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Chapter1 Introduction With the rapid growth of wireless communications there is a growing demand for mobile phones that are small, attractive, lightweight, and curvy. This has resulted in the proliferation of handsets with antennas that are internal or hidden within the device. An internal antenna makes the handset look much nicer and compact. The sizes and weights of mobile handsets have rapidly been reduced due to the development of modern integrated circuit technology and the requirements of the users. Conventional monopole‐like antennas have remained relatively large compared to the handset itself. Thus, built‐in antennas are becoming very promising candidates for applications in mobile handsets. Most built‐in antennas currently used in mobile phones are based on planar inverted‐F antennas (PIFAs). In addition, since the antenna is inside the phone it is not prone to breakage or damage, which is commonly encountered with the so‐ called external stub‐type antenna. Currently mobile phones with small internal antennas are already in the market. Designing an internal antenna for a mobile phone is difficult especially when dual or multiband operation is required. Although obtaining dual‐frequency resonance is straightforward, satisfying the bandwidth requirement for the respective communication bands is difficult. Further complications arise when the antenna has to operate in close proximity to objects like shielding cans, screws, battery, and various other metallic objects. Currently, many mobile telephones use one or more of the following frequency bands: the GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) band, centered at 900 MHz; the DCS (Digital Communication System) band, centered at 1800 MHz; and the PCS (Personal Communication Services) band, centered at 1900 MHz ‐ 1 ‐
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If merger of technologies is considered where both advanced mobile phone services systems (AMPS) and GSM systems are integrated in one phone, triple‐ band or even quad‐band antennas may be needed.
1.
Planar Antennas
1.1
Review of Basic Planar Antennas The most commonly used planar antennas in communication industry are
the microstrip patch antenna and the planar inverted‐F antenna. These antennas are increasing in popularity for use in wireless applications due to their low‐ profile structure. They can be easily integrated on the circuit board of a communication device to reduce the packaging cost [1, 2]. Therefore, they are extremely compatible for embedded antennas in handheld wireless devices such as cellular phones, pagers, laptops, tablet PC’s, PDA’s (Personal digital assistants) etc [3‐5]. The telemetry and communication antennas on missiles need to be thin and conformal and are often planar antennas [6, 7]. Radar altimeters use small arrays of planar antennas. Another area where they have been used successfully is in satellite communication [8‐10] and satellite imaging systems [2]. Smart weapon systems use planar antennas because of their thin profile [2]. Novel planar antenna designs for achieving broadband circular polarization and dual polarized radiation in the WLAN band for overcoming the multipath fading problem to enhance the system performance have been recently demonstrated [1, 10]. Planar antennas are also frequently used in remote sensing, biomedical applications and in personal communications. Nowadays PIFAs (Planar inverted‐F antenna) are more commonly used in RFID tags. We look at these two antennas in a little more detail in regards to basic operation, advantages and disadvantages.
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1.2
Microstrip Patch Antennas In its most basic form, a microstrip patch antenna consists of a radiating
patch on one side of a dielectric substrate and a ground plane on the other side as shown in Figure 1.1. The patch is generally made of conducting material and can take any possible shape. The radiating patch and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate. Microstrip patch antennas radiate primarily because of the fringing fields between the patch edge and the ground plane. The length L of the rectangular patch for the fundamental TM10 mode excitation is slightly less than λ/2. For good antenna performance, a thick dielectric substrate having a low dielectric constant is desirable, since this provides better efficiency, larger bandwidth and better radiation [1]. However, such a configuration leads to a larger antenna size. In order to design a compact microstrip patch antenna, higher dielectric constants must be used, but it is less efficient and results in narrower bandwidth. Hence a compromise must be reached between antenna dimensions and antenna performance.
Figure 1.1 Structure of microstrip patch antenna [23] ‐ 3 ‐
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In general, rectangular microstrip antennas, with a thin dielectric substrate are half‐wavelength structures and are operated at the fundamental resonant mode transverse magnetic (TM01) or transverse electric (TM10), with a resonant frequency given as[1]: f ≅
c 2L ε r
(1.1)
Where c is the speed of light, L is the patch length of the rectangular microstrip antenna, and ε r is the relative permittivity of the grounded dielectric substrate.
