Biology Reviewer (midterms).pdf

BIOLOGY MIDTERM REVIEWER

Careers in Biology -

Computer analysts and web designers Lawyers and legal experts Medico-legal cases and crime investigators Public servants Insurance companies (humane genome project) Human resource managers Mass media industry

Biotechnology

Application of technology to Biology

Genetics

Study of heredity and variation

Evolution

Theory that organisms change over time with respect to their environment

Ecology

Study of biotic and abiotic factors and their interactions with each other

Taxonomy

DINC (describing, identifying, naming, classifying) *under systematics

Phylogeny

Study of genetic trees, or history and relationship between organisms *under systematics

Morphology

Study of an organism relative to another organism, comparison of organisms

Anatomy

Study of body parts

Physiology

Study of body functions

Cardiobiology

Study of the human heart

Neurobiology

Study of the nervous system

Parasitology

Study of parasites

Microbiology

Study of organisms

Exobiology

Study of the possibility of extraterrestrial life

Histology

Study of tissues

Paleontology

Study of fossil records

Fields of Study BRANCH

DEFINITION

Zoology

Study of animals (land)

Ichthyology

Study of fish

Herpetology

Study of reptiles and amphibians

Ornithology

Study of birds

Entomology

Study of insects

Botany

Study of​ ​plants (land)

Bacteriology

Study of bacteria

Virology

Study of viruses

Mycology

Study of fungi

Phycology

Study of algae or plant-like protists

Protozoology

Study of protozoans or animal-like protists

Cell Biology (Cytology)

Molecular Biology

Study of what’s inside the cell and their interactions Study of biomolecules that make up an organism (biomolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleotides)

Filipino Scientists Fe Del Mundo - Pediatrician - First pediatric hospital in the PH - Bamboo incubator and jaundice-relieving device - Worked with infectious diseases caused by microorganisms (Microbiology) Pedro Escuro - Rice Breeding (Genetics) - Isolation of 9 rice varieties that were eventually commercially released - Varieties were resistant to pests and harmful conditions

Gregorio Velasquez - Phycology - Intensive study and collection of the PH blue-green algal species Clara Lim-Sylianco - Biochemistry - Pioneered the research on carcinogenic agents found in food, drugs, insecticides, and environmental pollutants - First to report on anti-cancer agents found in some 50 PH plants including ampalaya, malunggay, and coconut oil

Advancements in Biology Genetic Engineering and Cloning

Angel Alcala - Marine Ecology - Invented artificial coral reefs that helped preserve the PH’s aquatic ecosystems Dolores Ramirez - Plant Breeding (Genetics) - Genetics of various Philippine products (rice, coconuts, banana, sugarcane, etc.) - Macapuno (mutation of buko seed) Dioscoro Umali - Father of PH Plant Breeding (Genetics) - Improvements of rice, corn, and other economic plants - Mango hero (made mangoes available all year around)

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subject and creating an exact replica of it using lab techniques -

Carmen Velasquez - Microbiology and Parasitology - Discovered the presence of parasites in PH food fishes

Advantages: better harvests, most desirable traits guaranteed

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Disadvantages: resistance to diseases is the same (cloning), ethical concerns for human GMOs

In-Vitro Fertilization -

involves getting a sperm and egg cell and fertilizing them in a test tube; after, the fertilized egg is put back in the mother’s womb

Jose Velasco - Plant Physiology - Elon-elon variety flowered during short days when there was less than 12 hours of light - Discovered the cause of cadang-cadang, an element toxic to the plant

entails obtaining a DNA sample from a

Advantages: allows couples who have difficulty conceiving to conceive

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Disadvantages: expensive, not 100% guaranteed, painful for the female, possible complications

Chemotherapy -

form of cancer treatment which slows down the growth of cancer cells; affects the entire

body and has several side effects; radiation that targets highly-mutative cells -

Advantages: inhibits the growth of cancer cells

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Disadvantages: kills healthy cells as well; side effects such as nausea, hair loss, etc., late side effects (varying on the kind of chemotherapy drug) like infertility, heart problems, etc

