11: Human Origins in Africa • 1970’s: archeologist Mary Leakey found prehistoric footprints like that of modern humans in Tanzania (East Africa) o made by australopithecines (type of hominid walks upright) • In Ethiopia, complete skeleton of adult female hominid “Lucy” from 3.5 million yrs ago • Early hominids had opposable thumbs and walking upright helped travel distances and carry things • Invention of tools, mastery over fire, development of languages all occurred during the Stone Age • Earlier and longer part of Stone Age called Paleolithic Age (2,500,0008000BCE) o Oldest stone chopping tools date back to this era; during the Ice Age o Religious beliefs centered around nature; believed in afterlive • Neolithic Age (80003000BCE/ dates vary in places) o People learned to polish stone tools, make pottery, grow crops, raise animals • Before australopithecines vanished, new hominids (Homo habilis) appeared in East Africa o Used lava rock tools to cut meat and crack open bones = made survival easier • 1.6 million yrs ago, before Homo habilis left, Homo erectus appeared o more intelligent and adaptable than Homo habilis; used intelligence to develop technology; skillful hunters with sophisticated tools; first hominids to migrate to India, China, SE Asia, EU o developed beginning of spoken language; first to use fire • Homo erectus evolved to Homo sapiens o Had larger brains • Neanderthals in SW Asia and Europe survived for 170,000 yrs and vanished 30,000 yrs ago o Religious beliefs; shelters • CroMagnons emerge 40,0008,000 BCE: identical to modern humans o N. Africa > Europe, Asia; made tools with specialized uses; planned hunts; spoken language = cooperation • Cave paintings by primitive people: European and Asian show hunting and daily activities; American and Australian more symbolic = sympathetic magic
12: Humans Try to Control Nature • 40,000 yrs ago, CroMagnons same as modern man • Paleolithic era, mostly nomads= huntergatherers; crafted crude tools i.e. sharpened sticks to aid hunting/gathering • Made artistic creations: jewelry, sculptures, cave paintings • Neolithic Revolution: 10,000 yrs ago, = agricultural revolution (climate change was key reason) • Early farming methods: slashandburn, domestication of animals • Took place in Fertile Crescent (NE Iraq/Mesopotamia) • Farming develops independently in Africa, China, Central America… o Catal Huyuk and Jarmo important agri. sites for studying Neolithic Age Permanent settlements created, benefits= surplus food, specialized workers Disadvantages= floods/fire/drought/disease destroy village; invasion by neighbors 13: Civilization • Villages become cities: o Economic changes: more cultivation>elaborate irrigation systems built; food surplus=specialization; wheel and sail improved trade o Social: social classes formed; religion more organized>worshipped gods with power over nature • Civilization characteristics: 1. Advanced cities 2. Specialized workers 3. Complex institutions 4. Record keeping 5. Advanced technology 6. Art and Architecture Sumer (Ur in bold): • Advanced cities: center of trade for larger area; large population o Defined social classes: rulers/ priests on top; trade w. bartering • Spec. workers: artisans; merchants; scribes; soldiers; teachers; metalworkers; priests; gov. officials; peasants • Complex inst.: formal gov. with laws; priests with religious/political power; education system (for scribes) • Record keeping: cuneiform tablets with business transactions, hist. events, customs, traditions; calendar • Adv. Tech: oxdrawn plows; irrigation systems; pottery eating supplies; bronze weapons; body armor o Roads, pottery • Art and Architecture: ziggurat(massive pyramid temple), temples, temple gates, storage for grain 21: Mesopotamia
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Mesopotamia = “land between the rivers” Tigris and Euphrates
