molasses. In Indonesia, soy sauce is known as kecap (also ketjap or kicap) (a catchall term for fermented sauces) from which according to one theory the English word "ketchup" is derived. Two main varieties exist: Kecap asin Salty soy sauce, which is very similar to Chinese light soy sauce, but usually somewhat thicker and has a stronger flavor; it can be replaced by light Chinese soy sauce in recipes. Kecap manis Sweet soy sauce, which has a thick, almost syrupy consistency and a pronounced sweet, treacle-like flavor due to generous addition of palm sugar. It is a unique variety; in a pinch, it may be replaced by molasses with a little vegetable stock stirred in. 206 | P a g e

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Kecap manis sedang Medium sweet soy sauce, which has a less thick consistency and a more saline taste than Manis. Kecap inggris ("English fermented sauce"), or saus inggris ("English sauce") is the Indonesian name for Worcestershire sauce. Kecap Ikan is Indonesian fish sauce.

Malaysian soy sauce In Singapore and Malaysia, soy sauce in general is dòuyóu (豆油); dark soy sauce is called jiàngyóu (醬油) and light soy sauce is jiàngqīng (醬清). Angmo daoiu (紅毛豆油, lit. "foreigners' soy sauce") is the Hokkien name for Worcestershire sauce. Malaysia, which has language and cultural links with Indonesia, uses the word 'kicap' for soy sauce. Kicap is traditionally of two types: kicap lemak and kicap cair. Kicap lemak is similar to kecap manis but with very much less sugar while kicap cair is the Malaysian equivalent of kecap asin.

Korean soy sauce Korean soy sauce, (called Joseon ganjang, 조선간장, in Korean) is a byproduct of the production of doenjang (Korean fermented soybean paste). Joseon ganjang, thin and dark brown in color, is made entirely of soy and brine, and has a saltiness that varies according to the producer. Wide scale use of Joseon ganjang has been somewhat superseded by cheaper factory-made Japanese style soy sauce, called waeganjang (hangul: 왜간장/倭간장). According to the 2001 national food consumption survey in Korea, traditional fermented ganjang comprised only 1.4% of soy sauce purchases.[7]

Taiwanese soy sauce The history of soy sauce making in Taiwan can be traced back to southeastern China, in the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong. Later, the cultural and political separation between Taiwan and China since the end of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, when China ceded Taiwan to Japan, brought changes to traditional Chinese soy sauce making in Taiwan. Some of the top Taiwanese makers have adopted the more sophisticated Japanese technology in making soy sauce for the domestic market and more recently foreign markets as well. Taiwanese soy sauce is perhaps most markedly known for its black bean variant, known as black bean soy sauce (黑豆蔭油). Most major soy sauce makers in Taiwan such as KimLan(金蘭), WanJaShan(萬家香), President-Kikkoman(統萬) make exclusive soybean and wheat soy sauce. A few other makers such as WuanChuang(丸莊), O'Long(黑龍), TaTung(大同) and RueiChun(瑞春) make black bean soy sauce, which takes longer to produce (about 6 months). Founded in 1909, WuanChuang(丸 莊) is the oldest brand in Taiwan today and is the only one that maintains major production for both soybean/wheat and black bean soy sauces.[8][9][10]

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Vietnamese soy sauce is called xì dầu derived from Cantonese name 豉油, nước tương, or sometimes simply tương.

Philippine toyo A type of soy sauce based product which is a popular condiment in the Philippines, it is called toyo (pronounced TOH-yoh), and is usually found beside other sauces such as patis (fish sauce, pronounced pah-TEES) and suka (sugar cane vinegar, pronounced SOO-kah). The flavor of Philippine soy sauce is a combination of ingredients made from soybeans, wheat, salt, and caramel, is interestingly milder compared to its Asian counterparts—possibly an adaptation to the demands of the Filipino palate and its cuisine. It is thinner in texture and has a saltier taste compared to its Southeast Asian counterparts, much more similar to the Japanese shōyu. It is used as a staple condiment to flavor many cooked dishes and as a marinade during cooking, it is also a table condiment, and is usually mixed and served with kalamansi (a small Asian citrus-lime).

Health Positive A study by National University of Singapore shows that Chinese dark soy sauce contains 10 times the antioxidants of red wine, and can help prevent cardiovascular diseases.[11] Soy sauce is rich in lactic acid bacteria and of excellent anti-allergic potential. [12][13]

Negative Soy sauce does not contain a level of the beneficial isoflavones associated with other soy products such as tofu or edamame[14]. It can also be very salty, having a salt content of between 17%-19%[15] so it may not be a suitable condiment for people on a low sodium diet. Low-sodium soy sauces are produced, but it is impossible to make soy sauce without using some quantity of salt. Carcinogens in artificial soy sauces In 2001 the United Kingdom Food Standards Agency found in tests of various lowgrade soy sauces (those made from hydrolyzed soy protein, rather than being naturally fermented) that some 22% of samples contained a chemical called 3-MCPD (3monochloropropane-1,2-diol) at levels considerably higher than those deemed safe by the European Union. About two-thirds of these samples also contained a second chemical called 1,3-DCP (1,3-dichloropropane-2-ol) which experts advise should not be present at any levels in food. Both chemicals have the potential to cause cancer and the Agency recommended that the affected products be withdrawn from shelves and avoided.[6] Furthermore, the latter unregulated chemical can cause genetic damage to be passed on to offspring who never consumed the sauces.[16] Britain's Food Standards Agency (FSA) issued a Public Health Advice leaflet[17] in June 2001 to warn against a small number of soy sauce products having been shown to contain high levels of potentially cancer-causing chemicals. The leaflet singled out brands and products (some by batch numbers) imported from Thailand, China, Hong 208 | P a g e

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Kong and Taiwan. Although the leaflet primarily looked at soy sauce, the leaflet does include oyster sauce, marinades and other types of sauces, that affected the brands Golden Mountain, King Imperial, Pearl River Bridge, Jammy Chai, Lee Kum Kee, Golden Mark, Kimlan, Golden Swan, Sinsin, Tung Chun and Wanjasham. Despite these being small in number in the UK, they are the dominant brands in their respective nations.[citation needed] In Vietnam, 3-MCPD was found in toxic levels (In 2004, the HCM City Institute of Hygiene and Public Health found 33 of 41 sample of soya sauce with high rates of 3MCPD, including six samples with up to 11,000 to 18,000 times more 3-MPCD than permitted, an increase over 23 to 5,644 times in 2001) [18] in soy sauces there in 2007, along with formaldehyde in the national dish Pho, and banned pesticides in vegetables and fruits. A prominent newspaper Thanh Nien Daily commented: "Health agencies have known that Vietnamese soy sauce, the country's second most popular sauce after fish sauce, has been chock full of cancer agents since at least 2001."[19] (See 2007 Vietnam food scare.) In March 2008, some Australian soya sauces were found to contain carcinogens and consumers were advised to avoid consumption.[20]

Soy sauce and allergies Further information: Soy allergy Most varieties of soy sauce also contain wheat. Individuals with a wheat allergy, Celiac disease, or a gluten intolerance should avoid soy sauce that is made with wheat.[1]

Notes 1. ^ 'Microbiology Laboratory Theory and Application.' Michael Leboffe and Burton Pierce, 2nd edition. pp.317 2. ^ Tanaka, Norio. "Shōyu:The Flavor of Japan," The Japan Foundation Newsletter Vol. XXVII, No. 2 (January 2000), p. 2. 3. ^ Tanaka, p. 6. 4. ^ Titsingh, Isaac. (1781). "Bereiding van de Soya" ("Producing Soy Sauce"), Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap (Transactions of the Batavian Academy), Vol. III. OCLC 9752305 5. ^ Tanaka, p. 7. 6. ^ a b Food Standards Agency (2001-06-20). "Some Soy Sauce Products To Be Removed". Press release. http://www.food.gov.uk/news/pressreleases/2001/jun/soysaucerecall. Retrieved 200801-07. 7. ^ Jung, Soon Teck• and Kang, Seong-Gook (2002). "The Past and Present of Traditional Fermented Foods in Korea". http://www.miyajimasoy.co.jp/science/kouenkai/kouenkai.htm. Retrieved 2008-01-07. 8. ^ http://www.smartfood.com.tw/web/SG?pageID=21609 9. ^ http://www.gmp.org.tw/newsdetail.asp?id=7598 10. ^ http://www.tcoc.org.tw/60anniversary/century-gofun.aspx#

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11. ^ Daniells, Stephen (2006-06-06). "Antioxidant-rich soy sauce could protect against CVD". nutraingredients.com. http://www.nutraingredients.com/news/ng.asp?id=68196-soy-sauce-cvd-isoflavones. Retrieved 2008-01-07. 12. ^ Tanasupawat, et al, Somboon (2002-06-18). "Lactic acid bacteria isolated from soy sauce mash in Thailand". Journal of General and Applied Microbiology (The Microbiology Research Foundation) 48 (4): 201–209. doi:10.2323/jgam.48.201. PMID 12469319. 13. ^ Kobayashi, Makio (2005-04-18). "Immunological Functions of Soy Sauce: Hypoallergenicity and Antiallergic Activity of Soy Sauce". Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering (Society for Biotechnology, Japan) 1 (2): 144–151. doi:10.1263/jbb.100.144. PMID 16198255. 14. ^ Shahidi, Fereidoon; Naczk, Marian (2003), Phenolics in food and nutraceuticals, Edition 2, Florence, Kentucky: CRC Press, p. 103, ISBN 1587161389, http://books.google.com/books?id=vHOJKw4umikC 15. ^ Bamford, Charles W (2005). Food, fermentation and micro-organisms. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 186. ISBN 0632059877. 16. ^ barchronicle(Philippine government) 17. ^ UK UK Food Standards Agency: Soy advice leaflet. 18. ^ Soya sauce stirs worry and discontentment among public 19. ^ Toxic soy sauce, chemical veggies -- food scares hit Vietnam 20. ^ 'Cancer chemical' in soy sauce

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Olive oil Olive oil

A bottle of olive oil

Fat composition

Saturated fats

Unsaturated fats Monounsaturated fats Polyunsaturated fats

Palmitic acid: 7.5–20.0% Stearic acid: 0.5–5.0% Arachidic acid: <0.8% Behenic acid: <0.3% Myristic acid: <0.1% Lignoceric acid: <1.0% yes Oleic acid: 55.0–83.0% Palmitoleic acid: 0.3–3.5% Linoleic acid: 3.5–21.0 % Linolenic acid: <1.5%

Properties Food energy per 100g Melting point Boiling point Smoke point Specific gravity at 20 °C Viscosity at 20 °C Refractive index

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3,700 kJ (880 kcal) −6 °C (21 °F) 300 °C (572 °F) 190 °C (374 °F) (virgin) 210 °C (410 °F) (refined) 0.9150–0.9180 (@ 15.5 °C) 84 cP 1.4677–1.4705 (virgin and refined) Cooking Ingredients/[email protected]

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Iodine value Acid value Saponification value Peroxide value

1.4680–1.4707 (pomace) 75–94 (virgin and refined) 75–92 (pomace) maximum: 6.6 (refined and pomace) 0.6 (extra-virgin) 184–196 (virgin and refined) 182–193 (pomace) 20 (virgin) 10 (refined and pomace)

Olive oil is a fruit oil obtained from the olive (Olea europaea; family Oleaceae), a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. The wild olive tree originated in Asia Minor and spread from there as far as southern Africa, Australia, Japan and China.[1] It is commonly used in cooking, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps. Olive oil is used throughout the world, but especially in the Mediterranean.

Market Over 750 million olive trees are cultivated worldwide, 95% of which are in the Mediterranean region. Most of global production comes from Southern Europe, North Africa and the Near East. World production in 2002 was 2.6 million tonnes,[2] of which Spain contributed 40% to 45%. In 2006, Turkey accounted for about 5% of world production, similar to the Spanish province of Jaén alone, well known for the biggest olive groves in the world.[3] Of the European production, 93% comes from Spain, Italy and Greece. Greece devotes 60% of its cultivated land to olive growing. It is the world's top producer of black olives and has more varieties of olives than any other country. Greece holds third place in world olive production with more than 132 million trees, which produce approximately 350,000 tons of olive oil annually, of which 82% is extra-virgin[4] (see below for an explanation of terms). About half of the annual Greek olive oil production is exported, but only some 5% of this reflects the origin of the bottled product{fact}. Greece exports mainly to European Union (EU) countries, principally Italy, which receives about three-quarters of total exports. Olives are grown for oil in Greece, with Peloponnese being the source of 65% of Greek production, as well as in Crete, the Aegean Islands and Ionian Islands. The most prized Greek olive variety for oil production is the Korōnéiki, originating from the area of Korōnē in Messenia. This variety grows well on mountain slopes and produces very small fruit; the high ratio of skin to flesh giving the oil its coveted aromatic qualities. The variety is also suited to the production of agourélaio, oil from olives that are slightly unripe. When crushed in presses that are not capable of grinding the stone, this oil is entirely free of acidity and possesses top-tier organoleptic characteristics. Because not crushing the stones reduces oil yield, production of agourélaio is limited to "boutique" presses run by entrepreneurs and small coöperatives. Among the many different olive varieties or cultivars in Italy are Frantoio, Leccino Pendolino, and Moraiolo; in Spain the most important varieties are the Picual, Alberquina, Hojiblanca, and Manzanilla de Jaén; in Greece, Koroneiki; in France, Picholine; in 212 | P a g e

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California, Mission; in Portugal, Galega; in Croatia, Oblica and Leccino. The oil from the varieties varies in flavour and stability (shelf life). In North America, Italian and Spanish olive oils are the best-known, and top-quality extravirgin oils from Italy, Spain, Croatia and Greece are sold at high prices, often in "prestige" packaging. A large part of US olive oil imports come from Italy, Spain, and Turkey. The US imported 47,800,000 US gallons (181,000 m3) of olive oil in 1998, of which 34,600,000 US gallons (131,000 m3) came from Italy.[5] The Republic of South Africa also produces extra virgin olive oil, with production increasing to meet demand.[6]

Regulation and adulteration Main article: Olive oil regulation and adulteration

International Olive Oil Council building The International Olive Oil Council (IOOC) is an intergovernmental organization based in Madrid, Spain, with 23 member states. It promotes olive oil around the world by tracking production, defining quality standards, and monitoring authenticity. More than 85% of the world's olives are grown in IOOC member nations.[7] The United States is not a member of the IOOC, and the US Department of Agriculture does not legally recognize its classifications (such as extra-virgin olive oil). The USDA uses a different system, which it defined in 1948 before the IOOC existed. The California Olive Oil Council, a private trade group, is petitioning the USDA to adopt IOOC rules.[8] The IOOC officially governs 95% of international production and holds great influence over the rest. IOOC terminology is precise, but it can lead to confusion between the words that describe production and the words used on retail labels. Olive oil is classified by how it was produced, by its chemistry, and by its flavor. All production begins by transforming the olive fruit into olive paste. This paste is then malaxed to allow the microscopic oil droplets to concentrate. The oil is extracted by means of pressure (traditional method) or centrifugation (modern method). After extraction the remnant solid substance, called pomace, still contains a small quantity of oil. The EU regulates the use of different protected designation of origin labels for olive oils.

