Action Research

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Action Research Pre-service teachers’ journey in self-efficacy: Don’t cry, you’ll make it!

By Rebecca Bowes

March 26, 2019 ED 3323

Professor Wendy Bokhorst-Heng



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Table of Contents Research Question ................................................................................................................... 3 Rationale and Aim ................................................................................................................... 3 Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 4 Methodology: ......................................................................................................................... 15 Data ........................................................................................................................................... 17 Data Analysis and Conclusions: ....................................................................................... 25 Next Steps: ............................................................................................................................... 26 Implications: .......................................................................................................................... 27 References ............................................................................................................................... 28



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Research Question Will speaking with recent graduates from the Crandall Education Program increase our sense of self-efficacy as pre-service teachers?

Rationale and Aim Rationale: to find out how and if we can increase pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy. Aim: to determine whether a human library style conversation with recent Crandall Education program graduates will increase our sense of self-efficacy as pre-service teachers. Our questions -

How do we keep the higher achieving students engaged while also not letting the struggling students fall behind?

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How do we help the struggling students? Ex: how do we help a high school student that cannot read?

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How do we balance self-confidence with educational expectations?

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How do we address parents?



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Literature Review Elements 1. APA formatted citation

Martins, M., Costa, J., & Onofre, M. (2015). Practicum experiences as sources of pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy. European Journal of Teacher Education, (2)38, 263–279. doi:10.1080/02619768.2014.968705

2. Describe type of article (academic research, practitioner, or trade)

Academic article

3. Useful references included (if applicable)

- Woolfolk How & Spero (2005) - Henson (2005) - Bandura (1997) coined the term self-efficacy After giving a self-efficacy questionnaire to 141 pre-service physical education teachers, researchers determined that the strongest sense of selfefficacy in PTs were in areas of relationships with students and discipline or classroom management. The lowest score for self-efficacy for most PTs was in instructional strategies and making sure that classroom lessons and activities were meaningful to students and that they could carry them individually without difficulty. Findings found that successful mastery experiences (real-life teaching experiences) were linked to an increase in low self-efficacy areas, but verbal and vicarious experiences were linked as well, though not as successful. Self-efficacy was found to be linked to student achievement, classroom teacher behaviour, teacher commitment, and job satisfaction – all of these things are changing variables that can shape a teacher’s belief in their ability to succeed. 1. Does practicum (real teaching experiences) contribute to and develop pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy? 2. How do real teaching experience contribute to and develop selfefficacy? 3.What is the nature of physical PTs self-efficacy? (266) 4. What kind of practicum training experiences is mentioned by PTs as sources that contribute to their self-efficacy perception? (266)

4. Summarize the text’s thesis and essential points (introduction/context/background)

5. Research question(s), problem(s), or issue(s) addressed

6. Who are the participants, audience, and/or subjects?

Subjects: pre-service physical education teachers (phase 1:52 female and 89 male PTs from Portuguese faculties | phase 2: eight PTs from phase 1 with the highest and lowest end of self-efficacy scores on the questionnaire from phase 1.

7. What forms of data (or information) help the author(s) answer the questions, problems, or issues?

1. Self-efficacy questionnaire 2. Teacher Efficacy Sources Inventory (265)



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8. What themes emerge about the original questions, problems, or issues? 9. What is important and/or interesting in general about these results?

10. What connections can be made to other readings, classroom observations, your project, or your future as a teacher/action researcher?

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Stronger self-efficacy = relationship with students and discipline promotion Lower efficacy = instructional strategies Successful mastery experience = high self-efficacy

The results confirm that practicum and training supervisors in education programmes are important factors in pre-service teacher’s self-efficacy; but research doesn’t show how it influences self-efficacy. Purpose: to contribute to the understanding of how PTs use practicum experiences as sources when they construct their self-efficacy about teaching physical education (264) – I believe this can be applied to all subjects. Self-efficacy is malleable early in learning so the first few years pf new teachers is critical (265); we must pay attention to our practicum because our self-efficacy increases during it; good host-teachers contribute to raise in self-efficacy, bad ones could decrease it;

Elements 1. APA formatted citation

Helfrich, S. R., & Clark, S. K. (2016). A comparative examination of preservice teacher self-efficacy related to literacy instruction. Reading Psychology, (7)37, 943–961. doi:10.1080/02702711.2015.1133466

