© 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnan 11: Human Origins in Africa • 1970’s: archeologist Mary Leakey found prehistoric footprints like that of modern humans in Tanzania (East Africa) o made by australopithecines (type of hominid walks upright) • In Ethiopia, complete skeleton of adult female hominid “Lucy” from 3.5 million yrs ago • Early hominids had opposable thumbs and walking upright helped travel distances and carry things • Invention of tools, mastery over fire, development of languages all occurred during the Stone Age • Earlier and longer part of Stone Age called Paleolithic Age (2,500,0008000BCE) o Oldest stone chopping tools date back to this era; during the Ice Age o Religious beliefs centered around nature; believed in afterlive • Neolithic Age (80003000BCE/ dates vary in places) o People learned to polish stone tools, make pottery, grow crops, raise animals • Before australopithecines vanished, new hominids (Homo habilis) appeared in East Africa o Used lava rock tools to cut meat and crack open bones = made survival easier • 1.6 million yrs ago, before Homo habilis left, Homo erectus appeared o more intelligent and adaptable than Homo habilis; used intelligence to develop technology; skillful hunters with sophisticated tools; first hominids to migrate to India, China, SE Asia, EU o developed beginning of spoken language; first to use fire • Homo erectus evolved to Homo sapiens o Had larger brains • Neanderthals in SW Asia and Europe survived for 170,000 yrs and vanished 30,000 yrs ago o Religious beliefs; shelters • CroMagnons emerge 40,0008,000 BCE: identical to modern humans o N. Africa > Europe, Asia; made tools with specialized uses; planned hunts; spoken language = cooperation • Cave paintings by primitive people: European and Asian show hunting and daily activities; American and Australian more symbolic = sympathetic magic
12: Humans Try to Control Nature • 40,000 yrs ago, CroMagnons same as modern man • Paleolithic era, mostly nomads= huntergatherers; crafted crude tools i.e. sharpened sticks to aid hunting/gathering • Made artistic creations: jewelry, sculptures, cave paintings • Neolithic Revolution: 10,000 yrs ago, = agricultural revolution (climate change was key reason) • Early farming methods: slashandburn, domestication of animals • Took place in Fertile Crescent (NE Iraq/Mesopotamia)
© 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnan Farming develops independently in Africa, China, Central America… o Catal Huyuk and Jarmo important agri. sites for studying Neolithic Age Permanent settlements created, benefits= surplus food, specialized workers Disadvantages= floods/fire/drought/disease destroy village; invasion by neighbors 13: Civilization • Villages become cities: o Economic changes: more cultivation>elaborate irrigation systems built; food surplus=specialization; wheel and sail improved trade o Social: social classes formed; religion more organized>worshipped gods with power over nature • Civilization characteristics: 1. Advanced cities 2. Specialized workers 3. Complex institutions 4. Record keeping 5. Advanced technology 6. Art and Architecture Sumer (Ur in bold): • Advanced cities: center of trade for larger area; large population o Defined social classes: rulers/ priests on top; trade w. bartering • Spec. workers: artisans; merchants; scribes; soldiers; teachers; metalworkers; priests; gov. officials; peasants • Complex inst.: formal gov. with laws; priests with religious/political power; education system (for scribes) • Record keeping: cuneiform tablets with business transactions, hist. events, customs, traditions; calendar • Adv. Tech: oxdrawn plows; irrigation systems; pottery eating supplies; bronze weapons; body armor o Roads, pottery • Art and Architecture: ziggurat(massive pyramid temple), temples, temple gates, storage for grain 21: Mesopotamia •
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Mesopotamia = “land between the rivers” Tigris and Euphrates o Environmental challenge; unpredictable flooding; no natural barriers; limited natural resources o Solutions: irrigation ditches; city walls; traded worked materials for raw materials Sumerians had citystates each with own gov. (Uruk, Kish, Lagaash, Umma, Ur) o Each had own ziggurat o Rulers (military leaders) and priests share control: priests mostly (demanded crop taxes) Military leaders had dynasties; shift from priests to military rulers Cultural diffusion: new ideas spread to other cities Sumerians = polytheistic (see English) o No joy after death afterworld is bad place o Women priests, women had many rights: landholding, read, write, scribes Technology: invented wheel, sail, plow, first to use bronze, arithmetic, geometry, base 60 number system, modern time units come from it Architectural innovations: arches, columns, ramps, pyramid ziggurat First to develop system of writing (cuneiform) on tablets: written with pointy triangular tipped reeds