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US Customs regulations on "country of origin" state that if a non-origin nation is shown on the label, then the real origin must be shown on the same side of the label and in comparable size letters so as not to mislead the consumer.[9][10] Yet most major US brands continue to put ―imported from Italy‖ on the front label in large letters and other origins on the back in very small print.[11] These products are a mixture of olive oil from more than one nation and it is not clear what percentage of the olive oil is really of Italian origin. This practice makes it difficult for high quality, lower cost producers outside of Italy to enter the US market, and for genuine Italian producers to compete. An article by Tom Mueller in the August 13, 2007 issue of the The New Yorker alleges that regulation, particularly in Italy, is extremely lax and corrupt. Mueller states that major Italian shippers routinely adulterate olive oil and that only about 40% of olive oil sold as "extra virgin" actually meets the specification.[12] In some cases, colza oil with added color and flavor has been labeled and sold as olive oil.[13] This extensive fraud prompted the Italian government to mandate a new labeling law in 2007 for companies selling olive oil, under which every bottle of Italian olive oil would have to declare the farm and press on which it was produced, as well as display a precise breakdown of the oils used, for blended oils.[14] In February 2008, however, EU officials took issue with the new law, stating that under EU rules such labeling should be voluntary rather than compulsory.[15] Under EU rules, olive oil may be sold as Italian even if it only contains a small amount of Italian oil.[14] In March 2008, 400 Italian police officers conducted "Operation Golden Oil," arresting 23 people and confiscating 85 farms after an investigation revealed a large-scale scheme to relabel oils from other Mediterranean nations as Italian.[16] In April 2008, another operation impounded seven olive oil plants and arrested 40 people in nine provinces of northern and southern Italy for adding chlorophyll to sunflower and soybean oil and selling it as extra virgin olive oil, both in Italy and abroad. 25,000 liters of the fake oil were seized and prevented from being exported.[17] Adulterated oil is usually no more serious than passing off inferior, but safe, product as superior olive oil, but there are no guarantees. Almost 700 people died, it is believed, as a consequence of consuming rapeseed (canola) oil adulterated with aniline intended for use as an industrial lubricant, but sold in 1981 as olive oil in Spain (see toxic oil syndrome).[18]

Commercial grades The grades of oil extracted from the olive fruit can be classified as: Virgin means the oil was produced by the use of physical means and no chemical treatment. The term virgin oil referring to production is different from Virgin Oil on a retail label (see next section). Refined means that the oil has been chemically treated to neutralize strong tastes (characterized as defects) and neutralize the acid content (free fatty acids). Refined oil is commonly regarded as lower quality than virgin oil; the retail labels extra-virgin olive oil and virgin olive oil cannot contain any refined oil. Pomace olive oil means oil extracted from the pomace using chemical solvents, mostly hexane, and by heat. Quantitative analysis can determine the oil's acidity, defined as the percent, measured by weight, of free oleic acid it contains. This is a measure of the oil's chemical degradation; as 214 | P a g e

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the oil degrades, more fatty acids are freed from the glycerides, increasing the level of free acidity and thereby increasing rancidity. Another measure of the oil's chemical degradation is the organic peroxide level, which measures the degree to which the oil is oxidized, another cause of rancidity. In order to classify it by taste, olive oil is subjectively judged by a panel of professional tasters in a blind taste test. This is also called its organoleptic quality.

Retail grades in IOOC member nations In countries which adhere to the standards of the IOOC[19] the labels in stores show an oil's grade. The US is not a member. Extra-virgin olive oil comes from virgin oil production only, contains no more than 0.8% acidity, and is judged to have a superior taste. Extra Virgin olive oil accounts for less than 10% of oil in many producing countries. Used on salads, added at the table to soups and stews and for dipping. Virgin olive oil comes from virgin oil production only, has an acidity less than 2%, and is judged to have a good taste. Pure olive oil. Oils labeled as Pure olive oil or Olive oil are usually a blend of refined and virgin production oil. Olive oil is a blend of virgin and refined production oil, of no more than 1.5% acidity. It commonly lacks a strong flavor. Olive-pomace oil is refined pomace olive production oil possibly blended with some virgin production oil. It is fit for consumption, but may not be described simply as olive oil. Olive-pomace oil is rarely sold at retail; it is often used for certain kinds of cooking in restaurants. Lampante oil is olive oil not suitable as food; lampante comes from olive oil's longstanding use in oil-burning lamps. Lampante oil is mostly used in the industrial market. Refined olive oil is the olive oil obtained from virgin olive oils by refining methods which do not lead to alterations in the initial glyceridic structure. It has a free acidity, expressed as oleic acid, of not more than 0.3 grams per 100 grams (0.3%) and its other characteristics correspond to those fixed for this category in this standard. This is obtained by refining virgin olive oils which have a high acidity level and/or organoleptic defects which are eliminated after refining. Over 50% of the oil produced in the Mediterranean area is of such poor quality that it must be refined to produce an edible product. Note that no solvents have been used to extract the oil but it has been refined with the use of charcoal and other chemical and physical filters. An obsolete equivalent is "pure olive oil"

Retail grades in the United States from the USDA As the United States is not a member, the IOOC retail grades have no legal meaning in that country; terms such as "extra virgin" may be used without legal restrictions. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) currently lists four grades of olive oil. These grades were established in 1948, and are based on acidity, absence of defects, odor and flavor:[20] 215 | P a g e

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U.S. Grade A or U.S. Fancy possesses a free fatty acid content of not more than 1.4% and is "free from defects"; U.S. Grade B or U.S. Choice possesses a free fatty acid content of not more than 2.5% and is "reasonably free from defects"; U.S. Grade C or U.S. Standard possesses a free fatty acid content of not more than 3.0% and is "fairly free from defects"; U.S. Grade D or U.S. Substandard possesses a free fatty acid content greater than 3.0% and "fails to meet the requirements of U.S. Grade C". These grades are entirely voluntary and are available from the USDA on a fee-for-service basis.[20]

Label wording

A cold press olive oil machine in Israel. Olive oil vendors choose the wording on their labels very carefully. "100% Pure Olive Oil" is often the lowest quality available in a retail store: better grades would have "virgin" on the label.[citation needed] "Made from refined olive oils" means that the taste and acidity were chemically controlled.[citation needed] "Light olive oil" means refined olive oil, with less flavour. All olive oil has 120 kcal/tbsp. (34 kJ/ml).[citation needed] "From hand-picked olives" implies that the oil is of better quality, since producers harvesting olives by mechanical methods are inclined to leave olives to over-ripen in order to increase yield.[citation needed] "First cold press" is generally a purely commercial wording with no factual meaning. It suggests that the oil in bottles with this label is the "first oil that came from the first press" of the olives and that no heat is used. This is incorrect. First of all, "cold" does not define any precise temperature. A certain exception is made for the European regulation which requires that the processing temperature be below 27 °C in order to be named "cold pressed".[citation needed] In cooler regions like Tuscany or Liguria the olives collected in November and ground often at night are too cold to be processed efficiently without heating. The paste is regularly heated above the environmental temperatures, which may be as low as 10-15 °C, in order to extract the oil efficiently with only physical means. Olives pressed in warm regions like Southern Italy or Northern Africa may be pressed at significantly higher temperatures although not heated. While it is important that the pressing temperatures be as low as possible (generally below 35 °C) there is no international reliable definition of "cold 216 | P a g e

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pressed". Furthermore there is no "second" press of virgin oil, so the term "first press" is meaningless. The label may indicate that the oil was bottled or packed in a stated country. This does not necessarily mean that the oil was produced there. The origin of the oil may sometimes be marked elsewhere on the label; it may be a mixture of oils from more than one country.[11]

Global consumption

Olive tree in Portugal Greece has by far the largest per capita consumption of olive oil worldwide, over 26 liters per year; Spain and Italy, around 14 l; Tunisia, Portugal and Lebanon, around 8 l. Northern Europe and North America consume far less, around 0.7 l, but the consumption of olive oil outside its home territory has been rising steadily.

Global market The main producing and consuming countries are: Country

Production (2005)[21]

Consumption (2005)[21]

Annual per capita consumption (kg)[22]

Spain

36%

20%

13.62

Italy

25%

30%

12.35

Greece

18%

9%

23.7

Tunisia

8%

2%

11.1

Turkey

5%

2%

1.2

Syria

4%

3%

7

Morocco

3%

2%

1.8

Portugal

1%

2%

7.1

United States

0%

8%

0.56

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France

0%

4%

1.34

Lebanon

N/A

3%

1.18

Extraction Main article: Olive oil extraction Olive oil is produced by grinding olives and extracting the oil by mechanical or chemical means. Green olives produce bitter oil, and overripe olives produce rancid oil, so for good extra virgin olive oil care is taken to make sure the olives are perfectly ripened. 1. First the olives are ground into paste using large millstones (traditional method) or steel drums (modern method). 2. If ground with mill stones, the olive paste generally stays under the stones for 30–40 minutes. A shorter grinding process may result in a more raw paste that produces less oil and has a less ripe taste, a longer process may increase oxidation of the paste and reduce the flavor. After grinding, the olive paste is spread on fiber disks, which are stacked on top of each other in a column, then placed into the press. Pressure is then applied onto the column to separate the vegetal liquid from the paste. This liquid still contains a significant amount of water. Traditionally the oil was shed from the water by gravity (oil is less dense than water). This very slow separation process has been replaced by centrifugation, which is much faster and more accurate. The centrifuges have one exit for the (heavier) watery part and one for the oil. Olive oil should not contain significant traces of vegetal water as this accelerates the process of organic degeneration by micro organisms. The separation in smaller oil mills is not always perfect, thus sometimes a small watery deposit containing organic particles can be found at the bottom of oil bottles. 3. In modern steel drum mills the grinding process takes about 20 minutes. After grinding, the paste will then be stirred slowly for another 20–30 minutes in a particular container (malaxation), where the microscopic oil drops unite to bigger drops which facilitates the mechanical extraction. The paste is then pressed by centrifugation, the water is thereafter separated from the oil in a second centrifugation as described before. The oil produced by only physical (mechanical) means as described is called virgin oil. Extra virgin olive oil is virgin olive oil that satisfies specific high chemical and organoleptic criteria (low free acidity, no or very little organoleptic defects). 4. Sometimes the produced oil will be filtered to eliminate remaining solid particles that may reduce the shelf life of the product. Labels may indicate the fact that the oil has not been filtered, suggesting a different taste. The remaining paste (pomace) still contains a small quantity (about 2-6%) of oil that cannot be extracted by further pressing but only with chemical solvents. This is done in specialised chemical plants, not in the oil mills. The resulting oil is not "virgin" but "pomace oil". The sometimes found term "first press" is technically meaningless as there is no "second" press.

Constituents

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Olive oil is composed mainly of the mixed triglyceride esters of oleic acid and palmitic acid and of other fatty acids, along with traces of squalene (up to 0.7%) and sterols (about 0.2% phytosterol and tocosterols). The composition varies by cultivar, region, altitude, time of harvest, and extraction process. Olive oil contains a group of related natural products with potent antioxidant properties which give extra-virgin unprocessed olive oil its bitter and pungent taste and which are esters of tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol, including oleocanthal and oleuropein.[23]

Nutrition Olive oil Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 890 kcal 3700 kJ

Carbohydrates

0g

Fat

100 g

- saturated 14 g - monounsaturated 73 g - polyunsaturated 11 g - omega-3 fat <1.5 g - omega-6 fat 3.5-21 g Protein

0g

Vitamin E 14 mg 93% Vitamin K 62 μg 59% 100 g olive oil is 109 ml Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.

