Ap Bio Giant Review Pt1

Bio Review 1st Installment: 1. Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom. Mass number is the number of protons and the neutrons added together. Isotope is atoms w/ same numbers of proton and different numbers of neutron. Isotopes have same atomic number but different mass number. 2. Half life is the time it takes half the amount of the atoms in a radioactive material to go through radioactive decay, and release radioactive particles. 3. Energy in atoms can be held by the nucleus and the electrons. The electrons hold normal energy such as “heat” and “light” while nucleus holds atomic energy – intermolecular forces. Regular energy is used for normal chemical reactions, while atomic energies is consumed and released in large quantities, not usable in regular circumstances. Only in fusion and fission. 4. Chemical bonds come in Ionic and Covalent. Ionic involves the exchanging of electrons and the attraction between opposite charges, while covalent bonds depends on shared electrons, and the atoms are bonded by intermolecular forces. 5. Valence electrons are the electrons on the outer most shell of an atom and are used to in bonding, thus all chemical bondings depend on valence electrons. 6. Electron negativity is based on the forces pulling on the electrons between the oxygen molecules and hydrogen molecules. The atoms pull electrons toward their own nucleus at different strength, cause electron negativity. Surface tension is caused by water molecules adhesion to each other due to it's high polar state caused by electron negativity. Hydrogen bond holds H2O molecules together. H-bonds exist only between a specific electron negativity range. Too high then it's ionic and too low it's covalent. H2O has high specific heat due to the great amount of strength between the H2O molecules. High bond strength requires greater amount of heat energy to separate the intermolecular bonds. H2O is hydrophilic. It is water, thus it likes other water molecules in order to achieve cohesion. Water is neither acid nor base. It is neutral. Inside a cell, water often have different organelles within, the objects plus the cohesive property of water makes it very viscous. pH is calculated by taking the negative log of the molarity of the H+ ion concentration in the liquid. If pH is greater than 7, it is usually taken the pOH and subtract from 14. Only molecules with oxygen atoms, nitrogen atoms, hydrogen atoms, and fluoride atoms can achieve H-bond. 7. Macromolecules include fatty acid, carbohydrates, protein, and DNA/nucleic acid. Fatty acid is long carbon chain with hydrogen atoms on the side. It is used to store energy in least space taking form. Carbohydrates is made of carbon rings connected together. The carbon rings are connected to OH- ions and linked together, forms a much more complex way to story energy. However it is inefficient to store energy that way, a lot can be packed together. Protein is made of assorted elements folded in different shapes to facilitate bodily chemical reactions. And nucleic acid is made of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. It is used to form genetic informations due to various ways of arranging the DNA. 8. Organic chemistry uses function groups that contain carbon bonds, oxygen bonds, and nitrogen bonds for those three elements are essential for survival of carbon based organisms. 9. Dehydration is the removal of H+ and OH- ends in monomers so to form bigger macromolecules. While hydrolysis is the break up of water molecules and fitting the H+ and OH- ions to the ends of macromolecules so to break them up to smaller monomers. 10. A polymer must be a chain of monomer connected together and create a functioning molecule. 11. Carbon have 4 valence electrons, it can be either made positive ion or negative ion. It allows a great number of atoms to be attached to it, and can fold into many different forms to accommodate different orientation required for chemical reaction. 12. Carbohydrates are sugar connected in the same orientation. Di are 2 glucose molecules connected together and polysaccharides are many glucose molecules connected together. 13. Isomers are molecules made up of same number of atoms (same number in kind and actual count) but have different arranges. They are denoted in it's chemical formula and the naming of the molecule. 14. Fat can be saturated or unsaturated. It means the carbon links can be completely filled w/ H+ ions or have holes. Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature. 15. The saturated fats have filled carbon chain, makes them much more structure stable. Thus it's solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fat have double bonds between carbon chain, thus the bonds between fatty acids are unstable, resulting in liquid state in room temperature. 16. Proteins have assorted uses, ranging from transportation, to chemical reaction, to markers. Fibrous is used as markers and also in muscles to facilitate movement. Globular can be enzymes that encase substrates and facilitate chemical reaction. And small peptides are used to from organelles for cellular functions. 17. The amino acid are used on their link in the RNA chain. Depending on the original DNA marker, useless codings are usually cut out during RNA synthesis and thus unused code for amino acid are never translated. 18. Hydrophobic and hydrophilic help proteins to it's shape and bends the amino acids in order of water presences. 19. The different structure of proteins are basically different ways to fold amino acids. It can start as a line of amino acids – primary, after first folding it can be secondary. Fold again from bent to circular can be tertiary. And finally complex foldings to form specific structures will from the quaternary proteins. 20. Denaturization is when proteins loses it's structures due to pressure, heat, or stress. When proteins are denatured, it loses it's functionability and can no longer do the job it used to do. (wrong structure thus old substrates can't fit anymore) 21. DNA and RNA have the same nucleotides from person to person. Also, the basic structures are the same (about 99.99%) in order to form same kind of humans. The difference creates the different faces and different body traits. 22. The origin of life is still a mystery. How ever carbon is needed to create life, same as proteins for it is essential for building bodily organs and cells. Energy is also an absolute must, thus energy sources like the sun and heat are needed to sustain life. 23. All living things are made of cells, have membrane, go through homeostasis, can metabolize for energy, and can die. 24. Endosymbiotic theory says that early bacterias encase one another and the inside still lives and helps the outside bacteria survive by providing easier energy, while the bigger bacteria help by more efficient transportation and food intake. Evidence can be see by the various organelles, especially the mitochondria for it contains it's own DNA and can digest food. 25. The cell theory says that all organism are born and made of cells. Not made into law due to uncertain for the come about of the first cell. 26. Prokaryote cells are single cell bacterias that have cell wall, membrane, DNA (not in nucleus) and ribosoms. Animals cells and plant cells have a nucleus and DNA inside it, assorted organelles. Plants also have a central vacuole and cell wall.

