Ancient Near Eastern Art

ARH101

Ancient Near Eastern Art

Sumerian Art

The cities of Sumer were the first to practice intensive, year-round agriculture (from ca. 5300 BC). However, such agriculture appeared independently in multiple civilizations close to the same time as Sumer. The surplus of storable food created by this economy allowed the population to settle in one place instead of migrating after crops and grazing land. It also allowed for a much greater population density, and in turn required an extensive labor force and division of labor. This organization led to the necessity of record keeping and the development of writing (ca. 3500 BC).

The contribution of the Sumerians in the area of mathematics and science were notable. They counted flocks, measured grain, and surveyed fields. They also developed methods for measuring time, distance, area, and quantity. The Sumerians created, for example, a number system based on 60, which gives us our 60 minute hour and our 360 degree circle; they also developed a lunar calendar, with a year of 12 months and 360 days.

Sumerian and Egyptian Civilizations Introduction

The first breakthroughs to civilization took place in the Fertile Crescent, in the area between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, and in the valley of the Nile River during the middle of the fourth millennium BC. The land is flat, and the climate there alternated between the hot and the dry and the very wet, the latter producing flooding of the rivers and swamps. In Mesopotamia, the behavior of the rivers was violent and unpredictable, while in Egypt, the flooding of the Nile was more predictable. The problem facing these peoples inhabiting these lands was to control the water of these rivers by constructing a complex system of canals, dikes, ditches, and reservoirs.

There were, in short, challenges to be overcome by human skill and ingenuity. Once the rivers were more or less under control, then agriculture flourished, providing the sustenance for a large and growing population. Invented in the process were the oxdrawn plow, the wheel and axle, and the sail. They also developed metallurgy, learning to use copper, tin, and bronze. Sumerian and Egyptian civilizations share a number of features. Important differences also exist. In Mesopotamia, life was uncertain (the rivers were difficult to control and the land was open to invasion) and the outlook of the people was pessimistic; in contrast, the Egyptians were more optimistic (the Nile was predictable and the desert shielded them from invasion).

Outline Chronology of Sumerian Civilization, ca. 3300-1550 BC I. Archaic Sumerian Civilization, ca 3300-2400 BC. A. Theocratic City-states, ca. 3300-2700 BC. Original Sumerians lived in city-states (like Ur of the Chaldees or Lagash); they consisted of cultivated land with walled towns of sun-dried clay bricks that housed between 10,000 and 50,000. Sustenance was agriculture, made possible by irrigation and the reclamation of land. Commerce soon developed, and they exchanged agricultural products for various necessities and luxuries. These cities were probably theocracies, that is cities ruled by religious leaders who organized and controlled the production of food.

B. Warfare and the Origins of the Secular State, ca. 2700 BC. Sumerian cities prospered and their populations grew; conflicts developed, probably over land and water; about 2700BC the secular state, one ruled by a king or a prince replaced, the theocracies. Wise rulers, nonetheless, maintained good relations with the priestly elite. II. The Akkadian Period, ca 2350-2150: Creation of the First Empire. A. The Empire of Sargon I of Akkad and his Successors. Despite the development of rival secular monarchies, the Sumerian city states retained their independence until about 2400BC; no one city was able to conquer all of his neighbors and establish an empire. This situation changed during the Akkadian period, when a secular ruler, Sargon I of Akkad, a Semite people up river from the original Sumerian cities which had assimilated the culture of the more advanced Sumerians, conquered his neighbors, uniting them into a single empire with Akkad, later Babylon, as its capital.

Sargon took the title of King of Sumer and Akkad. His Empire extended to the Mediterranean Sea. This conquest of a peaceful and cultivated people by a more warlike people on their outer borders is an early example of cultural diffusion and it established a pattern that would oft be repeated through history. III. The Neo-Sumerian, ca 2150-1950 BC. A. The Third Dynasty of Ur, 2112-2004 BC: Revival of traditional Sumerian Culture. IV. The Amorite or Old Babylonian Era, ca 1950-1550 BC. A. The Reign of Hammurabi, r. 1792-1750 BC. Sumerian civilization ended with the collapse of the Third Dynasty of Ur, and a period of disorder followed that ended only when the Hammurabi (ca 1792-1750BC) established the Old Babylonian Empire, an empire which extended some 700 miles from the Persian Gulf to Assyria. The Babylonians assimilated many of the Sumerian achievements, once again an example of cultural diffusions. Hammurabi’s single greatest contribution was a written law code. Under Hammurabi and his successors, Babylon became a symbol of wicked behavior and lavish living. The Old Babylonian kingdom collapsed about 1550BC, when it was invaded by the Hittites and the Kassites, two peoples who would then establish kingdoms that would last in Mesopotamia for the next five hundred years.