Evidence from epidemiological studies suggests that a higher proportion of monounsaturated fats in the diet is linked with a reduction in the risk of coronary heart disease.[24] This is significant because olive oil is considerably rich in monounsaturated fats, most notably oleic acid. In the United States, producers of olive oil may place the following health claim on product labels: Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about 2 tbsp. (23 g) of olive oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease due to the monounsaturated fat in olive oil. To achieve this possible benefit, olive oil is to replace a similar amount of saturated fat and not increase the total number of calories you eat in a day.[25]

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This decision was announced November 1, 2004, by the Food and Drug Administration after application was made to the FDA by producers. Similar labels are permitted for foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids such as walnuts and hemp seed.[26] There is a large body of clinical data to show that consumption of olive oil can provide heart health benefits such as favourable effects on cholesterol regulation and LDL cholesterol oxidation, and that it exerts antiinflamatory, antithrombotic, antihypertensive as well as vasodilatory effects both in animals and in humans.[27] But some clinical evidence suggests that it is olive oil's phenolic content, rather than its fatty acid profile, that is responsible for at least some of its cardioprotective benefits. For example, a clinical trial published[28] in 2005 compared the effects of different types of olive oil on arterial elasticity. Test subjects were given a serving of 60 g of white bread and 40 ml of olive oil each morning for two consecutive days. The study was conducted in two stages. During the first stage, the subjects received polyphenol-rich oil (extra virgin oil contains the highest amount of polyphenol antioxidants). During the second phase, they received oil with only one fifth the phenolic content. The elasticity of the arterial walls of each subject was measured using a pressure sleeve and a Doppler laser. It was discovered that after the subjects had consumed olive oil high in polyphenol antioxidants, they exhibited increased arterial elasticity, while after the consumption of olive oil containing fewer polyphenols, they displayed no significant change in arterial elasticity. It is theorized that, in the long term, increased elasticity of arterial walls reduces vascular stress and consequentially the risk of two common causes of death—heart attacks and stroke. This could, at least in part, explain the lower incidence of both diseases in regions where olive oil and olives are consumed on a daily basis. Another health benefit of olive oil seems to be its property to displace omega-6 fats, while not having any impact on omega-3 fats. This way, olive oil helps to build a more healthy balance between omega-6 fats and omega-3 fats.[citation needed] Unlike the high amount of animal fats typical to the American diet, olive oil lowers cholesterol levels in the blood.[29] It is also known to lower blood sugar levels and blood pressure.[30] Olive oil contains the monounsaturated fat, oleic acid which has antioxidants such as vitamin E and carotenoids, and oleuropein, a chemical that prevents the oxidation of LDL particles. It is these properties that are thought to contribute to the health benefits of olive oil.[citation needed] As they are the least processed forms of olive oil, extra virgin or virgin olive oil have more monounsaturated fat than olive oil. These types of olive oil contain more polyphenols, leading to a healthier heart and lower "bad" cholesterol.[31] Research indicates olive oil prevents peptic ulcers and is effective in treatment of peptic ulcer disease,[32] and may be a factor in preventing cancer.[33]

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Uses Culinary use Olive oil is the main cooking oil in countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. Extra-virgin olive oil is mostly used for salad dressings and foods to be eaten cold. Used cold, its strong flavor is able to stick out while not being compromised by heat. It is also used for sauteing ingredients. The higher the temperature to which the olive oil is heated, the more one should prefer the use of refined olive oils. When extra-virgin olive oil is heated above 350 °C (662 °F), the unrefined particles within the oil get burned. This leads to deteriorated taste and even toxicity[citation needed]. Also, the pronounced taste of extra-virgin olive oil is not a taste most people like to associate with their deep fried foods. Refined olive oils are perfectly suited for deep frying foods and should be replaced after several uses.[citation needed]. Choosing a cold-pressed olive oil can be similar to selecting a wine. The flavor of these oils vary considerably and a particular oil may be more suited for a particular dish. Also, people who like lots of tannins in their red wines might prefer more bitter olive oils. An important issue which is often not realized in countries that do not produce olive oil is that the freshness makes a big difference. A very fresh oil, as available in an oil producing region, tastes noticeably different from the older oils available elsewhere. In time, oils deteriorate and become stale. One-year old oil may be still pleasant to the taste, but it is surely less fragrant than fresh oil. After the first year olive oil should be used for cooking, not for foods to be eaten cold, like salads. The taste of the olive oil is influenced not only by the soil that the olive trees grow on, but also by the moment when the olives have been harvested and ground. Olive oil has more uses than just consuming, it also works as a natural and safe lubricant. For example, lubricating the machinery that is used within the kitchen (grinders, blenders, cookware, etc.)

Comparative properties of common cooking fats (per 100g) Butter Vegetable Shortening (hydrogenated) Olive Oil Lard

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Total Saturated Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated Protein Fat Fat Fat Fat 81g 51g 21g 3g 1g 71g

23g

8g

37g

0g

100g 100g

14g 39g

73g 45g

11g 11g

0g 0g

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Skin care In addition to the internal health benefits of olive oil, topical application is quite popular with fans of natural health remedies. Extra Virgin Olive Oil is the preferred grade for moisturizing the skin, especially when used in the oil cleansing method (OCM). OCM is a method of cleansing and moisturizing the face with a mixture of extra virgin olive oil, castor oil (or another suitable carrier oil) and a select blend of essential oils. Olive oil is also used by some to reduce ear wax buildup.[34] Olive oil can be used as an effective shaving oil to shave facial and other body hair giving results that are equivalent to expensive commercial products.[35] Studies on mice showed that application of olive oil immediately following exposure to UVB rays has a preventive effect on the formation of tumors and skin cancer.[36][37] Jeanne Calment, who holds the record for the longest confirmed lifespan, reportedly attributed her longevity and relatively youthful appearance to olive oil, which she said she poured on all her food and rubbed into her skin.[38]

Medicinal use Olive oil is unlikely to cause allergic reactions, and as such is used in preparations for lipophilic drug ingredients. It does have demulcent properties, and mild laxative properties, acting as a stool softener. It is also used at room temperature as an ear wax softener. Olive oil is also a potent blocker of intestinal contractions, and can be used to treat excessive Borborygmus. Oleocanthal from olive oil is a non-selective inhibitor of cyclooxygenase (COX) similar to classical NSAIDs like ibuprofen. It has been suggested that long-term consumption of small quantities of this compound from olive oil may be responsible in part for the low incidence of heart disease associated with a Mediterranean diet.

Other Olive oil is also used in soap making and as lamp oil. It is also good for the management of pain. it is also a good natural anti-inflammatory agent.

History

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Olive press in Pompeii (79 AD)

Ancient Greek olive oil production workshop in what is now Kilizman,Turkey

The Manufacture of Oil, drawn and engraved by J. Amman in the Sixteenth Century. Homer called it "liquid gold." In ancient Greece, athletes ritually rubbed it all over their bodies. Olive oil has been more than mere food to the peoples of the Mediterranean: it has been medicinal, magical, an endless source of fascination and wonder and the fountain of great wealth and power. Besides food, olive oil has been used for religious rituals, medicines, as a fuel in oil lamps, soap-making, and skin care application. The importance and antiquity of olive oil can be seen in the fact that the English word oil derives from c. 1175, olive oil, from Anglo-Fr. and O.N.Fr. olie, from O.Fr. oile (12c., Mod.Fr. huile), from L. oleum "oil, olive oil" (cf. It. olio), from Gk. elaion "olive tree",[39] which may have been borrowed through trade networks from the Semitic Phoenician use of el'yon meaning "superior", probably in recognized comparison to other vegetable or animal fats available at the time. 223 | P a g e

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The olive tree is native to the Mediterranean basin; wild olives were collected by Neolithic peoples as early as the 8th millennium BC.[40] The wild olive tree originated in Asia Minor[41] in modern Turkey. It is not clear when and where olive trees were first domesticated: in Asia Minor in the 6th millennium;[42] along the Levantine coast stretching from the Sinai Peninsula to modern Turkey in the 4th millennium;[40] or somewhere in the Mesopotamian Fertile Crescent in the 3rd millennium.[43] A widespread view exists that the first cultivation took place on the island of Crete. The earliest surviving olive oil amphorae date to 3500 BC (Early Minoan times), though the production of olive is assumed to have started before 4000 BC. An alternative view retains that olives were turned into oil by 4500 BC by Canaanites in present-day Israel.[44]

Ancient oil press Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, Bodrum, Turkey

Recent genetic studies suggest that species used by modern cultivators descend from multiple wild populations, but a detailed history of domestication is not yet understood.[45] Many ancient presses still exist in the Eastern Mediterranean region, and some dating to the Roman period are still in use today.[citation needed]

Eastern Mediterranean Over 5,000 years ago oil was being extracted from olives in the Eastern Mediterranean. In the centuries that followed, olive presses became common, from the Atlantic shore of North Africa to Persia and from the Po Valley to the settlements along the Nile.[citation needed] Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the ancient city-state Ebla (2600–2240 BC), which were located on the outskirts of the Syrian city Aleppo. Here some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe lands of the king and the queen. These belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in Tanakh.[citation needed] Dynastic Egyptians before 2000 BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria and Canaan and oil was an important item of commerce and wealth. Remains of olive oil have been found in jugs 224 | P a g e

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over 4,000 years old in a tomb on the island of Naxos in the Aegean Sea. Sinuhe, the Egyptian exile who lived in northern Canaan about 1960 BC, wrote of abundant olive trees.[46] Until 1500 BC, the eastern coastal areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated. Olive trees were certainly cultivated by the Late Minoan period (1500 BC) in Crete, and perhaps as early as the Early Minoan.[47] The cultivation of olive trees in Crete became particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the island's economy. The Minoans used olive oil in religious ceremonies. The oil became a principal product of the Minoan civilization, where it is thought to have represented wealth. The Minoans put the pulp into settling tanks and, when the oil had risen to the top, drained the water from the bottom.[citation needed]. Olive tree growing reached Iberia and Etruscan cities well before the 8th century BC through trade with the Phoenicians and Carthage, then spread into Southern Gaul by the Celtic tribes during the 7th century BC. The first recorded oil extraction is known from the Hebrew Bible and took place during the Exodus from Egypt, during the 13th century BC.[dubious – discuss] During this time, the oil was derived through hand-squeezing the berries and stored in special containers under guard of the priests. A commercial mill for non-sacramental use of oil was in use in the tribal Confederation and later in 1000 BC., the fertile crescent, and area consisting of present day Palestine, Lebanon, and Israel. Over 100 olive presses have been found in Tel Miqne (Ekron), where the Biblical Philistines also produced oil. These presses are estimated to have had output of between 1,000 and 3,000 tons of olive oil per season. Olive trees were planted in the entire Mediterranean basin during evolution of the Roman republic and empire. According to the historian Pliny, Italy had "excellent olive oil at reasonable prices" by the first century AD, "the best in the Mediterranean", he maintained, a claim probably disputed by many ancient olive growers. Thus olive oil was very common in Hellene and Latin cuisine. According to legend, the city of Athens obtained its name because Athenians considered olive oil essential, preferring the offering of the goddess Athena (an olive tree) over the offering of Poseidon (a spring of salt water gushing out of a cliff). The Spartans were the Hellenes who used oil to rub themselves while exercising in the gymnasia. The practice served to eroticise and highlight the beauty of the male body. From its beginnings early in the seventh century BC, the decorative use of olive oil quickly spread to all of Hellenic city states, together with naked appearance of athletes, and lasted close to a thousand years despite its great expense.[48][49]

Religious use In Jewish observance, olive oil is the only fuel allowed to be used in the seven-branched Menorah (not a candelabrum since the use of candles was not allowed) in the Mishkan service during the Exodus of the tribes of Israel from Egypt, and later in the permanent Temple in Jerusalem. It was obtained by using only the first drop from a squeezed olive and was consecrated for use only in the Temple by the priests, which is where the expression pure olive oil originates, stored in special containers. A menorah similar to the Menorah used in the Mishkan is now used during the holiday of Hanukkah that celebrates the miracle of the last of such containers being found during the re-dedication of the Temple (163 BC), when its contents lasted for far longer then they were expected to, allowing more time for more oil to be made. Although candles can be used to light the hanukkiah, oil containers are preferred, to 225 | P a g e

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imitate the original Menorah. Another use of oil in Jewish religion is for anointing the kings of the Kingdom of Israel, originating from King David. Tzidkiyahu was the last anointed King of Israel. One unusual use of olive oil in the Talmud is for bad breath, by creating a water-oil-salt mouthwash.[citation needed] Olive oil also has religious symbolism for healing and strength and to consecration—God's setting a person or place apart for special work. This may be related to its ancient use as a medicinal agent and for cleansing athletes by slathering them in oil then scraping them. The Catholic and Orthodox Churches use olive oil for the Oil of Catechumens (used to bless and strengthen those preparing for Baptism) and Oil of the Sick (used to confer the Sacrament of Anointing of the Sick). Olive oil mixed with a perfuming agent like balsam is consecrated by bishops as Sacred Chrism, which is used to confer the sacrament of Confirmation (as a symbol of the strengthening of the Holy Spirit), in the rites of Baptism and the ordination of priests and bishops, in the consecration of altars and churches, and, traditionally, in the anointing of monarchs at their coronation. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) and a number of other religions use olive oil when they need to consecrate an oil for anointings. Eastern Orthodox Christians still use oil lamps in their churches, home prayer corners and in the cemeteries. A vigil lamp consists of a votive glass containing a half-inch of water and filled the rest with olive oil. The glass has a metal holder that hangs from a bracket on the wall or sits on a table. A cork float with a lit wick floats on the oil. To douse the flame, the float is carefully pressed down into the oil. Makeshift oil lamps can easily be made by soaking a ball of cotton in olive oil and forming it into a peak. The peak is lit and then burns until all the oil is consumed, at which point the rest of the cotton burns out. Olive oil is a usual offering to churches and cemeteries. In Islam, olive oil is mentioned in the Quranic verse: "God is the light of heavens and earth. An example of His light is like a lantern inside which there is a tourch, the tourch is in a glass bulb, the glass bulb is like a bright planet lit by a blessed olive tree, neither Eastern nor Western, its oil almost glows, even without fire touching it, light upon light." The Qur‘an also mentions olives as a sacred plant: "By the fig and the olive, and the Mount of Sinai, and this secure city."[50] Olive oil is also reported to have been recommended by the Prophet Muhammad in the following terms: "Consume olive oil and anoint it upon your bodies since it is of the blessed tree." He also stated that it cures 70 diseases.