o Environmental challenge; unpredictable flooding; no natural barriers; limited natural resources o Solutions: irrigation ditches; city walls; traded worked materials for raw materials • Sumerians had citystates each with own gov. (Uruk, Kish, Lagaash, Umma, Ur) o Each had own ziggurat o Rulers (military leaders) and priests share control: priests mostly (demanded crop taxes) Military leaders had dynasties; shift from priests to military rulers • Cultural diffusion: new ideas spread to other cities • Sumerians = polytheistic (see English) o No joy after death afterworld is bad place o Women priests, women had many rights: landholding, read, write, scribes • Technology: invented wheel, sail, plow, first to use bronze, arithmetic, geometry, base 60 number system, modern time units come from it • Architectural innovations: arches, columns, ramps, pyramid ziggurat • First to develop system of writing (cuneiform) on tablets: written with pointy triangular tipped reeds • 30002000 BCE, Sumer citystates constantly at war with each other and could no longer ward of attacks of people of surrounding hills/deserts • Sumer never recovered from attacks and succeeding rulers adopted Sumerian culture to their own needs • c. 2350 BCE, conqueror Sargon with army from Akkad (citystate N. of Sumer) defeated Sumer o Akkadians already had adopted most of Sumerian culture; Sargon’s conquests spread the culture further beyond TigrisEuphrates Valley • By taking control of N. and S. Mesopotamia, Sargon created 1st empire o At peak, Akkadian Empire controlled Mediterranean Coast in the west to Iran (today) in the east o Lasted only 200 yrs before decline • c. 2000 BCE, nomadic warriors (Amorites) invaded Mesopotamia and overwhelmed Sumerians • established capital at Babylon along Euphrates River • Babylonian Empire reached peak during reign of Hammurabi (17921750 BCE) o Hammurabi’s Code of laws: first single, uniform code of laws written down in stone all over empire o 282 specific laws many related to property issues; protected women and children from unfair treatment o diff. punishment for diff. social classes; principle of retaliation (eye for an eye…) o gov. responsible for society’s actions • 2 centuries after Hammurabi’s reign, Babylonian empire fell to Kassites 23: Pyramids on the Nile • Egypt united into single kingdom early on • Nile flows N.: civilization arose along fertile Nile banks • Nile flooded regularly: necessary for life; deserts as natural barriers • River travel common ended at 1st cataract (rapids) • • winds blow upstream (N to S) so you can travel by sailboat upriver and down • 5000 BCE farming villages with own rituals, god, ruler • 3200 BCE 2 separate kingdoms: lower and upper Egypt • eventually united (most likely) by King Narmer
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Old Kingdom: in Mesopotamia, kings represent gods; in Egypt, kings=gods=pharaohs o Theocracy: pharaoh @ center of religion and gov. o Pharaoh had eternal life force (ka): pyramids to protect pharaoh in afterlife • Didn’t use wheel • Early Egyptians polytheistic: Re (sun god), Osiris (dead), Isis (mother/wife goddess) • Believed in an afterlife where you would be judged • Mummification of elites led to advanced medical techniques • King, queen, royals at top of soc. Pyramid o Priests, wealthy landowners, gov. officials, army commanders Peasants and laborers slavery came later Egyptians not locked into social class couple move up esp. if know to read/write o Women had many of the same rights as men • Innovations: o Scribes developed flexible writing system = hieroglyphics (pics changed from representing ideas to letters) Wrote on papyrus reeds o Developed calendar for planting w/ 365 days in a year o Arithmetic for taxes o Geometry for pyramid building o Medicine for healing bones, surgery, check heart rate… • Decline of Old Kingdom o Strong pharaohs regained control during Middle Kingdom (20401640 BCE) o Hyksos from Palestine invaded and ruled Egypt (16301523 BCE) o New Kingdom – Egypt rose again 3.1 The IndoEuropeans o Group of Nomadic ppl from Steppes dry grass lands o Primarily pastoral (herded) o Tamed horses and rose light 2 wheeled chariots o Lived in tribes that spoke forms of indoeuropean languages o ancestor of many modern languages o Nomads migrated in all directions (17001200 BCE) o By 2000 BCE the Hittites occupied Anatolia (Turkey) o High rocky plateau rich in minerals timber agriculture o Separate Hittite city states formed empire in 1650 o Capital Hattusas o Adopted Akkadian (to speak w/ foreigners) after conquering Akkadian Babylon
o Hittites dominated SW Asia 450 yrs (occupied Babylon and fought w/ Assyria) o Signed treaty w/ Assyrians to help each other o Excelled in war technology chariots, iron weapons, armor o Fell in 1190 BC as part of a great wave of invasions from N. (capital burned)