246613702-igcse-history-cold-war-notes.pdf

A10: Superpower Relations 1945-1962: Key Events Knowing and understanding the key events from each topic is obviously essential. For Section A topics like Superpower Relations, you need to be able to describe or explain the causes, key features and consequences of each event. Make sure you study the following list of key events as part of your revision:

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1.) The Yalta Conference – February 4th-11th 1945 Who?

Causes

What happened?

Consequences

War situation

Stalin agreed to declare war on Japan

The talk of ‘democracy’ and ‘free

had changed: Germany was close to defeat. USA led by President Roosevelt UK led by Prime Minister Winston

Discussions over the post-war world were needed. USA & UK wanted USSR to declare war

within three months of the defeat of Germany. Compromise over Poland. All agreed to form a Polish government pledged to hold ‘free elections’. Borders of Poland also changed – USSR gained land from Eastern Poland whilst Poland would gain land from East Germany. The ‘Declaration on Liberated Europe’. USA, USSR & UK commit to work for

Churchill

on Japan.

democracy in Europe.

USSR led

Needed to

Allies agree to form the United Nations.

by Joseph Stalin

agree a political solution for liberated countries, especially Germany and Poland.

Germany and Berlin to be divided into four zones of occupation between Britain, France, USA and USSR. Big Three restate their agreement that the USSR should have a ‘sphere of influence’ in Eastern Europe.

elections’ was interpreted differently by USA and USSR. American free speech vs. Stalin’s idea that communism represented the people so no opposition allowed. Yalta raised false expectations in the USA that Stalin would allow westernstyle governments in Eastern Europe. Stalin paid only lip service to idea of ‘free elections’ in Poland. In March, 16 leaders of the Polish resistance were arrested by Stalin and never seen again. Further talks over Poland achieved nothing. USSR refused to allow prowestern Poles into new government. Soviet troops had captured most of Eastern Europe. Stalin’s demand for a ‘sphere of influence’ had to be taken seriously.

2.) The Potsdam Conference – July 17th - Aug 2nd 1945 Who?

Causes

What happened? A compromise was reached over war

USA represented by President Harry S. Truman

reparations. Each ally would take

Nazi Germany was

reparations from the zone they

over. Hitler was

occupied. USSR was also given industrial

dead. The Allies

equipment from Western zones in

needed to decide

return for raw materials.

Europe. Both superpowers

Agreed to prosecute Nazi war

their half of Europe.

how to disarm and punish Germany.

had to be reached represented by Prime Minister Winston Churchill &

The conference ended

The war against

A political solution UK

Consequences

over the liberated countries. The Western Allies now occupied the whole of western Europe. The Soviet

criminals.

without agreement on what would happen to the newly liberated states across were determined to keep

Truman’s attempt to assert

Statement of aims of the occupation of

his authority by declaring a

Germany by the Allies: demilitarisation,

‘powerful new weapon’ at the

denazification, democratisation,

conference only made Stalin

decentralisation and decartelisation.

more determined to protect

Details of the German-Polish border were finally agreed.

the USSR. He saw this as a threat from the USA. He therefore wanted to create a

Red Army occupied

The communist dominated Polish

‘buffer zone’ in Eastern

the whole of

Provisional Government of National

Europe.

Clement

eastern Europe.

Unity was recognized by all three

Attlee

Roosevelt had

Prime Minister

powers.

The USA and UK became aware of their need to

died and Truman

Was confirmed that the Polish

confront communism in

was keen to meet

Provisional Government of National

Europe. Truman approved

USSR

Stalin. He wanted

Unity would hold ‘free and fair

Churchill’s 1946 ‘Iron Curtain’

represented

to be tougher with

elections’ as soon as possible.

speech, in which he said that

by Joseph

Stalin over issues

Stalin

like Poland.

The terms of the surrender of Japan were agreed. Japan had to agree unconditional surrender or face ‘prompt and utter destruction’.

countries in the West were free and countries in the East were under communist control behind an ‘Iron Curtain’.

3.) Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ Speech – March 1946 Who?

Causes

What happened?