1.2.1 Basic Design Characteristics of Patch Antenna [23]: • Patch thickness t (t<<λ0), where λ0 is free space wavelength. • Substrate height h (h<< λ0), usually 0.003 λ0≤ h≤0.05 λ0. • For rectangular patch, the length L of element is (λ0/3
1.2.2 Some of the Principal Advantages of Patch Antennas [23, 34]: 1. Light weight, small volume and low planar configuration 2. Can be easily made conformal to host surface ‐ 4 ‐
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3. Ease of mass production using printed‐circuit technology, leads to low fabrication cost. 4. Supports both linear as well as circular polarization 5. Easier to integrate with microwave integrated circuits (MIC) 6. Capable of dual and triple frequency operations 7. Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces Microstrip patch antennas suffer from a number of disadvantages as compared to conventional antennas.
1.2.3 Some of Their Major Disadvantages [23, 34]: 1. Narrow bandwidth 2. Low efficiency
3. Low Gain 4. Extraneous radiation from feeds and junctions 5. Low power handling capacity 6. Surface wave excitation
1.2.4 Microstrip Losses [23] Microstrip antennas are based on microstrip line concepts. Losses associated with the microstrip lines are also associated with the microstrip antennas. Loss components of a microstrip line include dielectric loss, conductor loss and radiation loss. Inherent causes viz; loss tangent and extraneous source such as conductor surface roughness, affect the microstrip losses.
1.2.4.1 Dielectric Loss The cause of dielectric loss is the loss tangent value. Loss tangent depends on the substrate properties. A substrate with high loss tangent will result in high
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dielectric loss and vice versa. Therefore choosing a substrate with a low loss tangent will be ideal.
1.2.4.2 Conductor Loss Conductor loss arises from conductor surface roughness and skin effect. Imperfection in the fabrication process or improper handling will cause conductor surface roughness. “Skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current to distribute itself within a conductor so that the current density near the surface of the conductor is greater than that at its core. That is, the electric current tends to flow at the "skin" of the conductor.” As the frequency increases, the effective resistance of the conductor will increase due to skin effect.
1.2.4.3 Radiation Loss Radiation loss is caused by radiation that is propagated away or current that is induced on the enclosure of the microstrip. It is also contributed by the dielectric constant. So, as with dielectric loss, radiation loss can be reduced by having a substrate with a higher dielectric constant.
1.2.5 Applications of Microstrip Antennas[23, 34]: The applications for microstrip antennas were those requiring small, lightweight, low profile, low‐cost conformal structures. Microstrip antennas of various types have thus been developed for use in mobile communication systems. The practical applications for mobile systems are in portable or pocket sized equipment such as UHF pagers, cell phones and manpack radars, and in vehicles such as cars, ships and aircrafts. The antennas used on missiles for telemetry and communication are generally microstrip antennas. Small arrays of microstrip radiators are used for radar altimeter antennas.