2. Describe type of article (academic research, practitioner, or trade)

Academic article

3. Useful references included (if applicable)

- Graham, Harris, Fink, & MacArthur (2001) - Bandura (1997) coined the term self-efficacy If we can produce teachers with high self-efficacy involving literacy – both reading and writing – then we can produce students who have higher literacy skills and scores (945). But focusing on pre-service teacher programs and providing literacy focused courses can improve teacher selfefficacy, but the results of this study showed that teachers who studied a broader grade range (K-6) that required less literacy-focused courses actually showed the highest level of pre-service teacher self-efficacy. Teacher self-efficacy is linked to higher field work experiences and its formation is critical in the pre-service teacher time period. 1. Does the number of required literacy courses and program emphasis make a difference in pre-service teachers’ reported self-efficacy related to teaching literacy? (945) 2. Would pre-service teachers who completed more literacy coursework in a K-3 program have higher self-efficacy related to teaching reading and writing to children than pre-service teachers who completed fewer literacy courses in a K-6 program? (945)

4. Summarize the text’s thesis and essential points (introduction/context/background)

5. Research question(s), problem(s), or issue(s) addressed



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6. Who are the participants, audience, and/or subjects?

7. What forms of data (or information) help the author(s) answer the questions, problems, or issues? 8. What themes emerge about the original questions, problems, or issues?

9. What is important and/or interesting in general about these results?

10. What connections can be made to other readings, classroom observations, your project, or your future as a teacher/action researcher?

Two groups of literacy pre-service teachers enrolled in programs: Program A: K-3 (requiring more literacy-focused courses) or Program B: K-6 (requiring fewer literacy focused courses) – two schools in midwestern and western US, 99% female, from ages 20-29. 57% has completed three literacy education courses, while 43% had completed five or more. (947) Asking pre-service teachers about their perceived self-efficacy to teach both reading and writing (945) TSELS test scores compared between the two classes (A: “significantly lower” self-efficacy and B: “quite a bit” of self-efficacy) (951) -

Problem: self-efficacy is still low for pre-service teachers teaching writing, even after a literacy course - Teachers that studied K-6 requiring less literacy-focused courses had an increase in self-efficacy - “Maloch et al. (2003) found teachers’ efficacy for instructional decision making was higher if they were graduates of teacher education programs that required more reading-related coursework and field experiences than those teachers who graduated from programs requiring fewer reading-related courses and field experiences” (946) Results were opposite from the hypothesis; all pre-service teachers feel less self-efficacy about teaching writing compared to teaching reading; teachers’ self-efficacy affects their willingness to try anything new in their classroom with their instructional techniques (related to the lower selfefficacy of PTs with instructional strategies – Martins, Costa, & Onofre (2015)) and affects their effort, which in turn is linked again with student achievement, teacher competence and organization, and higher SE in teachers is shown to reduce their willingness to criticize students who make mistakes and increase their patience with students who struggle (944); field experience, or mastery experiences (Martins, Costa, & Onofre (2015)) contribute to an increase in teacher self-efficacy. “It could in face be more beneficial for pre-service teachers to have somewhat lower efficacy beliefs upon entering a classroom for the first time. We feel it is possible that tempered expectations may allow preservice teachers to have a more realistic understanding of what they will be able to accomplish in a classroom” (Haverback and Parault (2008) p. 251) Low literacy rates in the US and in Canada; limited research on teacher self-efficacy after more than one course, one field experience, one semester, etc (944); up to 50% of teachers in the US are brand new teachers (944); “there is very little research that measures teacher selfefficacy across teacher preparation programs with very different requirements and areas of focus” (944);

Arsal, Zeki. (2014). Microteaching and pre-service teachers’ sense of self-efficacy in

teaching.

European

Journal

of

Teaching

Education,

www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02619768.2014.912627

37,

453-464.

doi:



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This is an academic article that argues that microteaching develops pre-service teachers’ sense of self-efficacy in teaching. Microteaching is similar to how we are observed and critiqued in Canada, however the environment is controlled and recorded. The article argues that through microteaching, a pre-service teacher becomes more effective, and is more willing to apply new teaching methods. This is attributed to enactive mastery experience; these teachers encounter the difficulties of teaching and learn how to successfully approach them. Therefore, microteaching enhances pre-service teachers’ sense of self-efficacy. These conclusions were drawn by studying a random selection sample of pre-service teachers (70) at a public university in Turkey. The experimental group (35) received microteaching training while the control group (35) used the existing instructional methods of lecturing, questions and group discussion. This group did not perform microteaching activities nor did they take on the role of the teacher.