By 1946 it became

Former UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill who lost power in the 1945 general election

clear that Europe

Churchill gave a speech in the

had been divided.

presence of President Truman at

From 1945-1948,

Westminster College, Fulton,

Stalin rigged

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elections to establish communist governments in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, East Germany & Czechoslovakia.

Missouri on 5 March 1946: ‘From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an "Iron Curtain" has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade,

The West

Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous

responded to this

cities and the populations around

division with a war

them lie in what I must call the

of words, designed

Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in

to portray Stalin as a

one form or another, not only to

power-hungry

Soviet influence but to a very high

dictator. Truman had

and in some cases increasing measure

even compared Stalin

of control from Moscow.’

to Hitler.

Consequences The speech showed that both sides now clearly viewed each other as opponents. Stalin responded by saying: ‘…Mr Churchill now adopts the position of the warmonger, and in this Mr Churchill is not alone. He has friends not only in Britain but in the USA as well. A point to be noted in this respect is that Mr. Churchill and his friends bear a striking resemblance to Hitler and his friends.’ This war of words led to both sides initiating spying and assessment reports on each other to determine the thinking of their opponents. This resulted in the Long Telegram and Novikov’s Telegram.

4.) The Long Telegram & Novikov’s Telegram – 1946 Who?

Causes

What happened?

Consequences

Kennan responded to Truman with a telegram on 22nd

The telegrams made

February 1946 that reported: US ambassador to Moscow, George F. Kennan Soviet ambassador to Washington, Nikolai Novikov

Truman and Stalin were both keen to understand



There could be no peace with the USSR while it was opposed to capitalism. 

intentions and they both

facing the imminent

capitalism.

each other’s threats so

feel that they were

The USSR perceived itself to be at war with



th

September that reported:

commissioned 

reports to be written by



America wanted to dominate the world. The USA was no longer interested in cooperation.

embassy staff. 

The American public was being prepared for war with the USSR by ‘capitalist elites’.

possibility of war. The USA now believed that the

The USSR was rebuilding its military.

Novikov responded to Stalin with a telegram on 27

both governments

USSR was planning world domination whilst the USSR believed the same about the USA. These fears led the USA to form the ‘Truman Doctrine’.

5.) The Truman Doctrine – March 1947 Who?

Causes

George Kennan advised Truman that the USA’s best hope was to ‘contain’ communism rather than

What happened? The Truman Doctrine stated that: 

fight it on the battlefield. Much of Europe was devastated after the war and communism was President Truman of the USA

appealing. Truman was worried

 

neighbouring countries were next in line to be threatened. In Feb 1947 the UK announced it could no longer afford to pay for troops in Greece and Turkey. The US feared communism would spread to these countries.

because it suggested that America had the responsibility to protect the world, not the

democratic freedom.

UN which marked an end to

America had a responsibility to

USA’s traditional policy of

America would send troops and money help governments against communism.



The doctrine was significant

communist tyranny and

fight for liberty.

about the Domino Theory: if communism took over one country,

The world had choice between

Consequences

Communism should not be allowed to grow and spread and should be ‘contained’. Over the course of the Cold War,

the Truman doctrine provided arms and money to defend Greece, Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, Afghanistan and South America.

‘isolationism’. The doctrine assumed that Capitalism and Communism were incompatible = the unofficial start of the Cold War. Truman was now committed to a policy of ‘containment’. US military aid to Greece meant that the communists were defeated in the Greek Civil War in 1949.

6.) The Marshall Plan – June 1947 Who?

Causes Economic crisis in Europe: food shortages, unemployment, food rationing and

President

starvation. Communist

Truman of

party support was

the USA

growing, especially in

George C. Marshall, US

France and Italy where riots broke out.

Secretary

Truman knew that to

of State

weaken the attraction of communism, he needed to rebuild and encourage prosperity in Europe.

What happened?

The USA decided to offer economic aid to Europe, organised by US Secretary of State General George Marshall. Committed $13 billion USD to rebuild the ruined economies of Europe. Countries had to agree free trade agreements with the USA in order to receive money. This would benefit the American economy as the US would provide the money and goods needed to rebuild. American money was made available to eastern Europe and the USSR as well. Stalin ordered Poland & Czechoslovakia not to accept it.