Plastic Surgery -

surgical specialty involving the restoration, reconstruction, or alteration of the human body

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Advantages: attainment of desired features, correction/reconstruction of parts damaged by health issues

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Disadvantages: cost, risks and possible complications such as infections and implant leakage

Vaccines -

preventive drugs; ​administration of antigenic material to stimulate an individual's immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen

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Advantages: prevents the spread of diseases

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Disadvantages: not 100% guaranteed, mild reactions to the vaccine, natural immunity (ex: contracting chicken pox to develop antibodies) > artificial immunity (vaccines)

CRISPR-Cas9 -

Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats

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Guide RNA partners with original DNA then attracts Cas9, which cuts the DNA; gene is then inserted

Types of Microscopes Compound Microscope - Image is inverted - Movement is opposite - LPO, HPO, and Oil Immersion Objectives Stereomicroscope - 3D, colored image - Follows the movement of the specimen - Dissecting microscope

Higher Magnification, Lower FOV, Lower Light, Lower Working Distance Total Magnification = eyepiece x objective T otal M agnif ication = (eyepiece)(objective) LP O M ag

H P O F OV = ( HP O M ag ) (LP O F OV ) Phase Contrast Microscope - Converts phase shifts in light passing through a transparent specimen to brightness changes in the image - Used for live organisms Scanning Electron Microscope - Sends a beam of electrons across the specimen from left to right - Beam of electrons bounces in all directions - 3D image, black and white - 100,000x - 200,000x

Estimate Specimen Size = 1/N x HPO FOV; where N is the no. of cells that can fit in the FOV 1 mm = 1 micrometer

Parts of a Microscope Mechanical - used to support and adjust the parts Magnifying - used to enlarge specimen Illuminating - used to provide light

Transmission Electron Microscope - Beam of electrons is absorbed through the specimen - Creates a clear, detailed image on a TV-like screen - 2D, black and white - 200,000x - 500,000x

Measurements in Microscopy Resolution - Shortest distance between 2 points on a specimen that can still be observed as separate entities Magnification - Process of enlarging something in appearance, NOT in physical size Field of Vision - Diameter of the circle of light seen through the eyepiece Working Distance Distance between objectives and stage

Laboratory Equipment Compound Microscope- magnifies microscopic organisms or specimen Stereomicroscope - used to magnify large specimen Coverslip/Glass Slide- container for the specimen to be viewed under the microscope Petri Dish - a container for growing microorganisms and cells

Test Tube - a container for small samples under observation

Flammable

Catches fire easily

Radioactiv e

Emits radiation

Irritant

Produces vapors or fumes which irritate the eyes, nose, and throat

Petrol, Kerosene, Alcohol, Hydrogen

Test Tube Rack - a stand where test tubes are placed for observation Alcohol Lamp - used for heating samples and substances Wire Loop - used to transfer microorganisms (inoculate) from one medium to another Wire Needle - used to transfer microorganisms (stab inoculate) from one medium to another Graduated Cylinder - used to measure volume of liquids Corrosive

Eats away other substances

Pasteur Pipette - used to transfer small amounts of liquid Dissecting Pan - used as a container to fix specimen for dissection Dissecting Scissors - used to cut parts of specimen during dissection Scalpel - used to slice parts of the specimen during dissection Digital Balance - used to measure the mass of substances

Hazard Symbols Symbol

Name

Definition

Explosive

Reacts violently when heated or struck

Toxic

Harmful even in small doses

Examples

Flash powder, propane, gas

Methanol, Cyanide, Carbon Monoxide, Chlorine

Hazardous to the Environme nt

Biohazard

Radioactive carbon, Uranium

Phenol, Chloroform

Sulfuric Acid, Potassium Hydroxide, NaOH Pellets

Poses a potential threat to the environmen t

Carcinogens, Chlorofluorocar bons (CFC), batteries

A poisonous and infectious substance

Medical Waste, Microorganisms , Urine, Blood

Laboratory Techniques Wet Mount and Dry Mount of Specimen - In order to view some specimen under the microscope, they must be prepared on a slide with a liquid medium (to retain structural integrity) Centrifugation - Used to separate solid from liquid components like blood samples - Produces a precipitate (sinks) and a supernatal