Colson, Tori, Sparks, Kelly, Berridge, Gina, Frimming, Renee & Willis, Clarissa. (2017). Pre-service teachers and self-efficacy: A study in contrast. Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, 8, 66-76. doi: 10.1515/dcse-2017-0016. This article is an academic article that compares pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy after a yearlong student teaching placement, and a traditional 16-week placement. The article argues that teachers often feel burnt-out and stressed, especially in high poverty, lowincome areas, which lead to them quitting the practice. However, student teaching plays a serious role in teacher retention due to the sense of self-efficacy it gives pre-service teachers. Here, an exploratory study was done to compare self-efficacy results in teachers who had completed a one-year internship, versus the traditional 16-week internship. The



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results of the study suggest that pre-service teachers in a yearlong internship felt more efficacious in their overall ability as a teacher; especially in areas such as classroom management and their ability to engage students in the lessons. The article suggests that this may be due to the perception that more time in the classroom gives more experience. Those with the yearlong internship were able to get to know their students and set expectations over the whole year, which may have lead them to be more confident in their abilities and score themselves as more efficacious than those with the traditional 16week internship. Elements 1. APA formatted citation

Carbonneau, K.J., Zhang, X., Ardasheva, Y. 2018. Preservice educators' perceptions of manipulatives: The moderating role of mathematics teaching self-efficacy. School Science & Mathematics, 118(7), 300-309. Retrieved from: http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail? vid=5&sid=b14c3a0e-03af474b- bce9-289767cbdf0e%40sessionmgr4009&bdata=JnNpdG U9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=132991087&db=ehh

2. Describe type of article (academic research, practitioner, or trade)

Academic research

3. Useful references included (if applicable) 4. Summarize the text’s thesis and essential points (introduction/context/background)

5. Research question(s), problem(s), or issue(s) addressed

6. Who are the participants, audience, and/or subjects?

In this study, they examine how prospective teachers perceive the efficacy of manipulatives and if these perceptions relate to their future use of manipulatives and their mathematics self-efficacy. They made a survey and got responses from 97 preservice educators who had completed a mathematics method course indicate three essential findings. They examine how prospective teachers perceive the efficacy of manipulatives and if these perceptions relate to their future use of manipulatives and their mathematics self-efficacy. 97 preservice educators who had completed a mathematics method course indicate three essential findings.



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7. What forms of data (or information) help the author(s) answer the questions, problems, or issues?

They do research and also made a survey.

8. What themes emerge about the original questions, problems, or issues?

The research made through the survey indicated three essential findings. One, preservice teachers in this sample perceive manipulatives as highly effective for enhancing students' performance, conceptual knowledge, and affect and reported high levels of the intended use of manipulatives in their future teaching. Two, both preservice teachers' mathematics content and teaching self-efficacies were significant negative predictors of the intended use of manipulatives. Three, the relationship between preservice educators' perceptions and the intended use of manipulatives is dependent upon their mathematics teaching self-efficacy. How highly effective the preservice teachers perceive manipulatives. Also, the relationship between preservice educators’ perceptions and the intended use of manipulatives is dependent upon their mathematics teaching selfefficacy.

9. What is important and/or interesting in general about these results? 10. What connections can be made to other readings, classroom observations, your project, or your future as a teacher/action researcher?

Easy connections can be made to our mathematics class here at Crandall. We are currently working on a project involving manipulatives so reading this article was very helpful for that!



Elements 1. APA formatted citation

2. Describe type of article (academic research, practitioner, or trade) 3. Useful references included (if applicable)

Miesera, S., Gebhardt, M. 2018. Inclusive vocational schools in Canada and Germany. A comparison of vocational pre-service teachers′ attitudes, self-efficacy and experiences towards inclusive education. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 33(5), 707-722. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08856257.2017.1421599 Academic research

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4. Summarize the text’s thesis and essential points (introduction/context/backgroun d)

The schools in both Canada and Germany are transitioning into inclusive education systems. The vocational schools are also headed into the same direction. Both countries have different school systems and each pre-service vocational teachers has a different attitude, self-efficacy and experiences related to inclusive education.