References 1. ^ International Olive Oil Council. "The Olive Tree, The Origin and Expansion of the Olive Tree". http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/web/aaingles/oliveWorld/olivo.html. Retrieved 2008-07-04. 2. ^ USDA. "Agricultural Statistics 2005" (PDF). http://www.usda.gov/nass/pubs/agr05/05_ch3.PDF. Retrieved 2007-05-25. 3. ^ USDA. "Agricultural Statistics 2005". http://www.gourmetretailer.com/gourmetretailer/headlines/article_display.jsp?vnu_co ntent_id=1003540888. Retrieved 2007-05-25. 4. ^ "findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_34_18/ai_92084047". http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_34_18/ai_92084047. 5. ^ G. Steven Sibbett, Louise Ferguson, Joann L Coviello, Margaret Lindstrand (2005). Olive Production Manual. ANR Publications. p. 158. 226 | P a g e

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6. ^ "www.southafrica.info/business/trade/export/olive-oil-270705.htm". http://www.southafrica.info/business/trade/export/olive-oil-270705.htm. 7. ^ International Olive Oil Council International Olive Council 8. ^ United States Department of Agriculture Site 9. ^ Durant, John. US Customs Department, Director Commercial Rulings Division Country of origin marking of imported olive oil; 19 CFR 134.46; ―imported by‖ language 2000-09-05. 10. ^ United States International Trade Commission Rulings See reference to HQ 560944 ruling of the Customs and Border Protection (CBP) on April 27, 1998 "blending of Spanish olive oil with Italian olive oil in Italy does not result in a substantial transformation of the Spanish product" 2006-02-28. 11. ^ a b McGee, Dennis. "Deceptive Olive Oil Labels on Major Brands (includes photos)". http://oliveoilonly.org/impurity/olive-oil-labels-false-labeling.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-09. 12. ^ Mueller, Tom. Slippery Business The New Yorker. 2007-08-13. 13. ^ "EUbusiness.com". http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1204304521.23/. 14. ^ a b "Telegraph article". http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/05/07/nfood07.xml. 15. ^ "Eubusiness.com". http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1204304521.23/. 16. ^ "Italian police crack down on olive oil fraud - Telegraph". http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/03/05/witaly105.xml. 17. ^ "Forty arrested in new 'fake' olive oil scam - Scotsman.com News". http://news.scotsman.com/world/Forty-arrested-in-new-39fake39.4005000.jp. 18. ^ Riding, Alan (1989-05-21). "Trial in Spain on Toxic Cooking Oil Ends in Uproar". The New York Times (H. J. Raymond & Co.). http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE0DC1630F932A15756C0A96 F948260. Retrieved 2008-11-16. 19. ^ "www.internationaloliveoil.org/web/aa-ingles/corp/institution/aa-institutionini.html". http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/web/aa-ingles/corp/institution/aainstitution-ini.html. 20. ^ a b "United States Standard for Grades of Olive Oil". United States Department of Agriculture. http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3011889. Retrieved 2008-11-16. 21. ^ a b United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Site 22. ^ "California and World Olive Oil Statistics"" PDF at UC Davis. 23. ^ The phenolic compounds of olive oil: structure, biological activity and beneficial effects on human health E. Tripoli, M. Giammanco, G. Tabacchi, D. Di Majo, S. Giammanco, and Maurizio La Guardia. Nutrition Research Reviews 18, 98–112 (2005) DOI: 10.1079/NRR200495 24. ^ Keys A, Menotti A, Karvonen MJ, et al. (December 1986). "The diet and 15-year death rate in the seven countries study". Am. J. Epidemiol. 124 (6): 903–15. PMID 3776973. http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3776973. 25. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration Site 26. ^ New York Times, November 2, 2004, "Olive Oil Makers Win Approval to Make Health Claim on Label" 27. ^ Covas MI (March 2007). "Olive oil and the cardiovascular system". Pharmacol. Res. 55 (3): 175–86. doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2007.01.010. PMID 17321749.

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28. ^ Turner R, Etienne N, Alonso MG, et al. (January 2005). "Antioxidant and antiatherogenic activities of olive oil phenolics". Int J Vitam Nutr Res 75 (1): 61–70. doi:10.1024/0300-9831.75.1.61. PMID 15830923. 29. ^ Mayo Clinic. "Olive Oil: Which Type Is Best?." ScienceDaily 14 August 2007. 19 November 2007 30. ^ Ferrara LA, Raimondi AS, d'Episcopo L, Guida L, Dello Russo A, Marotta T. (27 March 2000). "Olive oil and reduced need for antihypertensive medications.". Archives of Internal Medicine 160 (6): 837-842. PMID 10737284. Olive Oil and Reduced Need for Antihypertensive Medications archinte.ama-assn.org 31. ^ Mayo Clinic 32. ^ Romero C, Medina E, Vargas J, Brenes M, De Castro A (February 2007). "In vitro activity of olive oil polyphenols against Helicobacter pylori". J Agric Food Chem. 55 (3): 680–6. doi:10.1021/jf0630217. PMID 17263460. "New Potential Health Benefit Of Olive Oil For Peptic Ulcer Disease." ScienceDaily 14 February 2007 33. ^ Machowetz A, Poulsen HE, Gruendel S, et al. (January 2007). "Effect of olive oils on biomarkers of oxidative DNA stress in Northern and Southern Europeans". Faseb J. 21 (1): 45–52. doi:10.1096/fj.06-6328com. PMID 17110467. "New Year's Resolution No. 1: Prevent Cancer, Use Olive Oil." ScienceDaily 12 December 2006. 34. ^ "www.tchain.com/otoneurology/disorders/hearing/wax2.html". http://www.tchain.com/otoneurology/disorders/hearing/wax2.html. 35. ^ http://www.videojug.com/film/how-to-shave-with-olive-oil 36. ^ [1] Arief Budiyanto, Nazim U. Ahmed, An Wu, Toshinori Bito, Osamu Nikaido, Toshihiko Osawa, Masato Ueda, Masamitsu Ichihashi, "Protective effect of topically applied olive oil against photocarcinogenesis following UVB exposure of mice", Carcinogenesis, Vol. 21, No. 11, pp. 2085-2090, Nov. 2000. 37. ^ [2] Ichihashi, M : Ahmed, N U : Budiyanto, A : Wu, A : Bito, T : Ueda, M : Osawa, T, "Preventive effect of antioxidant on ultraviolet-induced skin cancer in mice. ", JDermatol-Sci., Vol. 23, Suppl. 1S45-50, Mar. 2000. 38. ^ "Quite Interesting - Telegraph". http://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/portal/2 007/08/04/nosplit/ftqi104.xml. 39. ^ Random House Unabridged Dictionary, s.v. "olive" and "oil" 40. ^ a b Davidson, s.v. Olives 41. ^ International Olive Oil Council International Olive Council 42. ^ Rosenblum, p. "[10 INSERT TITLE]". 10. 43. ^ Pagnol, p. "[19 INSERT TITLE]". 19. 44. ^ Ehud Galili et al., "Evidence for Earliest Olive-Oil Production in Submerged Settlements off the Carmel Coast, Israel", Journal of Archaeological Science 24:1141–1150 (1997); Pagnol, p. 19, says the 6th millennium in Jericho, but cites no source. 45. ^ Guillaume Besnarda, André Bervillé, "Multiple origins for Mediterranean olive (Olea europaea L. ssp. europaea) based upon mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms", Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences—Series III—Sciences de la Vie 323:2:173–181 (February 2000); Catherine Breton, Michel Tersac and André Bervillé, "Genetic diversity and gene flow between the wild olive (oleaster, Olea europaea L.) and the olive: several Plio-Pleistocene refuge zones in the Mediterranean basin suggested by simple sequence repeats analysis", Journal of Biogeography 33:11:1916 (November 2006) 228 | P a g e

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46. ^ "Ancient Egyptian texts: The Tale of Sinuhe". http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/sinuhe.htm. 47. ^ F.R. Riley, "Olive Oil Production on Bronze Age Crete: Nutritional properties, Processing methods, and Storage life of Minoan olive oil", Oxford Journal of Archaeology 21:1:63–75 (2002) 48. ^ Thomas F. Scanlon, "The Dispersion of Pederasty and the Athletic Revolution in sixth-century BC Greece", in Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity and in the Classical Tradition of the West, ed. B. C. Verstraete and V. Provencal, Harrington Park Press, 2005 49. ^ Nigel M. Kennell, "Most Necessary for the Bodies of Men: Olive Oil and its Byproducts in the Later Greek Gymnasium" in Mark Joyal (ed.), In Altum: Seventy-Five Years of Classical Studies in Newfoundland, 2001; pp119–33 50. ^ "www.youngmuslims.ca/online_library/tafsir/syed_qutb/Surah_95.htm". http://www.youngmuslims.ca/online_library/tafsir/syed_qutb/Surah_95.htm. v•d•e

Edible fats and oils Bacon fat • Butter • Clarified butter • Cocoa butter • Dripping • Duck fat • Ghee • Lard • Fats Margarine • Niter kibbeh • Salo • Schmaltz • Shea butter • Smen • Suet • Tallow • Vegetable shortening Almond oil • Argan oil • Avocado oil • Canola oil • Cashew oil • Castor oil • Coconut oil • Colza oil • Corn oil • Cottonseed oil • Fish oil • Grape seed oil • Hazelnut oil • Hemp oil • Linseed oil (flaxseed oil) • Macadamia oil • Marula oil • Mongongo nut oil • Oils Mustard oil • Olive oil • Palm oil (palm kernel oil) • Peanut oil • Pecan oil • Perilla oil • Pine nut oil • Pistachio oil • Poppyseed oil • Pumpkin seed oil • Rapeseed oil • Rice bran oil • Safflower oil • Sesame oil • Soybean oil • Sunflower oil • Tea seed oil • Walnut oil • Watermelon seed oil

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Saffron Saffron crocus

C. sativus flower with red stigmas

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Monocots Order:

Asparagales

Family:

Iridaceae

Subfamily: Crocoideae Genus:

Crocus

Species:

C. sativus

Binomial name Crocus sativus L.

Saffron (IPA: [ˈsæf.ɹ ən] / [ˈsæf.ɹ ɒ n]) is a spice derived from the flower of the saffron crocus (Crocus sativus), a species of crocus in the family Iridaceae. A C. sativus flower bears three stigmas, each the distal end of a carpel. Together with their styles—stalks connecting stigmas to their host plant—stigmas are dried and used in cooking as a seasoning and colouring agent. Saffron, for decades the world's most expensive spice by weight,[1][2] is native to Southwest Asia.[2][3] Saffron is marked by a bitter taste and an iodoform- or hay-like fragrance; these result from the chemicals picrocrocin and safranal.[4][5] A carotenoid dye, crocin, allows saffron to impart a rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. Saffron has further medicinal applications.

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The word saffron stems from the Latin word safranum via the 12th-century Old French term safran. Safranum is related to the Italian zafferano and Spanish azafrán.[6] Safranum derives from the Arabic word aṣ far ( ), which means "yellow," via the Persian paronymous [5][7] za‫ر‬farān( ).

Biology The domesticated saffron crocus (C. sativus) is an autumn-flowering perennial plant unknown in the wild. It is a sterile triploid form, possibly of the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering Crocus cartwrightianus[8][9][10] that originated in Crete—not, as was once generally believed, in Central Asia.[5] The saffron crocus resulted when C. cartwrightianus was subjected to extensive artificial selection by growers seeking longer stigmas. Being sterile, the plant's purple flowers fail to produce viable seeds; reproduction depends on human assistance: corms, underground bulb-like starch-storing organs, must be dug up, broken apart, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, reproducing via this division into up to ten "cormlets" that yield new plants.[8] Corms are small brown globules up to 4.5 centimetres (1.8 in) in diameter and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibers. Morphology

→ Stigma → Stamens → Corolla → Corm

After aestivating in summer, the plant sends up five to eleven narrow and nearly vertical green leaves, each up to 40 cm (16 in) in length. In autumn, purple buds appear. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve.[11] Upon flowering, plants average less than 30 cm (12 in) in height.[12] A threepronged style emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson stigma 25–30 mm (0.98–1.2 in) in length.[8] 231 | P a g e

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Cultivation

Saffron crocus flowers in Osaka Prefecture, Japan Saffron crocus thrives in climates similar to that of the Mediterranean maquis or the North American chaparral, where hot, dry summer breezes blow across arid and semi-arid lands. The plant can nonetheless tolerate cold winters by surviving frosts as low as −10 °C (14 °F) and short periods of snow cover.[8][13] Irrigation is required if not grown in moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages 1,000–1,500 mm (39–59 in); saffron-growing regions in Greece (500 mm or 20 in annually) and Spain (400 mm or 16 in) are far drier. Rainfall timing is key: generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during flowering spurs disease and low yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm crops,[14] as do the digging actions of rabbits, rats, and birds. Nematodes, leaf rusts, and corm rot pose other threats. Plants grow best in strong and direct sunlight; they fare poorly in shady conditions. Planting is thus best done in fields that slope towards the sunlight (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere), maximizing sun exposure. Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged 7 to 15 centimetres (2.8–5.9 in) deep. Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors affecting yields. Mother corms planted more deeply yield higher-quality saffron, though they produce fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers have found that planting corms 15 centimetres (5.9 in) deep and in rows spaced 2–3 cm apart optimizes thread yields, whereas planting depths of 8–10 cm optimizes flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers have devised different depths and spacings to suit their local climates. Saffron crocuses grow best in friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-calcareous soils with high organic content. Raised beds are traditionally used to promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some 20– 30 tonnes of manure per hectare. Afterwards—and with no further manure application— corms were planted.[15] After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.[16] Furthermore, saffron crocuses bloom within a period of one or two weeks.[17] Approximately 150 flowers yield 1 gram (0.035 oz) of dry saffron threads; to produce 12 g of dried saffron (72 g freshly harvested), 1 kg of flowers are needed (1 lb for

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0.2 oz of dried saffron). One fresh-picked flower yields an average 30 milligrams (0.46 gr) of fresh saffron or 7 milligrams (0.11 gr) of dried saffron.[15]

Chemistry Crocin

Esterification reaction between crocetin and gentiobiose — β-D-gentiobiose — Crocetin Picrocrocin and safranal

Chemical structure of picrocrocin[18] — Safranal moiety — β-D-glucopyranose derivative

Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. It also has many nonvolatile active components,[19] many of which are carotenoids, including zeaxanthin, lycopene, and various α- and β-carotenes. However, saffron's golden yellow-orange colour is primarily the result of α-crocin. This crocin is trans-crocetin di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester (systematic (IUPAC) name: 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid). This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.[19] Crocins themselves are a series of hydrophilic carotenoids that are either monoglycosyl or diglycosyl polyene esters of crocetin.[19] Meanwhile, crocetin is a conjugated polyene dicarboxylic acid that is hydrophobic, and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is esterified with two water-soluble gentiobioses (which are sugars), a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant αcrocin is a carotenoid pigment that may comprise more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based (non-fatty) foods such as rice dishes.[20]

