Ap Bio Giant Review Pt2

Bio Review Pt 2 1. Redox reaction is an oxygen reduction reaction and it is used in cellular process to make assorted oxidation molecules necessary for cell survival. 2. Endothermic reactions absorb heat, feels cold to touch, and exothermic reactions release heat, feel hot to touch. 3. Catalysts are objects that aid in the speed of a reaction and lower the activation energy. Enzymes are a form of catalyst. 4. Enzymes have specific activation sites that substrate molecules fit into and when a substrate if fitted there, the enzyme breaks down the substrate and thus, lowering the activation energy needed if there is no enzyme present. 5. Activation energy is the energy needed to start a reaction, with out it, the reaction won’t start. And in exo-reactions there is little activation energy, while in endo-reactions a great deal is needed. 6. There are 3 types of factors that affect an enzyme. There are 2 types of inhibitors and competitors. These factors change the shape of the activation site on the enzyme thus preventing the correct substrate from fitting in. 7. Negative feed back is when an output product of a reaction stops the process from happening again. It is like an automatic shut off switch. 8. ATP is special because the unstable configuration of the phosphate group allows the molecule to store energy that can be used in cellular functions. 9. During glycolysis, 2 ATP and pyruvates are released as products. 10. The Krebb’s cycle, lots of NADH and CO2 are released as products. 11. The electron transport chain moves electron along a membrane which activates proton pumps, which creates a unbalanced proton gradient and the passive diffusion of protons put a H+ and OH- ion together, and forming ATPs in the process. 12. Oxygen is needed to create the OH- ions which will be made into water. 13. NADH and FADH2 are donators of H+ ions. 14. Chemiosmosis is the diffusion of ions through a selective permeable membrane, such as H+ going through proton pumps. 15. Chloroplasts are made of stacks of thylacoids and each thylacoid have lots of chlorophyll in it. 16. Light enters the chlorophyll and energizes the electrons and the electrons go through an electron transport chain, driving a proton pump, which in turn makes ATP. 17. Photosynthesis creates lots of ATPs and NADHP which is used in the calvin cycle to produce carbon based sugars. 18. We ingest the product of photosynthesis as food and break them down for energy. 19. The Calvin Cycle uses carbons from carbon dioxide and ATPs to create carbon based glucose and starch and etc. 20. NADPH is used to contribute the H+ ions used in the Calvin Cycle 21. The C3 and C4 pathways use different carbon chain and consume different amounts of energy to produce carbon products. 22. Rubisco is an enzyme used during the Calvin Cycle which is used to break down CO2 molecules and separate Carbon atoms. 23. In the plant electron transport chain, the transport chain use used to make both NADPH and ATP and can go in cycle or straight, while the mitochondria is one way. 1. When the DNA is in the nucleus, it can be loose in lots of strands or tightly coiled over and over again to form chromosome. 2. Euchromatin and heterochromatin are different substances which the DNA is wrapped around, different in size. 3. A karyotype is used to map the different chromosome pairs and determine the n number and how each organism differs. 4. Centromeres are point the sister chromatids connect. It is what “digests” the spindle fiber during anaphase. 5. DNA is uncoiled during the synthesis phase. 6. Controlled by different checkpoints during the cell cycle. 7. Crossing over is when the two inner strands of chromosomes exchange with one another, creating new gene sequences. 8. Synapsis is when two homologous chromosomes pair up with one another. It can help contribute to random sorting during meiosis. 9. Meiosis help with evolution because during meiosis, new gene sequences are created and thus no two offspring are the same, thus limiting the chance of a specie ending disease.

10. Meiosis does not really go through anaphase until the second phase. Before the sister chromatins did not separate. 11. Genotype is the actually allele representation of a person’s genes, while phenotype is the physical out come of the genes. 12. Blue recessive genes are usually hidden. They are not gone just over shadowed by the brown eye trait. 13. a = red, b = pink, c = red and white. 14. Using predetermined statistics, a test cross can show whether it is homozygous or not. 15. Yes a dihybrid cross can be worked. 16. Hershey and Chase used virus and the items that made up a virus to determine that DNA is what get’s passed on, not protein. 17. Griffith and Avery discovered that the ratio between the bases are equal for T and A and C and G. 18. 19. Okazaki fragments are fragments during DNA replications that go in opposite direction and must be manual joined later. 20. The Histones something unzips the DNA 21. The RNA primers allow the DNA polymerase to attach properly in the 3 to 5 direction. 22. DNA Ligase is responsible for joining the Okazaki fragments into one strand of DNA. 23. DNA is a double strand of nucleic acid while RNA is single strand. Also instead of T, RNA got U. 24. A and T goes together because of the number of H bonds they can form. And C and G are the same way. 25. In translation, DNA is turned into RNA through RNA polymerase. Afterwards, the finished RNA goes out of the nucleus and a ribosome attaches and transcriptions takes place where various amino acids are attached according to the RNA and then Proteins are formed. 26. The orders of amino acids give the protein different electro-negativity and thus different activation site and bonding site. Thus the shape of the protein determines what kind of job it will perform. 27. The operon is made of an operator which is a switch, a promoter which where the RNA polymerase attaches and the Gene sequence, which is what the RNA polymerase codes off of for products. 28. During Transcription, there is no double checking the RNA strands unlike DNA replication, and thus mistakes often occur and wrong proteins are then later made. Thus the cell is constantly in alert of repairing itself. 29. Because there is no fool proof of correcting the transcription, and we are not dying early enough before the transcriptions occur to kill the reason for the errors. 30. UV radiations can damage the cells and the UV rays could cause different energy changes in the DNA which could result in mutation in the gene sequence, which in turn could produce wrong proteins and do harm to cell. 31. Transposons are genes which can freely move around the cell and cause mutations. Moving Genes.