5. Research question(s), problem(s), or issue(s) addressed

The article addresses the new demands that vocational teachers face, due to the introduction of inclusive education in Germany and Canada.



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6. Who are the participants, audience, and/or subjects?

School systems in Germany and Canada.

7. What forms of data (or information) help the author(s) answer the questions, problems, or issues?

They do research and examine both Canadian and German pre-service vocational teachers’ attitudes, self-efficacy and experiences related to inclusive education to find a result.

8. What themes emerge about the original questions, problems, or issues?

The study identifies significantly more positive ratings in the Canadian sample across all the three scales.

9. What is important and/or interesting in general about these results?

They conclude that the different ratings relate to different school systems, experiences with inclusion and the teacher education systems. Also, their study shows more positive ratings in Canada.

10. What connections can be made to other readings, classroom observations, your project, or your future as a teacher/action researcher?

It directly connects to the Canadian education system! We will be working first-hand within this system so to compare it to the German educational system is fascinating.

Article: Pre-Service Teachers’ Literacy Self-Efficacy and Literacy Competence 1.APA formatted citation Bostock, L., & Boon, H. (2012). Pre-service teachers’ literacy self-efficacy and literacy competence. Australian & International Journal of Rural Education, 22(1), 19–37. Retrieved

from

http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=80224614&site=ehost -live 2.Describe type of article (academic research, practitioner, or trade) This article is academic research in the form of a survey. 3.Useful references included (if applicable) There was an extensive bibliography. Many links were not available for free download. The articles that could viewed were not very relevant to this project.



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4.Summarize the text’s thesis and essential points (introduction/context/background) In Queensland Australia, the literacy scores of students were dropping. The authors surmised that this result had something to do with new teachers entering the system, as many of the schools in this district are remote and offer little support to new employees. They endeavoured to answer this question by surveying pre-service teachers about their abilities in literacy education at the local university. 5.Research question(s), problem(s), or issue(s) addressed The research question they were attempting to answer was “Are new teachers in Queensland, Australia competent at literacy education”? 6.Who are the participants, audience, and/or subjects? Formally, the participants are pre-service teachers, however the authors also surveyed local administrators on their attitudes/opinions towards the aforementioned group. The audience is the district administration as well the leadership of the universities involved in the education of new teachers. 7.What forms of data (or information) help the author(s) answer the questions, problems, or issues? In this study the authors conducted a survey/test with volunteer pre-service teachers. Part of the survey was in regards to their self-efficacy in literacy, while another section tested their actual literacy abilities without any external aids. 8.What themes emerge about the original questions, problems, or issues? Most pre-service teachers in this district had a far higher opinion on their own abilities at literacy than was warranted. From the comments it was not until the later years in their



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four year program that many of them started to understand just how lacking they where in this area. 9.What is important and/or interesting in general about these results? It appears that in this case the pre-service teachers self-efficacy exceeded their competency in terms of literacy. 10.What connections can be made to other readings, classroom observations, your project, or your future as a teacher/action researcher? This article was pertinent as I believe many pre-service teachers are over endowed with self-efficacy in many areas. By enlarge many are still at the unknown phase of their journey. This is natural though for any program, as it is a function of age and lack of experience, and will self-correct with time.

Article: Improving Pre-Service Teachers’ Self -Efficacy on Technology Integration through Service Learning 1. APA formatted citation Liyan Song. (2018). Improving pre-service teachers’ self -efficacy on technology tntegration through service learning. Canadian Journal of Action Research, 19(1), 22–32. Retrieved

from

http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=131930341&site=ehos t-live 2. Describe type of article (academic research, practitioner, or trade) This article is academic research in the form of a survey. 3. Useful references included (if applicable)