Polymerase Chain Reaction - Used to create copies of DNA for molecular screening Agarose Gel Electrophoresis - Used to separate fragments of DNA and protein molecules - DNA (negative charge) is charged and separated Aseptic Technique and Culturing Bacteria - Sterile technique used in handling cultures of growth of microorganisms - Used to isolate microorganisms Dissection and Microdissection - Dismembering of a deceased animal or plant to study its anatomical structure - To examine cells and microorganisms Autoclaving - Sterilization of materials used in the laboratory with intense heat - Kill microorganisms - 400 psi for 15 minutes

Values -

Belong to an individual; different set of values for different people

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Basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or motivate attitudes or actions

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Influenced by culture and upbringing

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Rules by which we make decisions and prioritize

Bioethics -

Field that explores challenging moral issues in healthcare and the environment

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Helps us make decisions about how best to use new scientific knowledge

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Bioethical questions arise because of our social responsibility towards others and our community

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Best course of action is always to save lives

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Never deliberately take a life with no moral and bioethical basis as all life forms have the right to live

Bioethics History of Bioethics

Ethics -

Deals with concepts of right and wrong

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Standards of how people ought to act; study of morals

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Framework or basis to interpret what is right and wrong

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Moral compass

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Fixed and unchanging

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Old medical practices cannot moderate the spectacular advances of biology and medicine

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Examples

1. Genetic advances 2. The concept of death 3. Sustaining the life of the very sick 4. Abortion 5. Medical costs

Morals -

Manners and character

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Social responsibility

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Relative to time and place

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Depends on the values of the community

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Standards used to distinguish what is right and wrong (set by society)

6. Evolving society: government, culture, religion

Four Principles of Bioethics

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Panspermia ●

Autonomy -

pan(all)sperm(seed)ia

Respect for persons and their natural worth

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as an individual -

“Seed of everything” ; Asteroid containing “ingredients of life” struck the earth

Acknowledges the person’s right to make

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Divine creation

his or her own decision

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Abiogenesis

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Animals do not have autonomy

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Parents or the closest relatives decide for

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Life started from no life; a(non)bio(life)genesis(start)

minors and the mentally ill

Manifestations of Life Beneficence -

Maximize the benefits of technological advancements

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Basic unit of life

Refers to when we ask what can make the

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Building blocks of living things

most good and least harm

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Organisms vary in terms of the number of

Preventing harm, removing harm, or improving the situation

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1) All life forms must be composed of cells

cells (unicellular and multicellular) -

Can also pertain to defending the rights of others, rescuing those in danger and

Prokaryotic cells: genetic material is NOT enclosed in a membrane

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helping individuals with disabilities

Eukaryotic cells: genetic material is enclosed in a membrane

Non-Maleficence

All cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm and a cell membrane

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Do NOT be the direct source of harm

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Viruses are not living things (NOT a cell)

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Minimize harm

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Organisms are made up of different types of cells based on their function

Justice -

Considers how we can treat people fairly

2) There are levels of organization in life/Living

and equally

things are organized.

Sharing of resources, risks, and costs

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Atom → Molecule → Macromolecule →

according to what is due to each person

Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ →

Prioritize the pregnant, the children and the

Organ System → Organism → Population

elderly in that order

→ Community → Ecosystem → Biome → Biosphere

Origin of Life -

Extra-terrestrial origin ●

Prehistoric earth cannot make life on its own

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Uray - Miller experiment: amino acids can be obtained but not DNA

3) Life forms metabolize/obtain and use energy -

Metabolism: sum of all chemical activities of the organism

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Catabolism: breaking down to make