Remains of the “White Temple” on it’s ziggurat, Uruk, Iraq. 35003000 bce

Plan of the “White Temple” on it’s ziggurat, Uruk, Iraq. 3500-3000 bce

Most examples of ancient art and architecture originally something to do with religion or politics. The Ziggurat, the most important architectural contribution of the Sumerians, also was a product of their religion. These stepped towers topped by a temple may have represented a sort of cosmic mountain that many cultures believe sits at the center of the universe. One Ziggurat measured 245’ by 100’ and rose some 35’ high, and it was capped by a temple. Near of the base of the Ziggurat were found houses for the priestly class and for the artisans who served the temple and the court. The Ziggurat was accordingly also at the center of Sumerian social and economic life.

Ziggurat of King Urnammu, Ur Iraq 2100bc

Female Head, from Uruk 35003000 bce Limestone. 8”

Statues from the Abu Temple, Iraq. c. 2700-2500 BCE Limestone, alabaster, gypsum; tallest 30”

They are believed to represent gods and goddesses and their worshipers. The largest male figure is thought to represent the god Abu, based on symbols carved into the base. The Asmar statues were modeled from processed gypsum (calcium sulphate). The ancient technique involves firing gypsum at about 300 degrees Fahrenheit until it becomes a fine white powder (called plaster of Paris). The powder is then mixed with water and then modeled and/or sculpted.

Sumerian society was hierarchical and stratified, like that of almost all societies before the modern era, and it can best be conceptualized as pyramidal in shape. Sumerian social structure will serve as an example. It was legally divided into three strata or classes: the awilum: free, landowning nobles, warriors, priests, merchants, and some artisans and shopkeepers; the mushkenum: dependent farmers and artisans who did most of the work and were legally attached to the land owned by the king, the temple, and the noble elites; and the wardum: slaves. The number of slaves was probably large. One could be captured in war, punished for committing a crime, or sold into slavery, usually as a pledge for a loan. Slaves worked for the state and for individuals, and they performed a variety of functions, ranging from construction work to domestic tasks. Some slaves were permitted to own property and engage in business; they could marry free women, with the result that the children were free. Slaves could also purchase or gain their freedom.

Ram and Tree. Offering stand from Ur. 2600 bce Wood, gold 20”

Ram and Tree. Offering stand from Ur. 2600 bce Wood, gold 20”

Imdugud and Two Stags 2500 bce. Copper of wood, 3’6”x7’10”

The Standard of Ur. 2600 bce.

The Standard of Ur It is essentially a hollow wooden box measuring (8.5 x 19.5 inches) inlaid with a mosaic of shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli. Its original function is not conclusively understood, speculated that it was the soundbox of a musical instrument. The Standard of Ur has two main panels, which have been named "War" and "Peace." "War" is one of the earliest representations of a Sumerian army, engaged in what is believed to be a border skirmish and its aftermath. Battle scenes include four-wheeled chariots, drawn by teams of some sort of mule. spearmen clad in armored cloaks; and other infantrymen bearing sickle-like knives or axes. Panels also depict prisoners, wounded, naked, and humiliated, being presented to the king. "Peace" portrays a banquet scene. Attendants parade animals, fish, and other goods (possibly war booty) before seated figures, while a lyrist entertains the throng.

Priest-King Feeding Sacred Sheep, Form Uruk 3300 bce Marble Cylinder seal 2”

Akkadian Art

Head of an Akkadian Ruler. from Nineveh, Iraq Ruler 2300-2200 Bronze 12” The Head of an Akkadian Ruler is masterfully sculpted with an amazing balance in naturalism and abstract formal patterns. The sculpture depicts very accurately the human face. It details the hair and beard in formal patterns that help contrast with the smooth delicate skin. This is one of the first hollow cast copper statue monuments known to exist.

Victory Stele of Naram-sin 2254-2218 bce Stone Height 6’6”

Background: A stele is a monument composed of a single column or shaft typically erected to commemorate an important event or person. The Akkadians under Sargon dominated the Sumerians about 2300 BC. Naram-Sin was Sargon's grandson. The god-like Akkadian kings ruled with absolute authority. Naram-Sin's title was "King of the Four Quarters" meaning "Ruler of the World." Damaged on both the top and bottom, Naram-Sin's stele depicts the king's defeat of the Lullubi peoples of present-day Iran.

Gudea, from Lagash, Iraq 2120 bce. Diorite 29”

Inanna-Ishtar 2025-1763 bce. Terra-cotta, 20”

The Sumerian form of writing is called cuneiform. It consisted of several hundred symbols, and scribes “wrote” by cutting wedge-shaped pictures onto wet clay tablets and then allowing them to dry. Before the middle of nineteenth century, scholars were unable to read this language. In the 1840s, Henry Rawlinson found the same message written on a cliff called Behistun Rock [=bay-his-TOON] written in three languages, two of which scholars could read. Working backwards, he succeeded in deciphering cuneiform. The invention of writing allowed the preservation of factual data; it also gave permanence to religious traditions, beliefs, and rituals; to preserve social customs; and made possible accumulation of a body of myths and stories.

