Conjuction And Discourse Markers.doc

Conjunctions are words like and, but so, etc. These words are used to join clauses, or smaller sentences together to make longer sentences. In Latin languages the word con means with. The word junction means a place where things like roads cross. So you can see conjunction as con-junction= with a joining/meeting. Sometimes we call words like these “discourse markers”. Discourse just means communication – written or spoken. This can be a normal conversation about movie, or it can be all the books and articles written about any topic, like Theories of Learning. A marker is like a signpost. It just tells you in which direction the conversation will go next. Here’s an example: I like coke but … Now, the word but tells you that the next clause will be going against the first clause… … I don’t like Pepsi … I will have water now So, the word but is like a signpost in the conversation telling us what way the next piece will go. This is what we call a discourse marker. Anyway, don’t worry too much about what we call them – we have other names as well. Just worry about how we use them.

DISCOURSE MARKERS in ENGLISH SENTENCES DISCOURSE MARKERS are used to combine clauses or to connect sentence elements. Each discourse marker indicates a particular meaning relationship between two or more clauses. Four types of DISCOURSE MARKERS are used in combining English sentences:

1. 2. 3. 4.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (see I. below), CONNECTORS (adverbials, conjunctive adverbs; see II. below), SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (see III. a + b below), PHRASE LINKERS (prepositions; or ADJ + PREP; see IV. below).

Sentences consist of COMPOUND and COMPLEX sentences:

1. using CONJUNCTIONS (coordinating conjunctions, double conjunctions) COMPOUND SENTENCES (see I. and II. below)

COMPLEX SENTENCES (see III. a. and b. below)

2. using CONNECTORS (adverbials, conjunctive adverbs) 3. using SUBORDINATORS (subordinating conjunctions)

Prepositions or Adjective + Preposition combinations introduce PHRASES (see IV. below) I.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (coordconj.): informally known as the FANBOYS or BOYFANS

Conjunction F = for A = and N = nor

Meaning REASON ADDITION NEGATIVE ADDITION

Conjunction Meaning B = but CONTRAST, CONCESSION O = or CHOICE Y = yet CONCESSION; unexpected result S = so RESULT, CONSEQUENCE

Coordinating conjunctions are discourse markers that join two INDEPENDENT clauses, which are set off by a comma. independent clause , coordconj independent clause 2 S + V

1

.

S + V EX.: We arrived late, so we waited in the hall. (coordconj) II. CONNECTORS (Adverbials, conjunctive adverbs) Connectors are discourse markers that also join two INDEPENDENT clauses, but with a semicolon (;) or a period (.). They can occur in three positions in a sentence: initial (beginning) position, medial (middle) position, and final (end) position. Good writers/speakers use the position of discourse markers to give particular emphasis to the element that immediately precedes the connector. They also make sure that they vary the position of the discourse markers to avoid monotony. The punctuation is different, depending on the position of the connector.

A. INITIAL (BEGINNING) POSITION: The connector is positioned at the beginning of the second clause. independent clause 1 ; connector, independent clause 2 . S + V S + V independent clause 1 . Connector, independent clause 2 . S + V S + V EX.: We were late for the lecture; therefore, we waited in the hall. We were late for the lecture. Therefore, we waited in the hall. B. MEDIAL (MIDDLE) POSITION: The connector is positioned in the middle of the second clause, usually between subject and verb. In this case, the subject is emphasized and contrasted. + C

.

independent clause 1

;

S

, connector, V

EX.: George and Harry are best friends. George spends his free time reading twentieth century American short stories; Harry, on the other hand, is more interested in sports and physical exercise. C. FINAL (END) POSITION: The connector is positioned at the end of the second clause. independent clause 1 ; S + V + C , connector. EX.: George spends his free time reading twentieth century American short stories; Harry is more interested in sports and physical exercise, on the other hand. MEANING RELATIONSHIPS expressed by connectors: 1. RESULT / REASON ______; therefore, ____ ; thus, ; consequently, ; as a result, ; hence, REASON: _____; for this reason, ________ 5. CONCESSION (unexpected result)

2. CONTRAST

3. ADDITION

______; however, ______; in ______ addition, ______ ; in contrast, ; furthermore, ; on the other ; moreover, hand, ; instead, ; besides, ; rather, ; additionally,