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Chemical composition Component

Mass %

carbohydrates

12.0–15.0

water

9.0–14.0

polypeptides

11.0–13.0

cellulose

4.0–7.0

lipids

3.0–8.0

minerals

1.0–1.5

miscellaneous non-nitrogenous

40.0

Source: Dharmananda 2005 Proximate analysis Component Water-soluble components

Mass % 53.0

→ Gums

10.0

→ Pentosans

8.0

→ Pectins

6.0

→ Starch

6.0

→ α–Crocin

2.0

→ Other carotenoids

1.0

Lipids

12.0

→ Non-volatile oils

6.0

→ Volatile oils

1.0

Protein

12.0

Inorganic matter ("ash")

6.0

→ HCl-soluble ash Water

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Fiber (crude)

5.0

Source: Goyns 1999, p. 46

The bitter glucoside picrocrocin is responsible for saffron's flavour. Picrocrocin (chemical formula: C16H26O7; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6- trimethylcyclohex-1ene-1-carboxaldehyde) is a union of an aldehyde sub-element known as safranal (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1- carboxaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Significantly, picrocrocin is a truncated version (produced via oxidative cleavage) of the carotenoid zeaxanthin and is the glycoside of the terpene aldehyde safranal. The reddishcoloured[21] zeaxanthin is, incidentally, one of the carotenoids naturally present within the retina of the human eye. When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield D-glucose and a free safranal molecule.[18] Safranal, a volatile oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.[4][22] Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.[21] A second element underlying saffron's aroma is 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one, the scent of which has been described as "saffron, dried hay like".[23] Chemists found this to be the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance despite its being present in a lesser quantity than safranal.[23] Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating pH levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light and oxidizing agents. It must therefore be stored away in air-tight containers in order to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat. Crocus sativus has been shown to have antidepressant effects; two active ingredients are crocin and safranal.[24]

History Main article: History of saffron

A detail of the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco from the "Xeste 3" building. The fresco is one of many dealing with saffron that were found at the Bronze Age settlement of Akrotiri, Santorini.

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The history of saffron cultivation reaches back more than 3,000 years.[25] The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus was Crocus cartwrightianus. Human cultivators bred wild specimens by selecting for unusually long stigmas. Thus, a sterile mutant form of C. cartwrightianus, C. sativus, emerged in late Bronze Age Crete.[26] Experts believe saffron was first documented in a 7th century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under Ashurbanipal. Since then, documentation of saffron's use over the span of 4,000 years in the treatment of some 90 illnesses has been uncovered.[27]

Mediterranean Minoans portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1500–1600 BC, showing saffron's use as a therapeutic drug.[28][29] Later, Greek legends told of sea voyages to Cilicia. There, adventurers hoped to procure what they believed was the world's most valuable saffron.[30] Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the original saffron crocus.[31] Ancient Mediterranean peoples—including perfumers in Egypt, physicians in Gaza, townspeople in Rhodes,[32] and the Greek hetaerae courtesans— used saffron in their perfumes, ointments,[33] potpourris, mascaras, divine offerings, and medical treatments.[33]

This ancient Minoan fresco from Knossos, Crete shows a man (stooped blue figure) gathering the saffron harvest. In late Hellenistic Egypt, Cleopatra used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable.[34] Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments.[35] Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such Levant cities as Sidon and Tyre.[36] Aulus Cornelius Celsus prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the mithridatium.[37] Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took their saffron with them when they settled in southern Gaul, where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th century AD Moors or with the Avignon papacy in the 14th century AD.[38]

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Asia

The 17.8 metres (58 ft) monolith of Gomateshwara, dating to 978–993 AD, is anointed with saffron every 12 years by thousands of devotees as part of the Mahamastakabhisheka festival. Saffron-based pigments have been found in 50,000 year-old depictions of prehistoric beasts in what is today Iraq.[39][40] Later, the Sumerians used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions.[41] Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before the Minoan palace culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron (Crocus sativus 'Hausknechtii') in Derbena, Isfahan, and Khorasan by the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,[42] ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.[43] Thus, saffron threads would be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. NonPersians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac.[44] During his Asian campaigns, Alexander the Great used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops mimicked the practice and brought saffron-bathing back to Greece.[45] Theories explaining saffron's arrival in South Asia conflict. Traditional Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 900–2500 years ago.[46][47][48] Meanwhile, historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,[49] attributing it to either Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks[50] or to a Persian invasion and colonization of Kashmir. Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy.[44] From there, saffron use in foods and dyes spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks in India adopted saffron-coloured robes after the Buddha Siddhartha Gautama's death.[51] However, the robes were not dyed with costly saffron but turmeric, a less expensive dye, or jackfruit.[52] Some historians believe that saffron first came to China with Mongol invaders by way of Persia.[53] On the other hand, saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume Shennong Bencaojing (神農本草經—"Shennong's Great Herbal", also known as Pen Ts'ao or Pun Tsao) pharmacopoeia, a tome dating from 200–300 BC. Traditionally attributed to the legendary Yan ("Fire") Emperor (炎帝) Shennong, it documents 252 phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders.[51][54] Yet around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance. For example, Wan Zhen, a Chinese medical expert, reported that "[t]he habitat of 237 | P a g e

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saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha." Wan also reflected on how saffron was used in his time: "The [saffron crocus] flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."[48]

Europe

Medieval European illuminated manuscripts, such as this 13th century depiction of Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Becket's assassination, often used saffron dyes to provide hues of yellow and orange. In Europe, saffron cultivation declined steeply following the Roman Empire's fall. Saffron was reintroduced when the Islamic civilization "Al-Andalus" spread to Spain, France, and Italy.[55] During the 14th century Black Death, demand for saffron-based medicine skyrocketed, and much saffron had to be imported via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands[56] such as Rhodes. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week long "Saffron War".[56] The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred significant saffron cultivation in Basel, which grew prosperous.[57] Cultivation and trade then spread to Nuremberg, where epidemic levels of saffron adulteration brought on the Safranschou code, under which saffron adulterators were fined, imprisoned, and executed.[58] Soon after, saffron cultivation spread throughout England, especially Norfolk and Suffolk. The Essex town of Saffron Walden, named for its new specialty crop, emerged as England's prime saffron growing and trading center. However, an influx of more exotic spices such as chocolate, coffee, tea, and vanilla from newly contacted Eastern and overseas countries caused European cultivation and usage of saffron to decline.[59][60] Only in southern France, Italy, and Spain, did significant cultivation endure.[61] Europeans brought saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the Schwenkfelder Church left Europe with a trunk containing saffron corms; indeed, many Schwenkfelders had widely grown saffron in Europe.[62] By 1730, the Pennsylvania Dutch were cultivating saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was set equal to that of gold.[63] The trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffrontransporting merchant vessels were destroyed.[64] Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to 238 | P a g e

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grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.[65] American saffron cultivation survived into modern times mainly in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.[62]

Trade and use Main article: Trade and use of saffron

Saffron is one of the three essential ingredients in the Spanish paella valenciana, and is responsible for its characteristic brilliant yellow colouring. Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and somewhat bitter. Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in Iranian (Persian), Arab, Central Asian, European, Indian, Turkish, and Cornish cuisines. Confectionaries and liquors also often include saffron. Common saffron substitutes include safflower (Carthamus tinctorius, which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "assafroa") and turmeric (Curcuma longa). Medicinally, saffron has a long history as part of traditional healing; modern medicine has also discovered saffron as having anticarcinogenic (cancersuppressing),[19] anti-mutagenic (mutation-preventing), immunomodulating, and antioxidantlike properties.[19][66][67] Early studies show that saffron may protect the eyes from the direct effects of bright light and retinal stress apart from slowing down macular degeneration and retinitis pigmentosa.[68][69][70] Saffron has also been used as a fabric dye, particularly in China and India, and in perfumery.[71] World saffron cultivation patterns

— Major growing regions — Major producing nations

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— Minor growing regions — Minor producing nations — Major trading centres (current) — Major trading centres (historical)

Most saffron is grown in a belt of land ranging from the Mediterranean in the west to Kashmir in the east. Annually, around 300 tonnes of saffron are produced worldwide.[5] Iran, Spain, India, Greece, Azerbaijan, Morocco, and Italy, in decreasing order of production, are the major producers of saffron. A pound of dry saffron requires 50,000–75,000 flowers, the equivalent of a football field's area of cultivation (110,000-170,000 flowers or two football fields for a kilogram).[72][73] Some forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.[74] Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.[75] Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from US$500 to US$5,000 per pound (US$1,100–11,000/kg)— equivalent to £250/€350 per pound or £5,500/€7,500 per kilogram. In Western countries, the average retail price is $1,000/£500/€700 per pound (US$2,200/£1,100/€1,550 per kilogram).[2] A pound comprises between 70,000 and 200,000 threads. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.

Cultivars

Saffron threads (red-coloured stigmas) mixed with styles (yellow) from Iran Several saffron cultivars are grown worldwide. Spain's varieties, including the tradenames 'Spanish Superior' and 'Creme', are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish, while the most intense varieties tend to be Iranian in origin. Westerners may face significant obstacles in obtaining saffron from India. For example, India has banned the export of high-grade saffron abroad. Aside from these, various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries,

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some organically grown. In the U.S., Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its earthy notes—is marketed in small quantities.[62][76]

Close-up of a single crocus thread (the dried stigma). Actual length is about 20 millimetres (0.79 in). Consumers regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron (zafferano dell'Aquila)—defined by high safranal and crocin content, shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour—is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's Abruzzo region, near L'Aquila. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from Inquisition-era Spain. But in Italy the biggest saffron cultivation, for quality and quantity, is in San Gavino Monreale, Sardinia. There, saffron is grown on 40 hectares (60% of Italian production); it also has very high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content. Another is the Kashmiri "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron (Crocus sativus 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir, combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its high prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognisable by its extremely dark maroon-purple hue, among the world's darkest, which suggests the saffron's strong flavour, aroma, and colourative effect.

Grade Minimum saffron colour grading standards (ISO 3632) ISO Grade (category)

Crocin-specific absorbance (Aλ) score (at λ=440 nm)

I

> 190

II

150–190

III

110–150

IV

80–110

Source: Tarvand 2005b

Saffron is graded via laboratory measurement of crocin (colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance) content. Determination of non-stigma content ("floral waste content") and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("ash") are also key. Grading standards are set by the International Organization for Standardization, a federation of 241 | P a g e

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national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes four empirical colour intensity grades: IV (poorest), III, II, and I (finest quality). Samples are assigned grades by gauging the spice's crocin content, revealed by measurements of crocinspecific spectroscopic absorbance. Absorbance is defined as Aλ = − log(I / I0), with Aλ as absorbance (Beer-Lambert law) and indicates degree of transparency (I / I0, the ratio of light intensity exiting the sample to that of the incident light) to a given wavelength of light. Spanish national saffron grading standards Grade

ISO score

Coupe

> 190

La Mancha

180–190

Río

150–180

Standard

145–150

Sierra

< 110

Source: Tarvand 2005b

For saffron, absorbance is determined for the crocin-specific photon wavelength of 440 nm in a given dry sample of spice.[77] Higher absorbances at this wavelength imply greater crocin concentration, and thus a greater colourative intensity. These data are measured through spectrophotometry reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. These colour grades proceed from grades with absorbances lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 190 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected most red-maroon tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive absorbance scores in excess of 250. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO scores.[77] However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. They prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of thread for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practiced by practised wine tasters.[78] Despite such attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron adulteration—particularly among the cheapest grades—continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the Safranschou code.[79] Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like beets, pomegranate fibers, red-dyed silk fibers, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odorless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibers with viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil. However, powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with turmeric, paprika, and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabeled mixes of different saffron grades.[80] Thus, in India, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income.[81][82]

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Saffron crocuses flowering in a garden in Osaka Prefecture (大阪府), Kansai, Honshū, Japan

A saffron crocus flower 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

^ Rau 1969, p. 53. ^ a b c Hill 2004, p. 272. ^ Grigg 1974, p. 287. ^ a b McGee 2004, p. 423. ^ a b c d Katzer 2001. ^ Harper 2001. ^ Kumar V (2006). The Secret Benefits of Spices and Condiments. Sterling. pp. 103. ISBN 1-8455-7585-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=AaTpWEIlgNwC. Retrieved 2007-12-01. 8. ^ a b c d Deo 2003, p. 1. 9. ^ DNA analysis in Crocus sativus and related Crocus species 10. ^ M. Grilli Caiola - Saffron reproductive biology 11. ^ Willard 2001, p. 3. 12. ^ DPIWE 2005. 13. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 2–3. 14. ^ Deo 2003, p. 2. 15. ^ a b Deo 2003, p. 3. 16. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 3–4. 17. ^ Willard 2001, p. 4. 18. ^ a b Deo 2003, p. 4. 19. ^ a b c d e Abdullaev 2002, p. 1. 20. ^ McGee 2004, p. 422. 21. ^ a b Leffingwell 2001, p. 1. 22. ^ Dharmananda 2005. 23. ^ a b Leffingwell 2001, p. 3. 24. ^ "Antidepressant effect of Crocus sativus L. stigma extracts and their constituents, crocin and safranal, in mice.". www.cababstractsplus.org. http://www.cababstractsplus.org/google/abstract.asp?AcNo=20043148643. Retrieved 2008-03-02. 243 | P a g e

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25. ^ Deo 2003, p. 1. 26. ^ Goyns 1999, p. 1. 27. ^ Honan 2004. 28. ^ Ferrence 2004, p. 1. 29. ^ Honan 2004. 30. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 2–3. 31. ^ Willard 2001, p. 2. 32. ^ Willard 2001, p. 58. 33. ^ a b Willard 2001, p. 41. 34. ^ Willard 2001, p. 55. 35. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 34–35. 36. ^ Willard 2001, p. 59. 37. ^ Celsus, de Medicina, ca. 30 AD, transl. Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1935 [1] 38. ^ Willard 2001, p. 63. 39. ^ Willard 2001, p. 2. 40. ^ Humphries 1998, p. 20. 41. ^ Willard 2001, p. 12. 42. ^ Willard 2001, p. 2. 43. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 17–18. 44. ^ a b Willard 2001, p. 41. 45. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 54–55. 46. ^ Lak 1998b. 47. ^ Fotedar 1998–1999, p. 128. 48. ^ a b Dalby 2002, p. 95. 49. ^ McGee 2004, p. 422. 50. ^ Dalby 2003, p. 256. 51. ^ a b Tarvand 2005. 52. ^ Finlay, Victoria (30 December 2002), Colour: A Natural History of the Palette, Random House, p. 224, ISBN 0-8129-7142-6 53. ^ Fletcher 2005, p. 11. 54. ^ Hayes 2001, p. 6. 55. ^ Willard 2001, p. 70. 56. ^ a b Willard 2001, p. 99. 57. ^ Willard 2001, p. 101. 58. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 103–104. 59. ^ Willard 2001, p. 117. 60. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 132–133. 61. ^ Willard 2001, p. 133. 62. ^ a b c Willard 2001, p. 143. 63. ^ Willard 2001, p. 138. 64. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 138–139. 65. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 142–146. 66. ^ Assimopoulou 2005, p. 1. 67. ^ Chang, Kuo & Wang 1964, p. 1. 68. ^ http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/abstract/49/3/1254 69. ^ http://vision.edu.au/news/acevs%20saffron.pdf 70. ^ http://www.vision.edu.au/AnnualReports/ACEVS%20Report%202007.pdf 71. ^ Dalby 2002, p. 138. 72. ^ Hill 2004, p. 273. 73. ^ Rau 1969, p. 35. 244 | P a g e

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74. ^ Lak 1998. 75. ^ Goyns 1999, p. 8. 76. ^ Willard 2001, p. 201. 77. ^ a b Tarvand 2005b. 78. ^ Hill 2004, p. 274. 79. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 102–104. 80. ^ Tarvand 2005. 81. ^ Australian Broadcasting Corporation 2003. 82. ^ Hussain 2005.