Upper part of stele inscribed with the Law Code of Hammurabi 1760bce Diorite 7’

Sumerian and Egyptian Achievements in Government and Law Sumerian cities and city-states were ruled by kings or by king-priests, and there was virtually no check on their power. The Egyptian Pharaohs governed in a similar manner. These kings or priest-kings commanded the army, controlled the economy, administered justice, and served as intermediaries between their people and the gods. Some, especially the Pharaohs, even established themselves as divine and were worshiped as gods. In short, secular and divine power were united. One of the most important tasks undertaken by the government was economic planning. All of this planning required a large educated and literate bureaucracy, the ability to observe and record natural phenomena, a knowledge of mathematics, a calendar, and a system of writing. In the area of law, the most notable contribution was made by the Amorite king Hammurabi, who provided his people with a law code engraved on steles so all could see it. Before Hammurabi laws were generally not public and were the word of the ruler. Hammurabi’s Code had 282 articles covering wages, divorce, land transfers, commerce, and, of course, crime; it was a harsh law code, decreeing that the punishment should fit the crime (“an eye for an eye”, etc.) and punishment differed depending on the social class of the offender.

The Diffusion of Ancient Near Eastern Civilization, ca 1750-800 BC Introduction Between about 1750 and 800BC, the institutions, techniques, and ideas formed in the river valleys of the Tigris-Euphrates and the Nile began to spread outward. For the next 1,000 years, the major theme of ancient Near Eastern history is the process of Cultural Diffusion, the process by which the zone of higher civilization expanded and new peoples joined the ranks of the civilized. The process of cultural diffusion is complex, and it occurs in various ways: Travelers, such as merchants, soldiers, and diplomats carry ideas and techniques from one people to another; Peoples on the fringe of civilization admire and imitate their more advanced neighbors, often adopting military techniques first; Invasion and conquest; often a less civilized but more warlike people conquers their neighbor and then adopts and spread its culture. The period from 1750 to 800BC has three major chronological divisions:

The Era of Invasions, ca 1750-1600 BC During this period, we find two major groups of invaders. 1) the Semites, peoples from the Arabian desert who migrated into Northern Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt; 2) the IndoEuropeans, or the Ayrians—the same peoples who crossed into India about 1800BC—,

Indo-European Migrations who came from the Eurasian steppe and brought with them new techniques of warfare, the horsedrawn chariot, and a new language, which has influenced the development of Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and modern European languages. These Indo-Europeans moved into Central Europe, Italy, Greece, Iran, India, and the Near East, where they settled down and established kingdoms and later the Persian Empire.

The Establishment of New Kingdoms, ca 1600-1200 BC Numerous new kingdoms, such as the Kassite, the Mitanni, and the Hittite, were established during this four hundred year period. More important was the flourishing of Minoan civilization on the island of Crete: it was named after its legendary founder Minos. Although its origins reach back to ca 3,000BC, this civilization reached its peak about 1600BC, as the great palaces in such cities as Knossos reveal. Their buildings and their art reveal the influence of Syria, Asia Minor, and Egypt. The economic base for Minoan civilization was trade, and as travelers, the Minoans helped civilization diffuse. The sea provided the Minoans with protection, and they were able to build unfortified cities, filled with lavish palaces; some even had running water and bathroom facilities. Minoan art was lively, colorful, and full of movement; in short, it reflected an optimistic and secular civilization.

Minoan customs: Bull Jumping.

The Palace complex at Knossos.

Era of Small Nations, ca 1200-800 BC

By about 1200BC, the various kingdoms and empires established during the preceding 400 years had declined or collapsed, and for the next 400 years, there was no great centralized power in the Near East. The absence of a great empire allowed several small peoples to assert themselves and play their role in the process of cultural diffusion. In this period, the Phoenicians, the Aramaeans, and the Hebrews all flourished, and although each people left behind notable achievements, such as the Phoenician alphabet, it is the Hebrews who are the most important, at least from the point of view of the development of western civilization.

The Lion Gate, Anatolia, Turkey 1400bce

The Lion Gate, Anatolia, Turkey 1400bce The south western entrance of the Upper City of Hattusha is the Lion Gate, named for the two matched lions carved from two arched stones. When the gate was in use, during the Hittite Empire period between 13431200 BC, the stones arched in a parabola, with towers on either side, a magnificent and daunting image. Lions were apparently of symbolic importance to the Hittite civilization, and images of them can be found at many Hittite sites

Kudurru (boundary Stone) Of Marduk-nadin-akhe. 1099-1082 bce Black Limestone 24”

Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II. Nimrud, Iraq 883-859 bce. Alabaster relief

Ashurnasirpal II built his palace in the northwest section of the citadel of Nimrud. The palace was organized around three large courtyards. State apartments and the major throne room were situated around the first courtyard. The second was surrounded by rooms devoted to the internal business of the palace, while the living quarters were in the innermost courtyard. Beneath its rooms was a tomb belonging to three Assyrian queens. The state apartments were decorated in a fashion not found in earlier Mesopotamian royal buildings. Huge stone slabs, carved with scenes of figures in relief and inscribed with a record of important events in the king's reign, lined the sun-dried mud-brick walls. Wooden furniture adorned with carved ivory panels was used throughout the palace.