6. TIME

4. EMPHASIS ______; in fact, _______

7. SIMILARITY

; as a matter of fact, ; indeed,

8. NEGATIVE CONDITION

______; however, _____

_______ . First, _______

; nevertheless,

. Second,

; nonetheless, ; still,

9. NEGATIVE EMPHASIS ____; on the contrary, ____

______; similarly, ______ ______; likewise, ______

______; otherwise, _____

. Afterward, . After that, . Later, . Then / Next, 10. MAIN 11. 12. 13. IDEA EXAMPLE RESTATEMENT CONCLUSION On the For ____; in other In conclusion, whole, example, words, _______ For In general, ; that means (that) To conclude, instance, To Generally, In summary, illustrate, Generally To summarize, speaking, As we have seen, In short,

III. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (SUB) Subordinating conjunctions are discourse markers that join a dependent (subordinate) clause to an independent (main) clause. There are two patterns (a. and b.) for positioning the dependent clause and therefore two patterns of punctuation. a. clause

. S + V

independent clause

SUB

dependent S + V

OR

b. SUB + dependent clause , independent clause . SUB + S + V , S + V EX.: a. We waited in the hall because we arrived late for the lecture. b. Because we arrived late for the lecture, we waited in the hall. NOTE: With because it is recommended to identify the REASON and the RESULT first in order to avoid a mix-up (incorrect meaning relationship): a. RESULT because + REASON .

REASON

,

b.

Because + RESULT

.

Again, the SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS are used to signal different MEANING RELATIONSHIPS. 1. REASON/CAUSE

2. CONTRAST

because since

, while , whereas (usually used with a comma in front in Pattern a.)

as due to the fact that now that

CAUSE/EFFECT

3. CONCESSION (unexpected result) although even though

If..., (then) whether (or not) when In case that Provided that Unless

after before

even if

when

despite the fact that (though) in spite of the fact that (often used with a comma in front in Pattern a.)

while since

so...that such...that such a...that 6. CONDITION /RESULT

4. TIME

5. PURPO SE so that

as as soon as until by the time that whenever the next time

8. DESCRIPTION/ 9. EMBEDDED 7. SIMILARITY IDENTIFICATION STATEMENTS/QUESTIONS (Relative Pronouns) just as who that whom what how (much/many, often, whose long) which who(m), which, whose that when when where where whether (or not), if

IV. PHRASE LINKERS (prepositions or ADJ + PREP combinations) Phrase linkers are transitions that are often used at the beginning of a sentence. _____________________ . PHRASE LINKER (NP) (item #1) (item #2) 1. CONTRAST

2.REASON

3. ADDITION

, S + V + C .

In contrast to _____, _____ different from unlike

Because of _____, _____

due to as a result of 5. CONCESSION 4. SIMILARITY (unexpected result) Despite _____, Similar to _____, _____ _____ like in spite of

In addition to _____, _____

6. TIME Before / after _____, _____ until since during

EX.: Due to our late arrival at the lecture, we had to wait in the hall. (NP) In contrast to western societies, eastern societies stress the importance of community. (item #1) (item #2) Before the work of Sigmund Freud, psychology was not considered an academic subject. Discourse markers are terms like: That is to say, however, in consequence, and other linguistic items specialised in linking discourse fragments are discourse markers, and in signalling the interpretation of the discourse that is being transmitted. Discourse markers include such elements as: and, or, but, also, even, because, however, indeed, in addition, Allegedly, frankly, stupidly, cleverly, on the one hand…on the other hand, by the way, then, so, well, you see?, right?, etc. Discourse markers form a heterogeneous functional class that includes diverse grammatical categories, with a similar function. Discourse markers link textual fragments, facilitating the transition between them, and, consequently, ensuring the textual cohesion. In addition, discourse markers manifest the semantic-pragmatic relationship between the textual elements connected by them. Hence, Discourse Markers do not have a syntactic function, but a semantic-pragmatic one. The elements connected by discourse markers are diverse. They can be phrasal elements (1), sentences (2), a group of sentences inside a paragraph (3) or, even, whole paragraphs (4). Discourse markers can, even, introduce a linguistic element which connects with an extra linguistic event (5).