References Australian Broadcasting Corporation (2003), "Kashmiri saffron producers see red over Iranian imports", Australian Broadcasting Corporation, . Retrieved on January 10 2006. Abdullaev, FI (2002), "Cancer chemopreventive and tumoricidal properties of saffron (Crocus sativus L.)", Experimental Biology and Medicine 227 (1), . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. PMID 11788779 Assimopoulou, AN; VP Papageorgiou & Z Sinakos (2005), "Radical scavenging activity of Crocus sativus L. extract and its bioactive constituents", Phytotherapy Research 19 (11). PMID 16317646 Chang, PY; W, Liang, CT Kuo & CK Wang (1964), "The pharmacological action of 藏红花 (zà hóng huā—Crocus sativus L.): effect on the uterus and/or estrous cycle", Yao Hsueh Hsueh Pao 11. Courtney, P (2002), "Tasmania's Saffron Gold", Landline (Australian Broadcasting Corporation), . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Dalby, A (2002), Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-23674-2, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Dalby, A (2003), Food in the Ancient World from A to Z, Routledge (UK), ISBN 0415-23259-7. Darling Biomedical Library (2002), "Saffron", Darling Biomedical Library (UCLA), . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Davies, NW; MJ Gregory & RC Menary (2005), "Effect of drying temperature and air flow on the production and retention of secondary metabolites in saffron", Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 53 (15). PMID 16028982 Deo, B (2003), "Growing Saffron—The World's Most Expensive Spice", Crop & Food Research (New Zealand Institute for Crop & Food Research) (no. 20), . Retrieved on July 27, 2008. Dharmananda, S (2005), "Saffron: An Anti-Depressant Herb", Institute for Traditional Medicine, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006[dead link]. 245 | P a g e

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DPIWE (2005), "Emerging and Other Fruit and Floriculture: Saffron", Food & Agriculture, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Ferrence, SC (2004), "Therapy with saffron and the Goddess at Thera", Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 47 (2). PMID 15259204 Fletcher, N (2005), Charlemagne's Tablecloth: A Piquant History of Feasting, St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0-312-34068-0. Fotedar, S (1998–1999), "Cultural Heritage of India—Kashmiri Pandit Contribution", Vitasta (Kashmir Sabha) XXXII (1), . Retrieved on January 10, 2006[dead link]. Goyns, MH (1999), Saffron, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 90-5702-394-6, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Grigg, DB (1974), The Agricultural Systems of the World, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-09843-2. Harper, D (2001), "Saffron", Online Etymology Dictionary, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Hasegawa, JH; SK Kurumboor & SC Nair (1995), "Saffron chemoprevention in biology and medicine: a review", Cancer Biotherapy 10 (4). PMID 8590890 Hayes, AW (2001), Principles and Methods of Toxicology, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 1-56032-814-2. Hill, T (2004), The Contemporary Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices: Seasonings for the Global Kitchen, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-21423-X. Honan, WH (2004), "Researchers Rewrite First Chapter for the History of Medicine", The New York Times, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Humphries, J (1998), The Essential Saffron Companion, Ten Speed Press, ISBN 1-58008-024-3. Hussain, A (2005), "Saffron Industry in Deep Distress", BBC News, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Jessie, SW & TP Krishnakantha (2005), "Inhibition of human platelet aggregation and membrane lipid peroxidation by food spice, saffron", Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 278 (1–2). PMID 16180089 Katzer, G (2001), "Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)", Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Lak, D (1998), "Kashmiris Pin Hopes on Saffron", BBC News, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Lak, D (1998b), "Gathering Kashmir's Saffron", BBC News, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Leffingwell, JC (2002), "Saffron", Leffingwell Reports 2 (5), . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. 246 | P a g e

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McGann, K (2003), "What the Irish Wore: A Few Arguments on the Subject of Saffron", Reconstructing History, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. McGee, H (2004), On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen, Scribner, ISBN 0-684-80001-2, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Nair, SC; B Pannikar & KR Panikkar (1991), "Antitumour activity of saffron (Crocus sativus).", Cancer Letters 57 (2). PMID 2025883 Park, JB (2005), "Saffron", USDA Phytochemical Database, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006[dead link]. Pearce, F (2005), "Returning war-torn farmland to productivity", New Scientist, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Rau, SR (1969), The Cooking of India, Time Life Education, ISBN 0-8094-0069-3 Tarvand (2005), "What is Saffron?", Tarvand Saffron Company, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Tarvand (2005b), "Grading and Classification", Tarvand Saffron Company, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006. Willard, P (2001), Secrets of Saffron: The Vagabond Life of the World's Most Seductive Spice, Beacon Press, ISBN 0-8070-5008-3, . Retrieved on January 10, 2006.

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Olive Olive Tree

Olea europaea, Dead Sea, Jordan

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order:

Lamiales

Family:

Oleaceae

Genus:

Olea

Species:

O. europaea

Binomial name Olea europaea L.

19th century illustration

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The Olive (Olea europaea) is a species of a small tree in the family Oleaceae, native to the coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean Basin, from Lebanon, Syria and the maritime parts of Turkey and northern Iran at the south end of the Caspian Sea. Its fruit, the olive, is of major agricultural importance in the Mediterranean region as the source of olive oil.

Description The olive tree is an evergreen tree or shrub native to the Mediterranean, Asia and parts of Africa. It is short and squat, and rarely exceeds 8–15 meters in height. The silvery green leaves are oblong in shape, measuring 4–10 cm long and 1–3 cm wide. The trunk is typically gnarled and twisted. The small white flowers, with ten-cleft calyx and corolla, two stamens and bifid stigma, are borne generally on the last year's wood, in racemes springing from the axils of the leaves. The fruit is a small drupe 1–2.5 cm long, thinner-fleshed and smaller in wild plants than in orchard cultivars. Olives are harvested at the green stage or left to ripen to a rich purple colour (black olive). Canned black olives may contain chemicals that turn them black artificially.

History See also: Olive oil#History The olive is one of the plants most cited in recorded literature. In Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus crawls beneath two shoots of olive that grow from a single stock,[1] and in the Iliad,(XVII.53ff) is a metaphoric description of a lone olive tree in the mountains, by a spring; the Greeks observed that the olive rarely thrives at a distance from the sea, which in Greece invariably means up mountain slopes. Greek myth attributed to the primordial culture-hero Aristaeus the understanding of olive husbandry, along with cheese-making and bee-keeping.[2] Olive was one of the woods used to fashion the most primitive Greek cult figures, called xoana, referring to their wooden material; they were reverently preserved for centuries.[3] It was purely a matter of local pride that the Athenians claimed that the olive grew first in Athens.[4] In an archaic Athenian foundation myth, Athena won the patronship of Athens from Poseidon with the gift of the olive. Though, according to the 4th-century BC father of botany, Theophrastus, olive trees ordinarily attained an age of about 200 years,[5] he mentions that the very olive tree of Athena still grew on the Acropolis; it was still to be seen there in the second century AD;[6] and when Pausanias was shown it, ca 170 AD, he reported "Legend also says that when the Persians fired Athens the olive was burnt down, but on the very day it was burnt it grew again to the height of two cubits;"[7] indeed, the olive suckers readily from the stump, and the great age of some existing olive trees shows that it was perfectly possible that the olive tree of the Acropolis dated to the Bronze Age. The olive was sacred to Athena and appeared on the Athenian coinage. The Roman poet Horace mentions it in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance."[8] Lord Monboddo comments on the olive in 1779 as one of the foods preferred by the ancients and as one of the most perfect foods.[9].

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The leafy branches of the olive tree - the olive leaf as a symbol of abundance, glory and peace - were used to crown the victors of friendly games and bloody wars. As emblems of benediction and purification, they were also ritually offered to deities and powerful figures; some were even found in Tutankhamen's tomb. Olive oil has long been considered sacred; it was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient Greece. It was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples as well as being the "eternal flame" of the original Olympic Games. Victors in these games were crowned with its leaves. Today, it is still used in many religious ceremonies. Over the years, the olive has been the symbol of peace, wisdom, glory, fertility, power and pureness. The olive tree and olives are mentioned over 30 times in the Bible, in both the New and Old Testaments. It is one of the first plants mentioned in the Bible, and one of the most significant. For example, it was an olive branch that a dove brought back to Noah to demonstrate that the flood was over. The Mount of Olives east of Jerusalem is mentioned several times. The Book of Jacob 5, in regard to the scattering and gathering of Israel, compares the Israelites and gentiles to tame and wild olive trees. The olive tree itself, as well as olive oil and olives, play an important role in the Bible.[10] The olive is praised in the Quran as a precious fruit. The olive tree seems to have been native in the Mediterranean region and Western Asia and spread to nearby countries from there. It is estimated the cultivation of olive trees began more than 7000 years ago. As far back as 3000 BC, olives were grown commercially in Crete; they may have been the source of the wealth of the Minoan Civilization.[11] The ancient Greeks used to smear olive oil on their bodies and hair as a matter of grooming and good health. Theophrastus, in On the Nature of Plants, does not give as systematic and detailed an account of olive husbandry as he does of the vine, but he makes clear (in 1.16.10) that the cultivated olive must be vegetatively propagated; indeed, the pits give rise to thorny, wild-type olives, spread far and wide by birds. Theophrastus reports how the bearing olive can be grafted on the wild olive, for which the Greeks had a separate name, kotinos.[12] After the 16th century, the Europeans brought the olive to the New World, and its cultivation began in Mexico, Peru, Chile and Argentina, and then in the 18th century in California. It is estimated that there are about 800 million olive trees in the world today, and the vast majority of these are found in Mediterranean countries.[citation needed]

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Old olive trees

Olive tree ―Olea europea‖ on Bar, Montenegro which is over 2000 years old

Olive tree on Ithaca, Greece that is claimed to be over 1500 years old Olive trees are very hardy, drought-, disease- and fire-resistant, and can live for very long. Its root system is very robust and capable of regenerating the tree even if the latter is destroyed. The older an olive tree is, the broader and gnarlier its trunk appears. Many olive trees in the groves around the Mediterranean are said to be several centuries old, and in some cases this has been verified scientifically. Pliny the Elder told of a sacred Greek olive tree that was 1600 years old. Several trees in the Garden of Gethsemane (from the Hebrew words "gat shemanim" or olive press) in Jerusalem are claimed to date back to the time of Jesus.[13] Some Italian olive trees are believed to date back to Roman times, although identifying progenitor trees in ancient sources is difficult. One olive tree in Bar, Montenegro, is claimed to be over 2000 years old [14]. The age of an olive tree in Crete, claimed to be over 2,000 years old, has been determined on the basis of tree ring analysis.[15] Another well-known olive tree on the island of Brijuni (Brioni), Istria in Croatia, has been calculated to be about 1,600 years old. It still gives fruit (about 30 kg per year), which is made into top quality olive oil.[16] An olive tree in west Athens, named "Plato's Olive Tree", was rumored to be a remnant of the grove within which Plato's Academy was situated, which would date it to approximately 251 | P a g e

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2,400 years ago. The tree was a cavernous trunk from which a few branches were still sprouting in 1975, when a traffic accident caused a bus to fall on and uproot it. Since then the trunk is preserved and displayed in the nearby Agricultural University of Athens. A supposedly even older tree, called the "Peisistratos Tree", is located by the banks of the Cephisus River, in the municipality of Agioi Anargyroi, and is said to be a remnant of an olive grove planted by Athenian tyrant Peisistratos in the 6th century BC. According to a recent scientific survey, there are tens of ancient olive trees throughout Biblical Israel, 1600-2000 years old,[17] from even before the rise of Islam. Specifically, two giant olive trees in the Arab town of Arraba and five trees in Deir Hanna, both in Galilee region, have been determined to be over 3000 years old. All seven trees continue to produce olives.[17] A tree located in Santu Baltolu di Carana in Sardinia, Italy, named with respect as the Ozzastru by the inhabitants of the region, is claimed to be 3000 to 4000 years old according to different studies. In the same natural garden, a few other millenary trees can be admired.