© 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnan 30002000 BCE, Sumer citystates constantly at war with each other and could no longer ward of attacks of people of surrounding hills/deserts • Sumer never recovered from attacks and succeeding rulers adopted Sumerian culture to their own needs • c. 2350 BCE, conqueror Sargon with army from Akkad (citystate N. of Sumer) defeated Sumer o Akkadians already had adopted most of Sumerian culture; Sargon’s conquests spread the culture further beyond TigrisEuphrates Valley • By taking control of N. and S. Mesopotamia, Sargon created 1st empire o At peak, Akkadian Empire controlled Mediterranean Coast in the west to Iran (today) in the east o Lasted only 200 yrs before decline • c. 2000 BCE, nomadic warriors (Amorites) invaded Mesopotamia and overwhelmed Sumerians • established capital at Babylon along Euphrates River • Babylonian Empire reached peak during reign of Hammurabi (17921750 BCE) o Hammurabi’s Code of laws: first single, uniform code of laws written down in stone all over empire o 282 specific laws many related to property issues; protected women and children from unfair treatment o diff. punishment for diff. social classes; principle of retaliation (eye for an eye…) o gov. responsible for society’s actions • 2 centuries after Hammurabi’s reign, Babylonian empire fell to Kassites 23: Pyramids on the Nile • Egypt united into single kingdom early on • Nile flows N.: civilization arose along fertile Nile banks • Nile flooded regularly: necessary for life; deserts as natural barriers • River travel common ended at 1st cataract (rapids) • • winds blow upstream (N to S) so you can travel by sailboat upriver and down • 5000 BCE farming villages with own rituals, god, ruler • 3200 BCE 2 separate kingdoms: lower and upper Egypt • eventually united (most likely) by King Narmer •
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Old Kingdom: in Mesopotamia, kings represent gods; in Egypt, kings=gods=pharaohs o Theocracy: pharaoh @ center of religion and gov. o Pharaoh had eternal life force (ka): pyramids to protect pharaoh in afterlife • Didn’t use wheel Early Egyptians polytheistic: Re (sun god), Osiris (dead), Isis (mother/wife goddess) Believed in an afterlife where you would be judged Mummification of elites led to advanced medical techniques King, queen, royals at top of soc. Pyramid o Priests, wealthy landowners, gov. officials, army commanders Peasants and laborers slavery came later Egyptians not locked into social class couple move up esp. if know to read/write o Women had many of the same rights as men Innovations: o Scribes developed flexible writing system = hieroglyphics (pics changed from representing ideas to letters) Wrote on papyrus reeds
© 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnan o Developed calendar for planting w/ 365 days in a year o Arithmetic for taxes o Geometry for pyramid building o Medicine for healing bones, surgery, check heart rate… • Decline of Old Kingdom o Strong pharaohs regained control during Middle Kingdom (20401640 BCE) o Hyksos from Palestine invaded and ruled Egypt (16301523 BCE) o New Kingdom – Egypt rose again 3.1 The IndoEuropeans o Group of Nomadic ppl from Steppes dry grass lands o Primarily pastoral (herded) o Tamed horses and rose light 2 wheeled chariots o Lived in tribes that spoke forms of indoeuropean languages o ancestor of many modern languages o Nomads migrated in all directions (17001200 BCE) o By 2000 BCE the Hittites occupied Anatolia (Turkey) o High rocky plateau rich in minerals timber agriculture o Separate Hittite city states formed empire in 1650 o Capital Hattusas o Adopted Akkadian (to speak w/ foreigners) after conquering Akkadian Babylon o Hittites dominated SW Asia 450 yrs (occupied Babylon and fought w/ Assyria) o Signed treaty w/ Assyrians to help each other o Excelled in war technology chariots, iron weapons, armor o Fell in 1190 BC as part of a great wave of invasions from N. (capital burned) 33 Seafaring Traders o Minoans: powerful sea traders in the eastern Mediterranean o Exported goods, art and culture (incl. architecture, burial customs, religious rituals): major influence on Greece o Minoans seem to be peaceful o Named after King Minos who owned a minotaur which he kept in a labyrinth o Women held a higher rank than in most neighboring lands o Great Mother Earth Goddess ruler of gods of Crete (Minoan island); many priestesses o Sacrificed mostly animals but also a couple humans o Mysterious end: giant quakes in 1500’s BCEs rebuilt palace twice, then volcano; never quite recovered Phoenicians o After Minoan decline, most powerful traders o Never united into country; only citystates(e.x. Sidon and Tyre); cities were great trading centers o Remarkable shipbuilders and seafarers: went around Africa and Asia o Produced famous and expensive redpurple dye, papyrus, built colonies along N. African coast and S. Europe coast o Greatest Phoenician colony=Carthage in N. Africa o Developed phonetic writing system with letters (word alphabet from 1st 2 Phoenician letters) o Introduced writing system to trading partners o Eastern cities were captured by the Assyrians then Phoenicians came under control of the Babylonians and Persians 34 The Origins of Judaism o Phoenicians lived in a region later called Palestine along with Philistines o Canaan ancient home of the Hebrews (Jews) in this area. Land promised by God to the Hebrew ppl o Ancient Palestine’s location = cultural crossroads of ancient world. o God choose Abraham to be father of Jews, he was a shepherd in Ur, Mesopotamia and was ordered by god to move w/ ppl to Canaan in 1800 BCE o Descendants of Abe move to Egypt in 1600 BCE b/c of drought and famine. Given places of honor at first in Egyptian