Consequences European leaders met at the Paris Conference of 1948 to discuss Marshall Aid. The USSR walked out of the conference as they believed the US was trying to split Europe into two camps. Stalin claimed that Marshall Aid had tricked western Europe into an economic reliance on the US. Led to the creation of Soviet rivals: COMINFORM and COMECON. West European economies experienced an economic boom and had returned to prewar levels of growth when the plan ended in 1952. Divided Germany as the military governors of western Germany agreed to accept money. Divide in Europe was now economic, not just ideological.

7.) Creation of COMINFORM – Sep 1947 Who?

Causes

Stalin was concerned that eastern European countries would be tempted by the Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin

Marshall Plan. He wanted to prevent this by forcing Eastern European countries to become ‘satellite states’, controlled by the USSR. Stalin wanted satellite states on his European borders to trade with, and for military defence.

What happened?

Consequences

At an international conference, the USSR created the Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM) which represented Communist Parties across Europe and brought them under the control and manipulation of the USSR. COMINFORM encouraged Communist Parties in Western Europe to organise demonstrations and strikes in order to wreck the Marshall Plan. 2 million workers went on strike in France in 1947 calling for their government to reject Marshall Aid. COMINFORM was also used to stamp out opposition and ensure the loyalty of Eastern European governments. 5% of population was imprisoned in Hungary by 1953.

COMINFORM organised strikes in Western Europe did not work as growing prosperity weakened the attraction of communism. COMINFORM strengthened Stalin’s hold on Eastern Europe. He could use COMINFORM to investigate government ministers and employees, and remove or imprison those who were not loyal.

8.) Creation of COMECON - Jan 1949 Who?

Causes The failure of COMINFORM to destroy Marshall Plan through political

Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin

opposition forced the USSR to consider an economic rival. Stalin wanted to minimise the influence of the USA. Stalin wanted to prevent Eastern Europe from benefiting economical from the West.

What happened?

Consequences

The Council for Mutual

Was not very successful as the Soviet

Economic Aid (COMECON) was designed as a trading organisation of communist countries. Aims was to economically develop Eastern Europe and prevent trade

Union had little spare cash to inject into the economies of Eastern Europe. Meant that Eastern Europe did not develop as fast as Western Europe. The USSR used COMECON to help

with Western Europe.

rebuild itself first – not its satellite

USSR, Bulgaria,

encouraged COMECON members to

Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and Romania were all members in first year. Albania and Eastern Germany joined in 1950.

states. The USSR eventually specialise in different products. Stalin’s wish of a sphere of influence over Eastern Europe was now made an economic reality.

9.) The Berlin Blockade and Airlift – June 1948 Who?

Causes Stalin didn’t want a divided Germany. Germany’s main

Communist Party General Secretary of the USSR, Joseph Stalin US President Harry Truman

economic resources were in the west and he wanted to prevent the USA from having further influence in Germany. He feared they were rebuilding Germany as an ally against the USSR. He viewed the merging of the Allied zones of Germany in 1947, along with the introduction of the Deutschmark in June 1948 as an attempt to divide Germany. He expected the western powers to make a humiliating retreat.

What happened?

Consequences

Stalin set up a military blockade around West Berlin on 23

rd

June

1948. He planned to cut western Germany off from its capital: Berlin. This would prove that a divided Germany could not work. All roads and railways to Berlin were blocked by the Soviets. Stalin assumed the West would give in as 2 million Berliner’s were starving. Truman responded with the Berlin Airlift. It was the first major test of the Truman Doctrine. Allied planes would supply West Berlin from the air. The first flight was on the 26th and by Sep, a US aircraft was leaving every 3 minutes. 70 large cargo planes airlifted 600-700 tonnes of food and supplies every day. This increased to 1000 tonnes within weeks. At its height, the airlift provided over 170,000 tonnes of supplies, flying along 3 ‘air corridors’ during January 1949.