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Other airborne applications include antennas for telephone and satellite communication. Microstrip arrays have been used on satellite imaging systems such as SEASAT and SIR‐A. Smart weapons use microstrip for their thin profile and low cost. Current terrestrial cellular communication systems cannot provide complete coverage over a large global region. As a result, mobile‐to‐mobile communication would not be available in rural areas where no cellular station exists. A satellite based system can fulfill these needs by using either a few geostationary satellites or a large number of low‐earth orbiting satellites such as the Iridium system which employs 66 satellites. Multiple high gain microstrip phased arrays are used on each satellite so that the low gain omni‐directional antennas on the handheld phones on the ground can be served. Each of the satellite’s phased array employs hundreds of microstrip patches. Antennas for land mobile communications can be divided into those, meant for base stations and those for receivers. For base stations, the antenna radiates a sector beam in the horizontal plane in the 900 MHz band. A number of microstrip antenna arrays have been developed for this purpose. Such arrays usually employ two or four sub arrays. Each sub array consists of 2X4 microstrip elements with each element being a broadband microstrip element. For handheld portable equipment like cell phones and pagers, small size and lightweight antennas are required. Special microstrip antennas are used for this purpose, by modifying ordinary microstrip patch, by loading it with a short circuit, a dielectric cover with high εr to restore gain and electromagnetic coupling of feed is used to avoid direct feed impedance mismatch problem. Microstrip antennas have even found application in the field of medicine. Microwave energy has been found to be one of the most effective ways of inducing hyperthermia when treating malignant tumors. The radiator to be used in these cases must conform to the surface being treated and be lightweight, rugged and easy to handle and only a microstrip patch can satisfy these criteria. ‐ 7 ‐
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1.3
Planar InvertedF Antennas[1] The Inverted‐F Antenna (IFA) typically consists of a rectangular planar
element located above a ground plane, a short circuiting plate or pin, and a feeding mechanism for the planar element. The Inverted F antenna is a variant of the monopole where the top section has been folded down so as to be parallel with the ground plane. This is done to reduce the height of the antenna, while maintaining a resonant trace length. This parallel section introduces capacitance to the input impedance of the antenna, which is compensated by implementing a short‐circuit stub. The stub’s end is connected to the ground plane through via. The planar inverted‐F antenna (PIFA) can be considered as a kind of linear Inverted‐F antenna (IFA) with the wire radiator element replaced by a plate to expand the bandwidth.
Figure 1.2 Basic PIFA structure [1].
So, unlike microstrip antennas that are conventionally made of half wavelength dimensions, PIFA’s are made of just quarter‐wavelength. The ground plane of the antenna plays a significant role in its operation. Excitation of currents in the PIFA causes excitation of currents in the ground plane. PIFA has proved to be the most widely used internal antenna in commercial applications of cellular communication. In most of the research publications/ patents on multi‐band PIFA technology, the major success has been the design of a single feed PIFA with dual resonant frequencies resulting in essentially a Dual Band PIFA. Depending upon the achievable bandwidth around the resonant frequencies, the dual resonant PIFA can potentially cover more than 2 bands. ‐ 8 ‐
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1.3.1 Some of the Principal Advantages of PIFAs: 1. PIFA’s are just quarter wavelength in length and hence are much shorter than conventional patch antennas. 2. PIFA can easily be placed into the housing of the mobile phones as compared to whip/rod/helix antennas. 3. PIFA has reduced backward radiation toward the user’s head, minimizing the electromagnetic wave power absorption, called SAR (Specific Absorption Rate) and enhances antenna performance. 4. PIFA exhibits moderate to high gain in both vertical and horizontal states of polarization. This feature is very useful in certain wireless communications where the antenna orientation is not fixed and the reflections are present from the different corners of the environment. In those cases, the important parameter to be considered is the total field that is the vector sum of horizontal and vertical states of polarization.
1.3.2 Some of Their Major Disadvantages: 1. Narrow bandwidth characteristic of PIFA is one of the limitations for its commercial application for wireless mobile. However there are methods to increase the bandwidth of PIFA. These methods are discussed in detail in chapter‐3.[1] 2. The mechanical difficulty, the requirement of precise position between feed pin connection and short circuited plate to obtain input impedance of 50 ohm, is another problem in the practical application of PIFAs. ‐ 9 ‐
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1.4 Analytical Models for Microstrip Antennas [23] Analysis can provide an understanding of the operating principles that could be useful for a new design, for modifications of an existing design, and for the development of new antenna configurations.
The objective of antenna analysis is to predict the radiation characteristics
such as radiation patterns, gain, and polarization as well as near‐field characteristics such as input impedance, impedance bandwidth, mutual coupling, and antenna efficiency. These models include: 1. Transmission line model 2. Generalized transmission line model 3. Cavity model 4. Multiport network model These techniques maintain simplicity at the expense of accuracy. Full‐wave methods have received increasing attention due to their rigor and higher accuracy. These are, in general, based on Sommerfeld‐type integral equations, and the solution of Maxwell’s equations in the time domain. Prominent numerical methods include integral equation analysis in the spectral domain, integral equation analysis in the space domain, and the finite‐difference time‐domain (FDTD) approach.