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There was an extensive bibliography. Many links were not available for free download. 4. Summarize the text’s thesis and essential points (introduction/context/background) Pre-service teachers tend to be adverse to tech in the classroom, due to a corresponding low level of self-efficacy in this area. However, if these individuals are exposed to handson tech in the form of a Makerspace at a local school, would they be more comfortable with the subject? 5. Research question(s), problem(s), or issue(s) addressed Can having pre-service teachers participate in tech activities in a Makerspace at a local school improve their self-efficacy in this area? 6. Who are the participants, audience, and/or subjects? The participants are pre-service teachers. The audience is the district administration as well the leadership of the universities involved in the education of new teachers. 7. What forms of data (or information) help the author(s) answer the questions, problems, or issues? In this study the authors conducted a survey with volunteer pre-service teachers. The first was a baseline before the students were sent to a Makerspace in an actual school. The second was after they had the experience of working in the space with students. 8. What themes emerge about the original questions, problems, or issues? Most of the anxiety pre-service teachers experienced about this subject was due to a lack of exposure to the subject matter. 9. What is important and/or interesting in general about these results? Having pre-service teachers spend sometime, with an experienced teacher, in this subject area can create self-efficacy.



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10. What connections can be made to other readings, classroom observations, your project, or your future as a teacher/action researcher? Familiarity creates efficacy. Nearly everything in life seems daunting at first, but becomes easier with exposure. This is a great lesson to take into any classroom.

a) Based on our literature review, in our study we define pre-service teacher selfefficacy as the confidence in our skills and abilities to perform specific tasks as teachers. b) Based on our literature review, we come to understand that pre-service teacher self-efficacy is important because we feel more confident in our abilities to teach our own students. c) Based on our literature review, we identify three important measures of preservice teacher self-efficacy to be: 1) Instruction 2) classroom management and 3) relationships with our students and colleagues.





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Methodology: a. Research Context: This study was conducted at Crandall University in honour of the Bachelor of Education program. b. Participants: The participants of this study are the current students in the Bachelor of Education program. Most of the participants will be completing their internship in the fall of 2019. c. Permission: N/A d. Intervention: We spoke with recent graduates of the Education program and asked them questions that relate to self-efficacy. The purpose of this was to determine whether we felt more confident in our abilities to complete our internship. e. Data Collection: To collect our data, we created a survey on Survey Monkey. We distributed this survey both before and after the intervention and compared the results to see if students had a better sense of selfefficacy after discussing with those who had already went through the process. See survey below. f. Data analysis: As a group, we created graphs that reflected both the pre and post results of the survey. This way we were easily able to make conclusions based on the data collected. Survey: These questions are designed to determine the sense of self-efficacy among preservice teachers. Strongly agree I feel confident that I can develop an appropriate personal

Agree

Disagree

Strongly disagree

relationship with my students. I feel confident in explaining new concepts and my ability to relate it to students’ everyday lives. I feel confident that I can communicate with parents regarding their child’s educational progress. I am confident that my post-secondary education will help me achieve the goals that I set for myself as a future teacher. I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my coping abilities and education. I feel confident that I can make sure students enjoy coming to school. I feel confident that I apply different kinds of teaching methods to enhance my students learning. I feel confident that I can create meaningful learning experiences for my students. I feel confident that I can motivate my students to be actively involved in their learning. I feel confident that I can develop my teaching.

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Data The following graphs include our pre-interview and post-interview survey results: Question

Strongly Disagree

Disagree

Agree

(%)

(%)

(%)

Strongly Agree (%)

I feel confident that I can

Pre

0

0

50

50

develop an appropriate personal

Post

0

0

67

33

I feel confident in explaining

Pre

0

5

59

41

new concepts and my ability to

Post

0

22

67

11

I feel confident that I can

Pre

0

18

45

36

communicate

Post

0

17

72

11

I am confident that my post-

Pre

0

9

59

36

secondary education will help

Post

0

22

67

11

I can remain calm when facing

Pre

0

9

77

14

difficulties because I can rely on

Post

0

11

61

28

relationship with my students.

relate it to students’ everyday lives.

regarding

with their

parents child’s

educational progress.

me achieve the goals that I set for myself as a future teacher.

my

coping

18 abilities

and

education.

I feel confident that I can make

Pre

0

9

55

36

sure students enjoy coming to

Post

6

0

72

22

I feel confident that I apply

Pre

0

9

64

27

different

Post

0

6

56

39

I feel confident that I can create

Pre

0

9

55

36

meaningful learning experiences

Post

0

0

72

28

I feel confident that I can

Pre

0

5

73

23

motivate my students to be

Post

0

0

89

11

I feel confident that I can

Pre

0

0

41

59

develop my teaching.