Stalin backed down on 12th May 1949. Stalin seemed like the aggressor as the attack on Berlin looked like the first step in a march westwards. This was a propaganda success for the USA. Blockade seemed to prove to the West that the USSR wanted to take over Europe. This led to the creation of the NATO alliance in April 1949 and the creation of West Germany (FDR) as an independent state in Sep 1949. This in turn forced the USSR to establish East Germany (GDR) as an independent nation one month later. Stalin ordered the speeding up of atomic testing as he realised that without an atomic bomb, he could not win confrontations with the USA. The USSR test their first atomic bomb in 1949, starting the arms race.

10.) Creation of NATO – April 1949 Who?

1949 – USA, UK, Canada, Iceland, France, Portugal, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Denmark and Norway. 1952 – Greece and Turkey. 1955 – West Germany. 1982 – Spain.

Causes The Berlin Blockade raised the possibility of war in Europe as it was the first military confrontation of the Cold War. European countries were keen to establish a military alliance in order to ‘keep the USA in, the USSR out and the Germans down.’

What happened? The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was established as a military alliance between the USA and Western Europe. An attack on one member would be considered as an attack on all members. It was in effect a military alliance with the aim of defending the West against communism. It wasn’t just a promise either. Five divisions of US troops were based in Germany. West Germany joined NATO in 1955, adding millions more troops.

Consequences The creation of NATO significantly heightened tensions in the Cold War. The creation of NATO now added a clear military divide to Europe. The USSR felt threatened by the creation of NATO and especially when West German troops joined. The USSR responded by creating the Warsaw Pact in 1955 which was a military alliance of Eastern European countries. The build-up of military alliances turned into an arms race when the USSR tested its own nuclear bomb in 1949. But paradoxically, the threat of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) prevented war in Europe.

11.) The Korean War – June 1950 – July 1953 Who? North Korea, led by Kim Il Sung South Korea led by Syngman Rhee China led by Mao Zedong USA led by President Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 US/UN Forces led by General Douglas MacArthur

Causes Truman believed the Russians were behind the attack and it was a test of his policy of containment. China had become communists in 1949 providing further proof that containment was

What happened?

Korea was divided after the Second World War. On 25th June 1950, North Korea led by Kim Il Sung invaded the South in an attempt to re-unite the country by force.

in Korea. The Security Council approved the use of force to defeat the

In Sep 1949 the USSR

In Sep 1950, US troops led by

atomic bomb. Truman became convinced that communism wanted to take over the world. UN vote gave the USA greater ‘legitimacy’ to invade

in the world. Proved that containment could work to prevent the Domino Theory – would later

War led to rearmament throughout the western world. The Involvement of USSR and China persuaded the US to increase defence spending, up to 400% after

General Douglas MacArthur led a successful counter-attack and by 1st Oct, US troops had reached the 38

to containing communism anywhere

Vietnam.

Council to back the use of US troops

Northern invasion.

Demonstrated the US commitment

influence decision making in

Truman asked the UN Security

needed.

had developed an

Consequences

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parallel. When MacArthur invaded North Korea, the Chinese intervened, pushing US led forces back to Seoul. For the rest of the war, stalemate ensued. Ceasefire was agreed on 27th July 1953. Korea remained divided.

the war. Marshall Aid money also was diverted to defence spending in Western Europe. Dangers of nuclear war, proposed by General MacArthur scared the world and put pressure on the superpowers to negotiate. After the death of Stalin in 1953, this led to a thaw in relations.

12.) Creation of the Warsaw Pact – May 1955 Who?

Causes

What happened?

Consequences

The USSR responded to NATO by creating the

USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Albania and East Germany.

The formation of NATO in 1949

Warsaw Pact which was a

altered the balance of power in

military alliance of

Europe in the West’s favour.

Eastern European

Stalin needed his own rival alliance

countries. The countries

to ensure parity with the west.

agreed to respect each

The addition of West Germany to NATO in 1955 along with over a million extra German soldiers

other’s independence and to defend each other in the event of war.

accelerated the need for the

Unlike NATO, the Warsaw

USSR to create a military alliance.