1.4.1 Two Main Approaches Are: 1. Method of Moments approach (Frequency domain integral equation model based) 2. The finite‐difference time‐domain (FDTD) approach (Time domain differential equation model based). First one approach is discussed in detail in the chapter‐4. In this dissertation work IE3D simulation software package is used which is based on the Method of Moments. ‐ 10 ‐
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1.5 Problem Background Traditionally most mobile phones and handset haven been equipped with the monopole antennas, monopole antenna are very simple in design and construction and are well suited to mobile communication applications. The most common λ/4 monopole antenna is the whip antenna, which can operate at range of frequencies and deal with most environmental conditions, better than other monopole antennas. However, the monopole antenna possesses a number of drawbacks. Monopole antennas are relatively large in size and protrude from the handset case in an awkward way. This problem with the monopole’s obstructive and space demanding structure also complicate any efforts taken to equip a handset with several antennas to enable multilane operation. Monopole antennas also lack any built‐in shielding mechanisms, to direct any radiating waves away from user’s body, thus increasing the potential risk of producing cancerous tumors growth in the user’s head and reducing the antenna efficiency. In recent years, the demand for compact handheld communication devices has grown significantly. Devices smaller than palm size have appeared in the market. Antenna size is a major factor that limits device miniaturization. In addition to solve the problem of broadening the antenna bandwidth to the required specification of the system, one has to worry about developing new structure for devices that require more than one frequency band of operation. Multiband wireless phone has become popular recently because they permit people to use the same phone in multi network that have different frequencies. Table 1.1 lists a few useful wireless applications and their operating frequencies. Systems that require multiband operation require antenna that resonate at the specific frequencies. This only adds complexity to the antenna design problem. ‐ 11 ‐
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Table 1.1: Frequency Bands for a few Wireless Applications.
Wireless
Frequency
Applications
(MHz)
GSM‐900
890‐960
GSM‐1800 (DCS)
1710‐1880
GSM‐1900(USA)
1850‐1990
Bands
(PCS) 3G‐(UMTS2000)
1885‐2200
(WLAN)or ISM
2400‐2483
1.6 Objectives and Methodology of the Dissertation Work The fundamental aim of this thesis is to design a multi band antenna suitable for telephone handsets. By using suitable antenna, the space demand of the antenna as part of a telephone handset can be minimized, thus reducing the obtrusiveness of the handset’s appearance. This design has these primary objectives: •
Select and design an efficient, low profile and realizable antenna capable of operating at a number of frequencies bands
•
Verify the operations of the antenna at the prescribed frequencies in terms of impedance and field patterns, using electromagnetic simulation software ZELAND IE3D which is based on Method of Moments.
•
Discuss the simulated result in terms of return loss, radiation pattern, antenna gain and efficiency.
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In order to achieve the first objective as set out above, a comprehensive literature review is required to obtain an antenna that requires minimal modification to suit the requirements of this design. As the process of optimizing an antenna’s dimensions to meet a set of specifications is highly rigorous, fading an antenna that operates efficiently at three required frequencies, as well being compact and having a low profile, is very much desired.
1.7 Organization of the Thesis Chapter1
This chapter includes the introduction part of the project, the problem background with the objectives, methodology and the implementation plan of this project.
Chapter2
This chapter represents the literature review, including the historical developments.
Chapter3
This chapter represents designing theory of multiband antenna, antenna size reduction and bandwidth enhancement techniques.
Chapter4
This chapter represents design and simulation, overview on Method of Moments (MoM) Technique, introduction to Zeland IE3D software and its features.
Chapter5
This chapter includes the result and the discussion of the simulation, in terms of return Loss, efficiency, gain, the two‐dimensional near‐ field patterns and the two‐dimensional far‐field patterns.
Chapter6
This chapter represents conclusions and future work.
After that References are given. Designing procedures and simulation set up are given in Appendix.
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