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Gram staining can tell the structure of the bacteria's outer cell wall. + and – can tell whether the bacteria have only cell walls or extra membrane that encase it's cell wall. Cells are small due to the fact that to obtain chemical energy, the small molecules must be broken down and only small organelles are capable of doing that. Also the support of cells is very fragile within a single cell. Large cells can't take it's weigh within earth's gravity. Plant cell wall are made of cellulose, which is inverse connected glucose molecules. Human digestive tract does not contain the right enzymes and material needed to break the covalent bond, thus it is not digestible. Nuclear envelope is a membrane that coats the nucleus of a cell. It is designed to be easily taken apart and reformed for cellular division occurs often within cells and in order to make quick copies of itself it needs to copy the DNA too and that kind of nucleus makes it easy to make new copies. There is rough and smooth ER. Rough is responsible for making ribosomes while smooth is responsible for manufacture of steroids and lipids. A cell with lots of ER could be used to develop organelles for other cells are used heavily for energy storage. The Golgi is used to package substances in cells by enveloping them in membrane. Lysozomes are used primary as recycle centers of the cell. They contain high pH acids within and use them to break down old molecules and organelles and use the monomers to for new organelles. The Mitochondria uses it's folded membrane on the inside to achieve maximum surface area while taking least amount of space. It is important due to the fact that it uses it the membrane and inter membrane space to create different concentration of H+ ions so to form electron transport chain and create ATP. Chloroplasts are used to gather sunlight and the solar energy so to convert it into ATP usable by carbon based organisms. Grana are stacks of thylakoids and within each thylakoids there are tons of small chloroplasts. Actin in cytoskeleton are used to maintain basic cell structure, microtubules are used during cell division and the separation of chromosomes. Finally intermediate fibers are the basic “bones” of the cell. Phospholipid – cell membrane pic

The polar side of the phospholipid line up on the outside, facing the water while the non-polar sides are on the inside, away from the water. Forming 2 layers “back to back.” Proteins are embedded on the membrane for various jobs such as markers, transportation tools. Uncharged polar particles can be diffused easiest depending on concentration of the particle. Hydrostatic pressure is dependent on how much water is in a cell. A cell can maintain it by active transporting ions into or out of cells, thus maintaining pressure by passive diffusing water molecules. Contractile vacuoles are found in single cell organisms such as amoeba. Due to high concentration of organelles and other substances, water tends to diffuse into those cells, and it uses a contractile vacuoles to squeeze out the water so it won't burst. In pinocytosis, a pouch is used to contain the incoming particles, while in receptor endocytosis, different receptor proteins activate gate ways in cell membrane and allow particles in. When exporting food/nutrients and excretion cell uses exocytosis. Proton pumps are used in mitochondria in order to create an unbalanced concentration so the then passive diffusion can indirectly create ATP. Without clathrin, then your cells can no longer do endocytosis by pinocytosis. Also some pouch organelles will stop functioning. Chemical gated ion channels are used to active transport or passive transport ions. Such as proton pump. Enzymatic receptors are enzymes that accept a substrate and in turn release a different substance into the cell. G-protein receives a substrate on the outside and inside the cell, and in turn releases several different smaller substances into the cell. 2nd messenger is a method of cellular signaling, whereby a diffusable signaling molecule is rapidly produced/secreted which can then go on to activate effector proteins within the cell to exert a cellular response. The steps in 46 and 47 is the basis in passing off different signals in especially nervous system. That is the way how different signals passes from one body part to another and how the body reacts to stimulus. Cell can join side by side, like one block next to each other, this provide easy movement, used for regular block tissues. Cell can also join by interweaving one another like muscle cells. This way better grip is provided and the tissue is less likely to come apart and move around. Finally cells can connect like snakes eating other's tails, in a line. Nerve cells are connected this way to provide an information line.