(1) Hailing from Zurich, Winkler has a sensuality not normally associated with either click-click electronic or the cold lap of Switzerland, but his voice and his carefully-constructed compositions have the overtly sexual vibe of Seventies pop: that is to say, disco. (Katie Addleman, “No rest for the wicked”, Metropolitan, 01/vi/2008) (2) Barcelona fans exited the ground accusing the referee of poor decisionmaking, but, in truth, they had few grounds for complaint as for large chunks of the match, they were outplayed by a spirited Osasuna side who shot out of the blocks from the first whistle and took the lead just four minutes into the match. (Max Bentley, “Guardiola’s gamble backfires as Barcelona suffer second league defeat”, Metropolitan, 13/ii/2012) (3) Young, successful, handsome, and a sharp dresser, ‘Pep’s’ popularity transcends even the boundaries of sport (just ask your girlfriend). But it was his industrious and inspirational performances on the field during Johan Cruyff’s tenure in the Nineties that truly captured the imagination of culers everywhere, most of whom were overjoyed to witness Pep’s promotion from Barça B team coach to first team nanager in the summer of 2008.(“Josep (Pep) Guardiola”, Metropolitan, http://www.barcelonametropolitan.com/topics/josep_pep_guardiola) (4) Still, it’s packed to the rafters on a Wednesday night and our request for a bigger table so we can pig out is denied. Around us are families with kids, dapper old gents out for a mid-week supper, cooing couples and giggling friends, and the menu immediately makes you feel at home, if home is France. An all-French wine list features bottles from the Loire to the Languedoc, with the vin du table going for €14 a bottle, and the most expensive Bordeaux a not-too-terrifying €43. A map on the back of your placemat shows you exactly where everything came from and on the other side there are cuts of the steer, so you can tell your aiguillette from your bavette. Elsewhere, the menu offers classics like the humble salad niçoise for €6.50, a cheese omelette for €8.50 andmoules frites for €12. (Tara Stevens, “French Style”, Metropolitan, Frebruary 2012) (5) [One person is eating a little chocolat cake] But, weren’t you on a diet? Such examples show that the main function of discourse markers is not that of integrating syntactical structures, as conjunctions do, but marking the semantic and pragmatic relationships between the textual units that they connect. In the past, discourse markers were considered fillers or expletives, i.e., linguistic elements with not function at all. Now it has been realised that they accomplished different functions related to explicit: relationships among utterances or part of utterances;

speaker’s attitude towards he/she is saying; speaker – hearer relationships. Questions in the study of discourse markers The study of discourse markers has raised —and still raises— some questions that can be specify as follows: Are they a separated word class? And if they are, what class? What elements are within this class of words? What is their grammatical function? What is their meaning? What are their semantic-pragmatic functions in the speech? Which are their prosodic characteristics? What is their relationship with the discursive traditions? Characterization of discourse markers Discourse markers have some prosodic, syntactic, semantic, textual and morphologic properties that individualized them as a functional class. Prosody and syntax Punctuation isolates graphically discourse markers from the rest of the text in order to mark a prosodic characteristic. Indeed, discourse markers are not prosodically integrated in the text; they do not form part of the sentence in which they appear, but affect the whole utterance. And as a result, discourse markers can occupy different positions inside the sentence: However, we are thinking of other possibilities; We are, however, thinking of other possibilities. Discourse markers cannot receive specifiers or complementary adjuncts, and neither can coordinate with each other or be affected by negation. Procedural meaning Discourse markers have not referential meaning, but procedural. That is to say, discourse markers codify an instruction in order to guide the interpretation of the text in which they appear. Often, discourse markers add a subjective meaning which reflects the speaker’s opinion. Discourse markers as cohesive elements Discourse markers are elements without a syntactic function. They are extrasentence linkers specialised in textual cohesion and in guiding the interpretation of utterances. Morphology

Discourse markers are invariable linguistic units, belonging to different grammatical categories. Classification of discourse markers Discourse markers are a functional class, not a categorical class, that is to say, what they have in common is not the grammatical category they pertain to, but, the function they do. Discourse Markers can be classified into three types: Contrastive Markers: they signal some contrast between the textual elements they link: But, although, contrariwise, contrary to expectations, conversely, despite (that/this), however, in spite of, in comparison, in contrast, instead, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather, still, though, whereas, yet, etc. Elaborative Markers: they signal an elaboration or continuation of the first textual element by the second: And, also, alternatively, besides, correspondingly, for example, for instance, futher(more), in addition, in other words, in particular, more importantly, more to the point, moreover, on that basis, otherwise, rather, similarly, etc. Inferential Markers: they signal a contextual implication in the second textual segment by the first one. So, after all, as a conclusion, as a result, because, consequently, for this/that reason, hence, accordingly, in this/that/any case, on this/that condition, therefore, thus, etc. Discourse Particles: they signal the speaker’s attitude in conversation, and they structure the relationships between speaker and listener. They are basically a feature of spoken language. Well, gosh, uh, I mean, you know, in fact, frankly, actually, etc. Connectors and discourse markers. The fuzzy boundaries between connectors, conjunctions and discourse operators There has been some controversy about the relationship between connectors and conjunctions. For instance, the difference between conjunctions and connectors is one of scope. Conjunctions have a sentence scope. Connectors, instead, link sentences or paragraphs. However, there is not easy to maintain this distinction. For instance, the conjunctions and-or can be used as a Discourse Markers:

(6) –Yesterday, Lola told me she wanted to get divorced –And what did you say to her? (7) Talk to her at once. Or you are afraid of her? At (6), and signals the continuity respect the first utterance, propriety characteristic of Discourse Markers. At (7), o introduces an argumentative justification. Hence, conjunctions can show a discursive function which links them to Discoursive Markers.

Tests Find discourse markers for each of the following sentences. 1. They have all completed their tests, ......., I'm way behind. o as for me o for mine o I o my test 2. It rained all day, ......., we still went swimming in the sea. o as far as o as for o nevertheless o with regard to 3. It rained all day, ......., we didn't swim in the sea. o as far as o consequently o us o we 4. Ten people were invited, ......., a waiting list was compiled. o as a result o as far as o in addition o therefore 5. He ate ice cream and she ordered coffee, ....... I chose pizza. o as far

o o o

6. o o o o

7. o o o o

8. o o o o

9. o o o o

10. o o o o

as regards while with regard to You are very late but ....... I'm concerned, you can join in. as far as as regards however on the other hand

You are late, ......., you may not sit the examination. as far as however therefore while He ate chocolate and I drank tea, she ....... wanted a meal. as far as as regards on the other hand while ....... the letter I sent you last week, I wish to discuss the bill. However On the other hand Therefore With regard to The athletes swim firstly, run secondly and ....... they cycle. fourthly lastly on the other hand while

"So" expressions ADVERB

ADVERB

I want the design just My screen so. (in this way, like is so dim that I this) can't see it. (excessively) I hope it will be so. (in that way or manner)

CONJUNCTION

OTHER

His idea was too His idea complicated, so was so-so. (ave we chose rage) another. (Cause & Effect)

My screen We simplified the is so bright. (very) idea so that it would be easier to complete. )

The project leader has the say-so. (fin al decision)

Your plab is good, His design is ever So what? He is a so-andand so is his. (in that so good. (so very) (impolite – It so. (unpleasant way) doesn't matter "So person) why does it matter?") I change the width, and so it becomes easier to see. (and in that manner, method)

We'll be done with this project in a day or so.(more or less time)

So-and-so will finish the work (unspecific person)

So that's that. (in that way, concession)

My so-called fri end, forgot to call. (wrongly named)

So be it. (in that way, conclusion)

Drink it because I said so. (to drink it) (said by a parent)

Exercise 1 Read Conversation Caller: Hello. I'd like a basket of food delivered to my house. Anne: Hello. __ (ADD A TRANSITION: Inference, guessing) is that for today? Caller: Yes, today. Anne: __ (ADD A TRANSITION:affirmation_) what would you like in the basket? Caller: __ (ADD A TRANSITION: hesitation) an assortment of cheese, crackers, fresh fruit and some little pickles. Anne: __ (ADD A TRANSITION: inference) do you mean dill pickles or French-style cornichons? Caller: I mean dill pickles. My wife is expecting, and she loves little pickles. Anne: __ (ADD A TRANSITION: summation, addition) what time do you want this delivered? Caller: __ (ADD A TRANSITION: hesitation)immediately if possible. Anne: __ (ADD A TRANSITION concession) it will be difficult but we'll try. Anne: __ (ADD A TRANSITION: summation or addition) what's your address? Caller: __ (ADD A TRANSITION: hesitation) it's 155 South 2nd Street, apartment 2.

Anne: __. (ADD A TRANSITION: affirmation) We'll get your basket of food to you and your wife as soon as we can. Caller: ___!(ADD A TRANSITION: surprise) Thanks a lot. You are good ! (provide good service)

Add discourse markers for the conversational exchange above. 1.

Edit the sentence adding a word or phrase.