Fugitives Crossing River, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II. Nimrud, Iraq 883-859 bce. Alabaster relief

Ashurnasirpal II Killing Lions, from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal II, Iraq 850 bce. Limestone 3’3” x 8’4”

Gate of Citadel of Sargon II. Iraq 742-706 bce.

Gate of Citadel of Sargon II. Iraq 742706 bce. In 717 Sargon was faced with a revolt in the west encouraged by King Midas of Phrygia. Sargon's army over-ran northern Syria and the Taurus region, and by 710 all Syria and Palestine had submitted to Assyrian rule with the exception of Judah; Egypt was friendly. Only the Babylonians enjoyed virtual independence under their Chaldean leader, Merodach-Baladan; but when Sargon marched south in 708, MerodachBaladan fled to Elam, and Sargon was crowned king of Babylon. The king of Bahrein sent gifts, and so did seven kings of Cyprus. Like his ancient namesake, Sargon could claim sway from the Upper Sea (the Mediterranean) to the Lower Sea (the Persian Gulf). Sargon lived in Calah (modern Nimrud), the military capital, which he fortified and embellished. He also created a new residence city, Sargonsburg, 15 miles northeast of Nineveh, near modern Khorsabad. The city, which was inaugurated in 706, took 10 years to build. It was laid out in a rectangle, and its walls were pierced by eight gates. The great palace and temple, which stood on a 50-foot-high citadel platform, contained spacious halls decorated with stone reliefs. Colossal figures of man-headed bulls stood at the doorways. Early in 705 Sargon was called to the northwest, where he fell in battle against the nomadic Cimmerians.

Ishtar Gate from Babylon, Iraq 575 bce. Glazed Brick

Ishtar Gate from Babylon, Iraq 575 bce. Artist Portrayal It was one of the eight gates of the inner city of Babylon. It was built in about 575 BC, the eighth fortified gate in the city. It is one of the most impressive monuments rediscovered in the ancient Near East. The Ishtar gate was decorated with glazed brick reliefs, in tiers, of dragons and young bulls. The gate itself was a double one, and on its south side was a vast antechamber. Through the gatehouse ran a stone-and brick-paved avenue, the so-called Processional Way, which has been traced over a length of more than half a mile. King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon dedicated the great Ishtar Gate to the goddess Ishtar. It was the main entrance into Babylon. King Nebuchadnezzar II performed elaborate building projects in Babylon around 604-562 BC. His goal was to beautify his capital. He restored the temple of Marduk, the chief god, and also built himself a magnificent palace with the famous Hanging Gardens, which was reported by the Greek historian Herodotus to have been one of the wonders of the world.

Painted beaker, from Susa 5000-4000 bce 11”

example of the 'Susa Beaker,' this conical vessel is decorated with a design of long necked cranes in a frieze in the upper portion, above another frieze filled with racing hounds. In the lower section of the vessel is seen a representation of the ibex, a long horned goat indigenous to the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. The ibex, with its impressive horns, was a symbol of power, and the image occurs with regularity on ceramics of this area. It was coil built between 5000 and 4000 BCE and painted with a black slip on a white slip. During this period, the region of the fertile crescent was a patchwork of city states, such as Susa, each with its own gods and kings.

Plan of Palace of Darius and Xerxes, Persepolis. 518-460 bce

Plan of Palace of Darius and Xerxes, Persepolis. 518-460 bce

Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes. Persepolis, Iran

Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes. Persepolis, Iran

Bull Capital from Persepolis 500 bce

Darius and Xerxes Giving Audience. 490 BCE. limestone Size: height 8' 4"

Rhyton. Achaemenid. 5th3rd centuries bce Gold. Iran

Rhyton. Achaemenid. 5th-3rd centuries bce Gold. Iran

Shapur I Triumphing over the Roman Emperors Philip the Arab and Valerian, Naksh-I-Rustam (near Persepolis), Iran 260-272 CE.

Palace of Shapur I. Ctesiphon, Iraq 242-272 CE.

Palace of Shapur I. Ctesiphon, Iraq 242-272 CE.

silver-gilt engraved,embo ssed, and inlaid with niello Size: diameter 8"

King Peroz I Hunting Gazelles late 5th century CE.