Pact countries were strictly dominated by the USSR.

The creation of a communist military alliance cemented the control of the USSR over Eastern Europe. It also contributed to the increasing competition of the arms race. The Warsaw Pact had poor technology and relied on conscription, therefore the USSR focused on developing nuclear weapons as a means of deterrence.

13.) The Hungarian Uprising – Feb-Nov 1956 Who?

Causes Hungarians were dissatisfied with Soviet rule. After 1949, COMINFORM imposed an oppressive regime on Hungary. Hungarian land was given to other countries, resources shipped to

Hungarian Dictator Matyas Rakosi Hungarian Leader Erno Gero Hungarian Leader Imre Nagy Hungarian Leader Janos Kadar USSR led by Nikita Khrushchev

Russia, political parties abolished and Matyas Rakosi was appointed dictator in Aug 1952. Rakosi’s reign was harsh – he used what he called ‘salami tactics’ to deal with opposition ‘one slice at a time’. He imprisoned over 387,000 people and was responsible for over 2000 deaths. The death of Stalin in 1953 led to the end of ‘Stalinism’ and the start of what Khrushchev called ‘peaceful co-existence’ with the west. This was taken to mean that Soviet rule was to be relaxed in Hungary. In June 1956, there were antiSoviet demonstrations in Poland. Khrushchev agreed to allow reforms there. This inspired many Hungarians to demonstrate and protest, hoping to gain reforms in their country.

What happened?

Consequences

After Khrushchev’s ‘secret speech’ in Feb 1956, many students began to riot in Budapest, attacking Soviet troops with petrol bombs and grenades. Police lost control and protests erupted in other cities. By the summer, Khrushchev realised that Rakosi was extremely unpopular & replaced him with Erno Gero in July 1956. This made little difference. On 24th Oct, Khrushchev agreed to calls for a more liberal leader and appointed Imre Nagy. He proposed leaving the Warsaw Pact, making Hungary a democracy with free election, communism should end and Hungary should ask the UN for help against the USSR. Khrushchev worried that to allow this greater freedom and let Hungary leave the Warsaw Pact would mean the end to Soviet control of Eastern Europe. He responded by sending 200,000 Soviet troops and 2500 tanks into Hungary to crush the government. They reached Budapest on 4

th

Nov.

20,000 Hungarians were killed and another 200,000 fled to Austria.

Nagy fled to the Yugoslavian embassy but was arrested by Soviet troops as soon as he left. He was accused of treason by Khrushchev and was hanged in June 1958. The west was accused of ‘abandoning’ the Hungarians. The USA had encouraged the uprising but didn’t want to risk nuclear war. May have actually improved relations as USSR had seen the USA as having no desire to interfere in its sphere of influence. The lack of military help from the USA discouraged other radicals in Eastern Europe from rising up. In that sense, Khrushchev’s show of force worked to strengthen his control on Eastern Europe. Janos Kadar was appointed as the new Hungarian leader who called for: re-establishing communist control and remaining in the Warsaw Pact.

14.) The Berlin Crisis & U2 Incident – 1958-1961 Who?

Causes

What happened?

Consequences

In Nov 1958, Khrushchev issued an Khrushchev was

ultimatum giving Western Powers six months

deeply concerned

to withdraw from Berlin. Eisenhower was

by the growing

unsure how to respond but agreed to hold

refugee problem.

talks on the issue.

Between 1949 and 1961, 2.7 million East Germans USSR led

escaped to West

by Nikita

Germany through

Khrushchev

Berlin. Many were

USA led by

highly skilled.

President

Khrushchev also

Truman

believed that West

and Dwight

Berlin was being

D.

used by the West

Eisenhower

as a base for

from 1953

spying and sabotage. The post-war recovery of West Berlin seemed to remind people of

from escaping to the West, ending the refugee crisis. Allowed the communists to consolidate their hold over East Germany.