© 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnan kingdom but later forced into slavery. Flee Egypt btw 13001200 BCE during the EXODUS remembered each yr. during Passover. o Torah says that Moses (all Jew male babies were supposed to be killed @ this time but his mom hid him and he was adopted by an Egyptian princess) led Hebrews out of slavery o Jews traveled across of Sinai Peninsula and Moses went to top of Mt. Sinai to pray. Yahweh (God) spoke to him and gave him the 10 commandments they formed a new covenant = god protected Hebrews who protected his commandments. o Hebrews return to Canaan after death of Moses + changed from Nomads to settled ppl. o Loosely organized into 12 selfgoverning tribes, they would unite in times of emergency and god would send them a judge (1 was a woman) o Women only raised children o 10 commanded resembled Hammurabi’s code but punishments softened by god’s mercy. o Ethical Monotheism: emphasis on right conduct and worship of 1 god. o Hebrews after settlement in Canaan/Palestine expanded north and south. o Tribe of Judah (last tribe left of original 12) Hebrews came to be Jews and the religion Judaism o 1000 BCE Hebrews united under Kings (Kingdom of Israel) o Saul: chosen for driving out a Philistine invasion, but became greedy/jealous o David: soninlaw of Saul, very popular, united tribes, Jerusalem = capital, established dynasty o Solomon: son of David, most powerful Hebrew King, built trading empire w/ Hiram King of Tyre (Phoenician city), beautified Jerusalem w/ great temple After death revolt in N. part of kingdom Israel becomes Israel in N. and Judah in S. (sometimes friends sometimes enemies) • Both began paying tribute to Assyria to ensure peace w/ them • 725 BCE Assyrians seize Samaria capital of Israel, and Israel falls to Assyrians • Assyrians lose power to NeoBabylonians • Nebuchadnezzar gets Syria and Palestine and Israel and seizes Judah (destroys Solomon’s temple many survivors exiled to Babylon) • Persian King Cyrus conquers Babylon and lets exiles return to Judah/ rebuild temple 4.1 Egyptian and Nubian Empires o After prosperity of Middle Kingdom Egypt loses control Hyksos take over and Hebrews settle there during this time o Egyptians resent Jews but Hyksos want them o 1600 BCE Pharaohs kick out Hyksos and restore power. Hebrews enslaved until Exodus o Nubian Kingdom of Kush emerges as a power o Pharaohs of New Kingdom 15001000 BCE built the biggest/powerfulest/wealthiest empire than before o Hatshepsut queen Pharaoh encouraged trade rather than war o Stepson, Thutmose very warlike: invaded Palestine, Syria, and part of Nubia o Egyptians and Hittites fight over Palestine but Pharaoh Ramses II made peace treaty w/ Hittites for 1 century o Build many royal tombs temples and palaces in the valley of kings. o Ramses II carved giant statues in red sandstone cliffs. o Decline: attacked by “seappls” tribes of Palestine rebel against Egyptian overlords, Libyan raids in west o Egypt never regains previous power break apart and fell o 950730 BCE Libyan Pharaohs rule Egypt adopted Egyptian culture o Kingdom of Kush esp. capital Napata becomes center of cultural spread o w/ Egypt decline Kush regains independence/power and sought to capture Libyan Egypt o Kush King Piyanki overthrew Libyan dynasty and united entire Nile Valley. o Then Assyrians conquer Egypt and Kushites retreat south to Meroë which became active in Trade b/c of large amt of natural resources then after 4 centuries begins to decline after Aksum kindom in N. takes over trade. 4.2 Assyrian Empire o 850 BCE Assyria acquires large empire w/ advanced military supplies greatest military power in S.W. asia for a time
© 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnan glorified military everything (strengths, weapons, technology, strategy) by 650 BCE Assyria defeats Syria, Palestine, and Babylonia (not yet neo), had local governors report to a central authority= model of gov. o governors brought in tribute and taxes o King Sennacherib (who burnt Babylon) also established capital at Nineveh along Tigris River. Nineveh had 1 of ancient world’s largest libraries (King Ashurbanipal’s) incl. Epic of Gilgamesh. o After Ashurbanipal’s death Nineveh fell to Medes and Chaldeans and others who burned the city but many tablets survived o Assyrians fall o Then Chaldeans make Babylon their capital and King Nebuchadnezzar restores city with hanging gardens of Babylon, 7 tiered ziggurat, and astronomers, and wall around city. 33 Persian Empire • Cyrus, Persian king began to conquer (but showed mercy and honored local customs) o grandson Darius brought stability to empire and conquered into Afghanistan and India and to Egypt and Anatolia in the West o Darius divided empire into 20 provinces to govern it Brilliant administrator but didn’t show same respect for local culture o Installed governor called satrap to rule locally and appointed military leaders, tax collectors, and spies to check on stuff o Royal Road ran across empire o Borrowed coins from the Lydians o Conquered by Alexander the Great o After Alexander’s death (Early) split into 3 empires: Seleucid (largest), Parthian, and Sassanid o Religion of Zoroastrianism founded by Zoroaster Teaches that the earth is a battleground with a great struggle between spirit of good and evil Each person takes part in this struggle and is judged in death by how well they do Monotheistic: Ahura Mazda o After Muslim conquest of Persia, Zoroastrianism declined some took it to India o o