Post

0

0

50

50

school.

kinds

of

teaching

methods to enhance my students learning.

for my students.

actively

involved

in

their

learning.

Overall

Question #1

19

Question #2

Question #3

20

Question #4

Question #5

21

Question #6

Question #7

22

Question #8

Question #9

23

Question #10

24



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Data Analysis and Conclusions: After analysing, we have concluded that the survey resulted in an imbalance of the data. For an unknown reason, the pre-interview survey yielded twenty-two responses, while the post survey resulted in only eighteen responses. Due to this unequal and small data set, comparing unadjusted numbers would skew the analysis and resulting conclusions. In an effort to minimize distortions caused by this result, the raw data was converted to a percentage, which was then used for the analysis. However, we can still draw relevant conclusions from the data. Based on the results, we have determined that pre-service teachers self-efficacy went down. Where people had previously responded, “strongly agree” to many questions, after the intervention that changed to merely an “agree” response.



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Next Steps: One of our next steps as a team would be to re-do the survey after completing our fifteen-week internship. After completing our internship, we would have more hands-on experience and be able to re-evaluate our self-efficacy. Another step would be to complete our survey after being in the field of work for over a year. Re-evaluating our self-efficacy would be interesting after having our own classroom, personal experience and working in different aspects of the job. Furthermore, we would also like to have those who have been teaching for several years complete the self-efficacy survey, instead of those who have just finished their internship. It would be interesting to see how their experience influences their self-efficacy.



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Implications: Based on this study, I feel as though many of us had a high sense of self-efficacy previous to the intervention, however, hearing stories on classroom management and the large workload some teacher experience lead us to believe that we may not be as prepared as we think. For myself, I feel confident in my ability to deliver curriculum content to a classroom of diverse students, however I feel less confident in my ability to respond to negative behaviours. This study made me realize the areas in which I need to improve to be able to efficiently manage a classroom. In terms of the methodology of action research, I feel as though this study was significant in that I am able to understand the steps necessary to implement this kind of research into my classroom. I feel as though it would be extremely beneficial to implement action research as a means of understanding which of my classroom methods work the best. I believe that as future teachers we have to be constantly thinking of ways to improve our methods, and what better way to find out what is and is not working than action research.



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References Arsal, Zeki. (2014). Microteaching and pre-service teachers’ sense of self-efficacy in teaching. European Journal of Teaching Education, 37, 453-464. doi:/10.1080/02619768.2014.912627. Bostock, L., & Boon, H. (2012). Pre-Service teachers’ literacy self-efficacy and literacy competence. Australian & International Journal of Rural Education, (1)22, 19– 37. Retrieved from: search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=80224614&site=eho st-live. Carbonneau, K.J., Zhang, X., Ardasheva, Y. 2018. Preservice educators' perceptions of manipulatives: The moderating role of mathematics teaching self efficacy. School Science & Mathematics, (7)118, 300-309. Retrieved from: web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=5&sid=b14c3a0e-03af-474b-bce9289767cbdf0e%40sessionmgr4009&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d% 3d#AN =132991087&db=ehh. Colson, T., Sparks, K., Berridge, G., Frimming, R. & Willis, C. (2017). Pre-service teachers and self-efficacy: A study in contrast. Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, 8, 66-76. doi: 10.1515/dcse-2017-0016. Helfrich, S. R., & Clark, S. K. (2016). A comparative examination of pre-service teacher self-efficacy related to literacy instruction. Reading Psychology, (7)37, 943–961. doi:10.1080/02702711.2015.1133466. Liyan Song. (2018). Improving pre-service teachers’ self -efficacy on technology integration through service learning. Canadian Journal of Action Research, (1)19, 22–32. Retrieved from:



29 search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=131930341&site=eh ost-live.

Martins, M., Costa, J., & Onofre, M. (2015). Practicum experiences as sources of preservice teachers’ self-efficacy. European Journal of Teacher Education, (2)38, 263–279. doi:10.1080/02619768.2014.968705. Miesera, S., Gebhardt, M. 2018. Inclusive vocational schools in Canada and Germany: A comparison of vocational pre-service teachers′ attitudes, self-efficacy and experiences towards inclusive education. European Journal of Special Needs Education, (5)33, 707-722. Retrieved from: tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08856257.2017.1421599.