Cultivation and uses For more details on this topic, see Olive (fruit).

An example of black olives

A selection of olives in a market in Tel Aviv, Israel The olive tree has been cultivated for olive oil, fine wood, olive leaf, and the olive fruit. While it is not known when olives were first cultivated for harvest, the earliest evidence for the domestication of olives comes from the Chalcolithic Period archaeological site of Teleilat Ghassul in what is today modern Jordan. Farmers in ancient times believed olive trees would not grow well if planted more than a short distance from the sea; Theophrastus gives 300 stadia (55.6 km) as the limit. Modern experience does not always confirm this, and, though showing a preference for the coast, it 252 | P a g e

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has long been grown further inland in some areas with suitable climates, particularly in the southwestern Mediterranean (Iberia, northwest Africa) where winters are mild.

Olive plantation in Andalucia, Spain Olives are now cultivated in many regions of the world with Mediterranean climates, such as South Africa, Chile, Australia, the Mediterranean Basin, Israel, Palestinian Territories and California and in areas with temperate climates such as New Zealand, under irrigation in the Cuyo region in Argentina which has a desert climate. They are also grown in the Córdoba Province, Argentina, which has a temperate climate with rainy summers and dry winters (Cwa).[18] The climate in Argentina changes the external characteristics of the plant but the fruit keeps its original characteristics.[19] Considerable research supports the health-giving benefits of consuming olives, olive leaf and olive oil (see external links below for research results). Olive leaves are used in medicinal teas. Olives are now being looked at for use as a renewable energy source, using waste produced from the olive plants as an energy source that produces 2.5 times the energy generated by burning the same amount of wood. The smoke released has no negative impact on neighbors or the environment, and the ash left in the stove can be used for fertilizing gardens and plants. The process has been patented in the Middle East and the US.[20]

Subspecies There are at least five natural subspecies distributed over a wide range: Olea europaea subsp. europaea (Europe) Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (from Eritrea and Ethiopia south throughout East Africa, also in Iran to China) Olea europaea subsp. guanchica (Canaries) Olea europaea subsp. maroccana (Morocco) Olea europaea subsp. laperrinei (Algeria, Sudan, Niger, India)

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Cultivars

Small olive tree

Large olive tree

Olive tree leaves

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Olive tree trunk

Olive flowers

A young olive plant, germinated from a seed

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Cailletier cultivar, with an olive harvest net on the ground

Monumental tree in Apulia Region - Southern Italy There are thousands of cultivars of the olive. In Italy alone at least three hundred cultivars have been enumerated, but only a few are grown to a large extent. None of these can be accurately identified with ancient descriptions, though it is not unlikely that some of the narrow-leaved cultivars most esteemed may be descendants of the Licinian olive. The Iberian olives are usually cured and eaten, often after being pitted, stuffed (with pickled pimento, anchovies, or other fillings) and packed in brine in jars or tins. Since many cultivars are self sterile or nearly so, they are generally planted in pairs with a single primary cultivar and a secondary cultivar selected for its ability to fertilize the primary one. In recent times, efforts have been directed at producing hybrid cultivars with qualities such as resistance to disease, quick growth and larger or more consistent crops. Some particularly important cultivars of olive include: 'Amfissa', excellent quality Greek table olive grown in Amfissa, Central Greece near the oracle of Delphi. Amfissa olives enjoy PDO (Protected designation of origin) status and are equally good for olive oil extraction. The olive grove of Amfissa, which consists of 1,200,000 olive trees is a part of a protected natural landscape. 'Bosana', the most common olive grown on Sardinia. It is used mostly for oils. 'Manzanilla', a large, rounded-oval fruit, with purple-green skin, originating in Dos Hermanas, Seville, in southern Spain. Rich taste and thick pulp. A prolific bearer, grown around the world. 256 | P a g e

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'Frantoio' and 'Leccino'. These cultivars are the principal participants in Italian olive oils from Tuscany. Leccino has a mild sweet flavour while Frantoio is fruity with a stronger aftertaste. Due to their highly valued flavour, these cultivars are now grown in other countries. 'Arbequina', a small, brown olive grown in Catalonia, Spain, good for eating and for oil. 'Cornicabra', originating in Toledo, Spain, comprises about 12% of Spain's production. It is mainly used for oil. 'Empeltre', a medium-sized black olive grown in Spain, good for eating and for oil. 'Hojiblanca', originating in the province of Córdoba, Spain, its oil is widely appreciated for its slightly bitter flavour. 'Kalamata', a large, black olive with a smooth and meatlike taste, named after the city of Kalamata, Greece, used as a table olive. These olives are usually preserved in vinegar or olive oil. Kalamata olives enjoy PDO (Protected designation of origin) status.[21] 'Koroneiki', originating from the southern Peloponese, around Kalamata and Mani in Greece. This small olive, though difficult to cultivate, has a high yield of olive oil of exceptional quality. 'Picholine' or 'pecholine', originating in the south of France. It is green, medium size, and elongated. The flavour is mild and nutty. 'Picual', originating in southern Spain (province of Jaén), it is the most widely cultivated olive in Spain, comprising about 50% of Spain's olive production and around 20% of world olive production. It has a strong but sweet flavour, and is widely used in Spain as a table olive. Moreover, its oil has some of the best chemical properties found in olive oil, being the richest in oleic acid and E vitamin.[citation needed] 'Lucques', originating in the south of France (Aude département). They are green, large, and elongated. The stone has an arcuated shape[clarification needed]. Their flavour is mild and nutty. 'Souri', originating in Lebanon(the town of Sur (Tyre)) and widespread in the Levant. It has a high oil yield and exceptionally aromatic flavour. 'Nabali', a Palestinian cultivar[22] also known locally as 'Baladi', which, along with 'Souri' and 'Malissi', is considered to produce among the highest quality olive oil in the world.[23] 'Barnea', a modern cultivar bred in Israel to be disease-resistant and to produce a generous crop. It is used both for oil and for table olives. The oil has a strong flavour with a hint of green leaf. Barnea is widely grown in Israel and in the southern hemisphere, particularly in Australia and New Zealand. 'Maalot' (Hebrew for merits), another modern Israeli, disease-resistant, Eastern Mediterranean cultivar derived from the North African 'Chemlali' cultivar. The olive is medium sized, round, has a fruity flavour and is used almost exclusively for oil production. 'Mission' originated on the California Missions and is now grown throughout the state. They are black and generally used for table consumption. They are celebrated at Olive Festivals throughout the state of California. [24]

Growth and propagation Olive trees show a marked preference for calcareous soils, flourishing best on limestone slopes and crags, and coastal climate conditions. They grow in any light soil, even on clay if well drained, but in rich soils they are predisposed to disease and produce poorer oil than in 257 | P a g e

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poorer soil. (This was noted by Pliny the Elder.) Olives like hot weather, and temperatures below 14 °F (-10 °C) may injure even a mature tree. They tolerate drought well, thanks to their sturdy and extensive root system. Olive trees can live exceptionally long, up to several centuries, and can remain productive for as long, if they are pruned correctly and regularly. Olives grow very slowly, and over many years the trunk can attain a considerable diameter. A. P. de Candolle recorded one exceeding 10 m in girth. The trees rarely exceed 15 m in height, and are generally confined to much more limited dimensions by frequent pruning. The yellow or light greenish-brown wood is often finely veined with a darker tint; being very hard and close-grained, it is valued by woodworkers. Olives are propagated in various ways. The preferred ways are cuttings or layers; the tree roots easily in favourable soil and throws up suckers from the stump when cut down. However, yields from trees grown from suckers or seeds are poor; it must be budded or grafted onto other specimens to do well (Lewington and Parker, 114). Branches of various thickness cut into lengths of about 1 m and planted deeply in manured ground, soon vegetate. Shorter pieces are sometimes laid horizontally in shallow trenches and, when covered with a few centimetres of soil, rapidly throw up sucker-like shoots. In Greece, grafting the cultivated tree on the wild tree is a common practice. In Italy, embryonic buds, which form small swellings on the stems, are carefully excised and planted under the soil surface, where they soon form a vigorous shoot. Occasionally, large branches are marched[clarification needed] to obtain young trees. The olive is also sometimes grown from seed; to facilitate germination, the oily pericarp is first softened by slight rotting, or soaking in hot water or in an alkaline solution. Where the olive is carefully cultivated, as in Languedoc and Provence, the trees are regularly pruned. The pruning preserves the flower-bearing shoots of the preceding year, while keeping the tree low enough to allow the easy gathering of the fruit. The spaces between the trees are regularly fertilized. The crop from old trees is sometimes enormous, but they seldom bear well two years in succession, and in many cases a large harvest occurs every sixth or seventh season.

Fruit harvest and processing Olives are harvested in the fall. More specifically, green olives are picked at the end of September to about the middle of November. Blond olives are picked from the middle of October to the end of November and Black olives are collected from the middle of November to the end of January or early February. In southern Europe, harvesting is done for several weeks in winter, but the time varies in each country, and with the season and the cultivar. Most olives today are harvested by shaking the boughs or the whole tree. Using olives found lying on the ground can result in poor quality oil. Another method involves standing on a ladder and "milking" the olives into a sack tied around the harvester's waist.[citation needed] A third method uses a device called an oli-net that wraps around the tree trunk and opens to form an umbrella-like catcher from which workers collect the fruit. Another method uses an electric tool, the oliviera, that has large tongs that spin around quickly, removing fruit from the tree. This method is used for olives used for oil. Table olive varieties are more difficult to harvest, as workers must take care not to damage the fruit; baskets that hang around the worker's neck are used. In some places in Italy and Greece, olives are harvested by hand 258 | P a g e

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because the terrain is too mountainous for machines. As a result, the fruit is not bruised, which leads to a superior finished product. The method also involves sawing off branches, which is healthy for future production. [25] The amount of oil contained in the fruit differs greatly by cultivar; the pericarp is usually 60– 70% oil. Typical yields are 1.5-2.2 kg of oil per tree per year.[26]

Traditional fermentation and curing

Green & Black Olive Olives are a naturally bitter fruit that is typically subjected to fermentation or cured with lye or brine to make it more palatable. Green olives and black olives are typically washed thoroughly in water to remove oleuropein, a bitter carbohydrate. Sometimes they are also soaked in a solution of food grade sodium hydroxide in order to accelerate the process. Green olives are allowed to ferment before being packed in a brine solution. American black ("California") olives are not fermented, which is why they taste milder than green olives. Freshly picked olive fruit is not palatable because it contains phenolic compounds and oleuropein, a glycoside which makes the fruit too bitter although not unhealthy.[25] (One exception is the Thassos Olive, which can be eaten fresh.) There are many ways of processing olives for eating. Traditional methods use the natural microflora on the fruit and procedures which select for those flora that ferment the fruit. This fermentation leads to three important outcomes: the leaching out and breakdown of oleuropein and phenolic compounds; the creation of lactic acid, which is a natural preservative; and a complex of flavoursome fermentation products. The result is a product which will store with or without refrigeration. One basic fermentation method involves a 10% solution of salt and vinegar in water. The ratio is 10 kg olives to 7 liters of water, 800 g salt and 300 ml of vinegar. Fresh are often sold at markets. Olives can be used green, ripe green (a yellower shade of green, or green with hints of colour), through to full purple black ripeness. Olives should be selected for general good condition and for firmness if green. The olives are soaked in water to wash, then drained. 7 litres (7 kg) of room temperature water is added to a container, plus 800 g of sea salt and one cup (300 g) of white wine or cider vinegar. Each olive is slit deeply with a small knife; large fruit (e.g., 60 fruit per kg) should be slit in multiple places. After some weeks, the 259 | P a g e

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salinity drops from 10% to around 5 to 6% once the water in the olives moves into solution and the salt moves into the olives. The olives are weighed down with an inert object such as a plate so they are fully immersed and lightly sealed in their container. The gases of fermentation should be able to escape. It is possible to use a plastic bag partially filled with water, and lay this over the top as a venting lid which also provides a good seal. The exclusion of oxygen is helpful, but not as critical as when fermenting grapes to produce wine. The olives are edible within 2 weeks to a month, but can be left to cure for up to three months. They can be tasted at any time because the bitter compounds are not poisonous, and oleuropein is a useful antioxidant in the human diet. Curing can be done by several methods: lye-curing, salt-curing, brine-curing and fresh watercuring. Lye-curing, an unnatural method, results in the worst taste as it leeches much of the fruits' flavor. Salt-curing (also known as dry-curing) involves packing the olives in plain salt for at least a month, which produces a salty and wrinkled olive. Brine-curing involves placing the olives in a salt water solution for a few days or more. Fresh-water curing involves soaking the olives in a succession of baths, of which the water is changed daily.[25] Green olives are usually firmer than black olives. Olives can also be flavoured by soaking them in various marinades, or removing the pit and stuffing them. Popular flavourings are herbs, spices, olive oil, feta, capsicum (pimento), chili, lemon zest, lemon juice, garlic cloves, wine, vinegar, juniper berries and anchovies. Sometimes, the olives are lightly cracked with a hammer or a stone to trigger fermentation. This method of curing adds a slightly bitter taste.

Pests, diseases, and weather A fungus, Cycloconium oleaginum, can infect the trees for several successive seasons, causing great damage to plantations. A species of bacterium, Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. oleae[27], induces tumour growth in the shoots. Certain lepidopterous caterpillars feed on the leaves and flowers. More serious damage is caused by olive-fly attacks to the fruit. A pest which spreads through olive trees is the black scale bug, a small black beetle that resembles a small black spot. They attach themselves firmly to olive trees and reduce the quality of the fruit; their main predators are wasps. The curculio beetle eats the edges of leaves, leaving sawtooth damage.[28] Rabbits eat the bark of olive trees and can do considerable damage, especially to young trees. If the bark is removed around the entire circumference of a tree it is likely to die. In France and north-central Italy, olives suffer occasionally from frost. Gales and longcontinued rains during the gathering season also cause damage.

Production Olives are the most extensively cultivated fruit crop in the world.[29] Cultivation area tripled from 2.6 to 8.5 million hectares between 1960 and 2004. The ten largest producing countries, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization, are all located in the Mediterranean region and produce 95% of the world's olives.