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Prevents extinction of a species

more simple ●

Anabolism: combining to make more

9) Life forms contain DNA

complex

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DNA = genetic material

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Metabolics: study of metabolism

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Molecular blueprint of life

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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): molecular

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Gives us our identity

unit of currency

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DNA → mRNA → Proteins

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Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs ●

Autotrophs can make their own food

4) Life forms respond to stimuli -

Biomolecules Nutrient Test 

Stimuli: everything that can be perceived by

Tests

Nutrient Tested

Positive Color Change

Biuret

Protein

Purple or Violet

Lugol’s

Starch

Dark Blue to Black

Benedict’s

Glucose

Yellow to Orange

Indophenol

Vitamin C

Light Brown

Silver Nitrate

Chlorides

White Precipitate

Brown Paper

Lipids

Grease Stain

our senses -

Individual and immediate response

5) Life forms grow and develop -

Every organisms goes through a particular pattern of growth

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Organisms undergo stages of growth in their life cycle

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Metamorphosis: Changes happening during growth (puberty)

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Grow: increase in size

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Develop: change in function

  6) Life forms reproduce -

Produce offspring

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Parents pass on their characteristics to their offspring during reproduction

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Sexually: 2 parents, 2 gametes, genetic variation

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Asexually: exact copy, no genetic variation

7) Life forms maintain homeostasis -

Homeostasis: internal balance

8) Life forms can adapt to their environment -

Change overtime as means of adapting to the changing environment

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Evolution: genetic variation, traits passed on

Organic Compounds - Compounds that contain both carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons) - Carbon atoms covalently bonded to one another - Inorganic: Carbon not bonded to another carbon or hydrogen - Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic acids (Biomolecules) Organic Molecules & Chemical Bonds Polymers

Monomers

Chemical Bonds

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharide

Glycosidic

Proteins

Amino Acids

Peptide

Lipids

Fatty Acids &

Ester

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Glycerol Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides

Phosphodiester

Formation of Polymers - Polymerization: Dehydration Synthesis (Releases H2O)

Long molecules made of similar repeating monomers - Ex. nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates - Lipids are not polymers because they DO NOT have a monomer Biomolecules can be broken apart (catabolism) or be built (anabolism) 4 Biomolecules (Dela paz)

Breaking-down of Polymers - Hydrolysis Reaction (Adds H2O to break the bond)

*hydrolysis vs. hydration - hydrolysis occurs at the molecular level while hydration occurs at the macro-level Nature and Structure (Sir Cheo) Organic vs. Inorganic Compounds - Organic: composed of carbons structured in chains or rings covalently bonded to hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen - Carbon atoms covalently bonded to one another - Inorganic: small and simple structure, usually does not contain carbons and long carbon chains - Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic acids (Biomolecules) Polymers

Carbohydrates - Main source of energy for cell activities (starch & sugar) - Made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen - Long chains of monosaccharides (sugar molecules) bonded together form polysaccharides - Important polysaccharides found in living things are starch & glucose - Monomers - The simple sugars - Glucose (blood sugar) is used as the main energy source in the body - Fructose is a sugar found in honey or fruits - Galactose is a sugar found in milk and yogurt - Disaccharide - two sugar monomers formed through dehydration synthesis - Sucrose (common table sugar) = glucose + fructose - Lactose (major sugar found in milk) = glucose + galactose - Maltose (product of starch digestion) = glucose + glucose - Polymers - The complex carbohydrates - Starch & cellulose are long chains of simple sugars - Starch - found in corn - Cellulose - found in plant leaves & tree trunks (indigestible) - Glycogen - found in animal liver -

Simple sugars are bonded together through Glycosidic Bonds

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Lipids -

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Ex. starch is composed of glucose molecules bonded together through glycosidic bonds Foods rich in carbohydrates - Starchy Food: Bread, Cereals, Pasta, Rice, Potatoes, Beans, Chestnuts

Include fats and oils Fats are solid in room temperature Oils are liquid in room temperature In living organisms, lipids form part of the structure of cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer) Extra food that is not immediately needed as a source of energy is changed to fat and stored Lipids are a source of stored energy in living organisms Also contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen The monomers of lipids are fatty acids and glycerol Formed through the dehydration synthesis of fatty acids and glycerol Saturated fatty acids (single bonds) - Solid due to the single bond Unsaturated fatty acids (double bonds) - Liquid due to the double covalent bond Ester Linkage - connects the glycerol chain to the fatty acid chains Cholesterol - constituent of membranes and the source of steroid hormones Lipids in Biological Membranes (Phospholipids) - hydrophilic heads (polar) and hydrophobic tails (nonpolar) create a phospholipid bilayer Triglyceride - Long term energy storage - The energy stored will be used when the immediate source is depleted

Nucleic Acids - Very large molecules made up of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus

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The simplest unit or building block of nucleic acids is the nucleotide Nucleotides are composed of a sugar molecule, a nitrogen base, and a phosphate group Phosphodiester Bond - 5’ to 3’ - Two sugar molecules connected by the phosphate group - The phosphate group in a nucleotide bonds with the 5th carbon of the first sugar molecule - The phosphate group then bonds with the 3rd carbon of the second sugar molecule Flow of biological information DNA -> mRNA -> protein

Proteins - Form important cell products such as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and hemoglobin - Pay an important role in cell repair and growth - Made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen 4 Biomolecules (Sir Cheo) Carbohydrates - Organic compound composed of C, H & O in a 1:2:1 ratio (except for the majority of polysaccharides) - Function: main source of energy for all living things - Building block: monosaccharide - Terms: Monosaccharide: glucose, galactose fructose Disaccharide: sucrose (gl + f), lactose (gl + ga), maltose (gl + gl) Polysaccharide: starch (energy for plants), glycogen (energy for animals), cellulose (makes up cell walls) - Linked by glycosidic bonds - Sugars: produced by plants during photosynthesis and are the primary sources of enerygy for most organisms

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Used in cell walls of plants and other organisms (when sugars are placed together into complex carbs like cellulose, they become strong and rigid)

Lipids - Made up of a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acids - Organic compound made up of C, H, & O, but not in any fixed ratio - Function: energy utilization, hormone regulation, protection - Building block: fatty acid - Triglyceride = 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids linked by ester bond - Lipids contain MORE ENERGY than carbohydrates - Fatty Acids ● Saturated: all C atoms are joined by single bonds (solid fats) ● Unsaturated: C chain contain double or triple bonds (oils) - Types of Lipids ● Fats from animals(Saturated) ● Oils from plants (Unsaturated) ● Phospholipid: hydrophilic, polar heads with hydrophobic, nonpolar tails (has a kink) that make up the phospholipid bilayer of a cell membrane ● Steroids: has effect on emotions (ex. testosterone, Vitamin D, cholesterol ● Carotenoids Proteins - Made up of amino acids (peptides) - Also known as polypeptides - Most diverse group of biomolecules, perform the largest variety of functions - Building block: amino acid - Linked by peptide bond - Composition of Monomer: amino group, hydroxyl group, side chain (R-group)

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Number of side chains: each of the 20 unique amino acids corresponds to a different side chain (20 side chains) Functions: transport molecules through membranes, attack germs, carry oxygen through blood, send signals to body Order of amino acids give the protein its shape and in turn determines its function Types based on structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary ● Quaternary proteins ○ Hemoglobin: transports oxygen and iron in the blood stream ○ Myoglobin: transports oxygen and iron in the muscle

Nucleic Acids - Main functions: heredity, protein synthesis, energy (ex. Adenosine triphosphate or ATP) - Building block: Nucleotide - Linked by phosphodiester bond (phosphate to sugar) - Structure: phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar (pentose), nitrogenous base - Nitrogenous bases (linked by hydrogen bonds): ● Purines (double ring): Adenine and Guanine ● Pyrimidines (single ring): Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil - Types of pentose in nucleotide ● deoxyribose (deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA) ● Ribose (ribonucleic acid or RNA)