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Rank

Main countries of production (Year 2003) Production Cultivated area Yield Country/Region (in tons) (in hectares) (q/Ha)

—

World

17,317,089

8,597,064

20.1

1

Spain

6,160,100

2,400,000

25.7

2

Italy

3,149,830

1,140,685

27.6

3

Greece

2,300,000

765,000

31.4

4

Turkey

1,800,000

594,000

30.3

5

Syria

998,988

498,981

20.0

6

Tunisia

500,000

1,500,000

3.3

7

Morocco

470,000

550,000

8.5

8

Egypt

318,339

49,888

63.8

9

Algeria

300,000

178,000

16.9

10

Portugal

280,000

430,000

6.5

11

Lebanon

275,000

250,000

6.5

As an invasive species Since its first domestication, Olea europaea has been spreading back to the wild from planted groves. Its original wild populations in southern Europe have been largely swamped by feral plants.[30] In some other parts of the world where it has been introduced, most notably South Australia, the olive has become a major woody weed that displaces native vegetation. In South Australia its seeds are spread by the introduced red fox and by many bird species including the European starling and the native emu into woodlands where they germinate and eventually form a dense canopy that prevents regeneration of native trees.[31]

References 1. ^ Homer, Odyssey, book 5". 2. ^ "He learned from the Nymphai how to curdle milk, to make bee-hives, and to cultivate olive-trees, and was the first to instruct men in these matters." (Diodorus Siculus, 4. 81. 1). 3. ^ Towards the end of the second century AD the traveler Pausanias saw many such archaic cult figures. 4. ^ "Indeed it is said that at that [ancient] time there were no olives anywhere save at Athens." (Herodotus, 5. 82. 1 ). 5. ^ Theophrastus, On the Causes of Plants,, 4.13.5., noted by Signe Isager and Jens Erik Skydsgaard, Ancient Greek Agriculture, An introduction, 1992, p. 38. 6. ^ "...which is still shown in the Pandroseion" (pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke, 3.14.1). 7. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 1. 27. 1.

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8. ^ "Me pascunt olivae, me cichorea levesque malvae." Horace, Odes 1.31.15, ca 30 BC 9. ^ Letter from Lord Monboddo to John Hope, 29 April, 1779; reprinted by William Knight 1900 ISBN 1855062070 10. ^ Balfour, John Hutton, "Plants of the Bible" 1885. Available through Google Books 11. ^ Gooch, Ellen, "10+1 Things you may not know about olive oil", Epikouria Magazine, Fall/Spring (2005) 12. ^ Isager and Skydsgaard 1992, p. 35. 13. ^ Lewington, A., & Parker, E. (1999) Ancient Trees., pp 110–113, London: Collins & Brown Ltd. ISBN 1-85585-704-9 14. ^ Muncipality Bar, "Kod Starog Bara u Tombi (Mirovica) nalazi se maslina stara više od 2000 godina"- Near the Old Bar in Tombi, there is an olive tree which is 2000 years old 15. ^ O. Rackham, J. Moody, The Making of the Cretan Landscape, 1996, cited in F. R. Riley (2002). Olive Oil Production on Bronze Age Crete: Nutritional properties, Processing methods, and Storage life of Minoan olive oil. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 21 (1): 63–75 16. ^ "Old Olive Tree". Brijuni National Park. http://www.brijuni.hr/Home.aspx?PageID=151. Retrieved 2007-03-10. 17. ^ a b M. Kislew, Y. Tabak & O. Simhoni, Identifying the Names of Fruits in Ancient Rabbinic Literature, Leshonenu (Hebrew), vol. 69, p.279 18. ^ Enciclopedia Universal Europeo Americana. Volume 15. Madrid. 1981. EspasaCalpe S.A. ISBN 84-239-4-500-6 (Complete Encyclopedia) and ISBN 84-239-4-5154 (Volume 15 ) 19. ^ Discriminación de variedades de olivo a través del uso de caracteres morfológigos y de marcadores moleculares. 2001. Cavagnaro P., J. Juárez, M Bauza & R.W. Masuelli. AGRISCIENTA. Volume 18:27-35 20. ^ [1] 21. ^ Fotiadi, Elena "Unusual Olives", Epikouria Magazine (Spring/Summer 2006) 22. ^ Belaj et al. (September 2002). "Genetic diversity and relationships in olive (Olea europaea L.) germplasm collections as determined by randomly amplified polymorphic DNA". TAG Theoretical and Applied Genetics (Springer Berlin / Heidelberg) (vol. 105, Number 4). http://www.springerlink.com/content/dlb533pw9cbwc59e/. Retrieved 2007-08-31. 23. ^ PFTA & Canaan Fair Trading. "A Brief Study of Olives and Olive Oil in Palestine". Zatoun. http://www.zatoun.com/study.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-31. 24. ^ http://www.pasoroblesolivefestival.com/ 25. ^ a b c "Unusual Olives", Epikouria Magazine, Spring/Summer 2006 26. ^ Riley, op.cit. 27. ^ Janse, J. D. 1982. Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi (ex Smith) subsp. nov., nom. rev., the bacterium causing excrescences on Oleaceae and Nerium oleander L. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 32:166–169. 28. ^ Burr, M. 1999. Australian Olives. A guide for growers and producers of virgin oils, 4th edition. 29. ^ "FAO, 2004". Apps3.fao.org. http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/olive/intro.jsp. Retrieved 2009-05-18. 30. ^ Lumaret, R. & Ouazzani, N. (2001) Ancient wild olives in Mediterranean forests. Nature 413: 700

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31. ^ Dirk HR Spennemann & Allen, L.R. (2000) Feral olives (Olea europaea) as future woody weeds in Australia: a review. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40: 889–901.

Tarragon Tarragon

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order:

Asterales

Family:

Asteraceae

Tribe:

Anthemideae

Genus:

Artemisia

Species:

A. dracunculus

Binomial name Artemisia dracunculus L.

Tarragon or dragon's-wort (Artemisia dracunculus L.) is a perennial herb in the family Asteraceae related to wormwood. Corresponding to its species name, a common term for the plant is "dragon herb." It is native to a wide area of the Northern Hemisphere from easternmost Europe across central and eastern Asia to India, western North America, and south to northern Mexico. The North American populations may however be naturalised from early human introduction. Tarragon grows to 120-150 cm tall, with slender branched stems. The leaves are lanceolate, 2-8 cm long and 2-10 mm broad, glossy green, with an entire margin. The flowers are produced in small capitulae 2-4 mm diameter, each capitulum containing up to 40 yellow or greenish-yellow florets. (French tarragon, however, seldom produces flowers.[1]) 263 | P a g e

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Cultivation

Dried tarragon leaves French tarragon is the variety generally considered best for the kitchen, but cannot be grown from seed. It is normally purchased as a plant, and some care must be taken to ensure that true French tarragon is purchased. A perennial, it normally goes dormant in winter.[1] It likes a hot, sunny spot, without excessive watering.[1] Russian tarragon (A. dracunculoides L.) can be grown from seed but is much weaker in flavour when compared to the French variety.[1] However, Russian tarragon is a far more hardy and vigorous plant, spreading at the roots and growing over a meter tall. This tarragon actually prefers poor soils and happily tolerates drought and neglect. It is not as strongly aromatic and flavoursome as its French cousin, but it produces many more leaves from early spring onwards that are mild and good in salads and cooked food. The young stems in early spring can be cooked as an asparagus substitute. Grow indoors from seed and plant out in the summer. Spreading plant can be divided easily.

Health Tarragon has an aromatic property reminiscent of anise, due to the presence of estragole, a known carcinogen and teratogen in mice. The European Union investigation revealed that the danger of estragole is minimal even at 100-1000 times the typical consumption seen in humans.[2]

Usage Culinary use Tarragon is one of the four fines herbes of French cooking, and particularly suitable for chicken, fish and egg dishes. Tarragon is one of the main components of Béarnaise sauce. Fresh, lightly bruised sprigs of tarragon may be steeped in vinegar to impart their flavor. Tarragon is used to flavor a popular carbonated soft drink in the countries of Armenia, Georgia and, by extension, Russia and Ukraine. The drink—named Tarhun (թարխուն, pronounced [tarˈxuˈn] ; Тархун), which is the Armenian, Persian and Russian word for tarragon—is made out of sugary tarragon concentrate and colored bright green. 264 | P a g e

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Cis-Pellitorin, an isobutylamide eliciting a pungent taste, has been isolated from Tarragon plant.[3] In Slovenia, tarragon is used as a spice for sweet pastry called potica.

References 1. ^ a b c d McGee, Rose Marie Nichols; Stuckey, Maggie (2002). The Bountiful Container. Workman Publishing. 2. ^ Surburg, Horst; Johannes Panten (2006). Common Fragrance and Flavor Materials: Preparation, Properties and Uses. Wiley-VCH. pp. 233. ISBN 9783527607891. 3. ^ Gatfield IL, Ley JP, Foerstner J, Krammer G, Machinek A. Production of cispellitorin and use as a flavouring. World Patent WO2004000787 A2

Salvia officinalis Salvia officinalis

Flowers

Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order:

Lamiales

Family:

Lamiaceae

Genus:

Salvia

Species:

S. officinalis

Binomial name Salvia officinalis L.

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Salvia officinalis (Sage, Common sage, Garden sage, Kitchen sage, Culinary sage, Dalmatian sage, Purple sage, Broadleaf sage, Red sage) is a small perennial evergreen subshrub, with woody stems, grayish leaves, and blue to purplish flowers. It is a member of the mint family, Lamiaceae. It is native to the Mediterranean region and commonly grown as a kitchen and medicinal herb or as an ornamental garden plant. The word sage or derived names are also used for a number of related and non related species.

Uses Common sage is also grown in parts of Europe, especially the Balkans for distillation of an essential oil, though other species, such as Salvia fruticosa may also be harvested and distilled with it.

Painting from Koehler's Medicinal Plants (1887)

Culinary As an herb, sage has a slight peppery flavor. In Western cooking, it is used for flavoring fatty meats (especially as a marinade), cheeses (Sage Derby), and some drinks. In the United States, Britain and Flanders, sage is used with onion for poultry or pork stuffing and also in sauces. In French cuisine, sage is used for cooking white meat and in vegetable soups. Germans often use it in sausage dishes, and sage forms the dominant flavoring in the English Lincolnshire sausage. Sage is also common in Italian cooking. Sage is sautéed in olive oil and butter until crisp, then plain or stuffed pasta is added (burro e salvia). In the Balkans and the Middle East, it is used when roasting mutton.

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Medicinal

Sage leaves

The top side of a sage leaf - trichomes are visible.

The underside of a sage leaf - more trichomes are visible on this side. The Latin name for sage, salvia, means ―to heal". Although the effectiveness of Common Sage is open to debate, it has been recommended at one time or another for virtually every ailment. Modern evidence supports its effects as an anhidrotic, antibiotic, antifungal, astringent, antispasmodic, estrogenic, hypoglycemic, and tonic.[1] In a double blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial, sage was found to be effective in the management of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease.[2] The strongest active constituents of Sage are within its essential oil, which contains cineole, borneol, and thujone. Sage leaf contains tannic acid, oleic acid, ursonic acid, ursolic acid, cornsole, cornsolic acid, fumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, niacin, nicotinamide, flavones, flavonoid glycosides, and estrogenic substances.[1]

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Caution is indicated when used in conjunction with central nervous system stimulants or depressants.[1] Sage is used as a nootropic for its acetylcholinesterase inhibitor properties. An "Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor" promotes the availabilty of Acetylcholine.

History Salvia officinalis has been used since ancient times for warding off evil, snakebites, increasing women's fertility, and more. The Romans likely introduced it to Europe from Egypt. Theophrastus wrote about two different sages, a wild undershrub he called sphakos, and a similar cultivated plant he called elelisphakos. Pliny the Elder said that the latter plant was called "Salvia" by the Romans, and used as a diuretic, a local anesthetic for the skin, a styptic, and for other uses. During the Carolingian Empire of the early Middle Ages, monastery gardens were cultivating the plant. Walafrid Strabo described it in his poem Hortulus as having a sweet scent and being useful for many human ailments—he went back to the Greek root for the name and called it Lelifagus.[3] The plant had a high reputation throughout the Middle Ages, with many sayings referring to its healing properties and value.[4] It was sometimes called S. salvatrix (Sage the Savior), and was one of the ingredients of Four Thieves Vinegar, a blend of herbs which was supposed to ward off the plague. Dioscorides, Pliny, and Galen all recommended sage as a diuretic, hemostatic, emmenagogue, and tonic.[3]

Cultivars There are a number of cultivars, with the majority grown as ornamentals rather than for their herbal properties. All are valuable as small ornamental flowering shrubs, and for low ground cover, especially in sunny dry environments. They are easily raised from summer cuttings. Named cultivars include: 'Purpurascens', a purple-leafed cultivar, considered by some to be strongest of the garden sages, 'Tricolor', a cultivar with white, yellow and green variegated leaves, 'Berggarten', a cultivar with large leaves, 'Icterina', a cultivar with yellow-green variegated leaves, 'Alba', a white-flowered cultivar, 'Extrakta', has leaves with higher oil concentrations. 'Lavandulaefolia', a small leaved cultivar.

References 1. ^ a b c "Sage". OBeWise Nutriceutica. Applied Health. http://www.appliedhealth.com/nutri/page8453.php. Retrieved 2008-02-04. 2. ^ Akhondzadeh S, Noroozian M, Mohammadi M, Ohadinia S, Jamshidi AH, Khani M. (2003). "Salvia officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a double blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial". J Clin Pharm Ther 28 (1): 53–9. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2710.2003.00463.x. PMID 12605619.

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3. ^ a b Kintzios, Spiridon E. (2000). Sage: The Genus Salvia. CRC Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 9789058230058. 4. ^ An anglo-saxon manuscript read "Why should man die when he has sage?" Kintzios, p. 10

Sources The Herb Society of America New Encyclopedia of Herbs & Their Uses, Deni Bown (New York: DK, 2001)

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