Further talks are held in Geneva (May 1959) and at Camp David (Sep 1959) but both talks fail to achieve anything. Further talks are scheduled for 1960. On 1st May 1960, an American U2 spy plane is shot down over USSR. Khrushchev used this to expose the USA’s spying programme at the UN. The Paris Summit on 16th May 1960 breaks down as Khrushchev walks out. Eisenhower refuses to punish the leaders of the U2 programme. At the Vienna Conference on 4

The wall stopped East Germans

Allowed Khrushchev to avoid war with USA whilst appearing strong. Was propaganda victory for the USA as USSR had to ‘wall people in’ to make sure they didn’t run away from communism. Kennedy took advantage of this by touring West Berlin in 1963, saying in a speech: “All free men, wherever they live, are citizens of Berlin and therefore as a free man, I take pride in the words Ich bin ein Berliner.”

th

June 1961,

Khrushchev challenges Kennedy to withdraw US troops from Berlin within 6 months or to declare war. Kennedy refuses.

the benefits of

On morning of 13th Aug 1961, Berliner’s

capitalism. This

awake to find that a fence had been

worried Khrushchev.

erected around the whole of West Berlin. It was eventually reinforced.

86 Germans would die over the next 30 years in trying to cross the wall. Led to a period of calm in Europe as both sides accepted there was no immediate prospect of change so tension went down.

15.) The Cuban Missile Crisis – October 1962 Who?

Causes

What happened?

Consequences

In August 1961, Khrushchev agreed to defend Long-term The continuing arms race forced both sides to find

Cuba by stationing Russian nuclear missiles in Cuba. On 25th September 1962, Khrushchev sent 114 ships to Cuba carrying nuclear warheads and long range missiles.

ways in which to gain military supremacy. The

14th Oct – American U2 spy plane spots a nuclear

launch of Sputnik 1 in

site under construction in Cuba.

1957 had intensified the arms race. In early 1962, the US placed nuclear

16th Oct – Kennedy was shown the photographs proving the missiles were on Cuba. The ExComm committee is established and he spends 6 days

missiles in Turkey. The

secretly discussing how to respond.

USSR decided to retaliate by placing missiles in Cuba. This would allow the USSR to undermine American

20th Oct – Kennedy ignores pressure from ‘hawks’ and decides to impose a naval blockade around Cuba to prevent further missiles reaching Cuba.

nuclear superiority without having to develop expensive inter-continental USA led by President Kennedy USSR led by Nikita Krushchev Cuba led by Fidel Castro

ballistic missiles.

22

pro-US Batista

Khrushchev to recall his ships on route to Cuba. He promised to destroy any ships that passed the ‘quarantine line’. 23rd Oct – Khrushchev states that Soviet ships will break though the blockade.

government in Cuba with a communist government led by Fidel Castro in 1959 intensified fears of

24th Oct – Khrushchev issues a statement saying the USSR is prepared to respond with nuclear weapons if the USA goes to war.

communist expansion in Latin America. Cuba was only 90 miles from Florida. Castro nationalised US

– Kennedy gives a public address officially

declaring the blockade with 100 ships and calls on

Short-term The overthrow of the

nd

25

th

Oct – Kennedy writes a letter to Khrushchev

asking him to withdraw missiles from Cuba. Both armies told to prepare for war. Tension at highest point.

property in Cuba and the USA banned the import

26 Oct – Khrushchev’s first offer: he ignores calls

of Cuban sugar – their

for a nuclear war and responds, saying in a letter he

main export. This forced

will withdraw the missiles in return for a US

Cuba to turn to the USSR

guarantee not to invade Cuba.

for help. The USSR now gave economic aid to Cuba.

th

27th Oct – Khrushchev’s second offer: he sends a second letter now demanding that the US withdraws

The failed Bay of Pigs

its missiles from Turkey in return for the removal

invasion of Cuba in April

of Cuban missiles. Kennedy ignores this letter but

1961 by the CIA left

agrees to the first letter. Robert Kennedy then

Castro fearing another US

meets with Soviet ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin. He

invasion. He asked

agrees to Russian demands to withdraw missiles from

Khrushchev for military

Turkey but insists the deal must be kept secret.

help.

28th Oct – Khrushchev agrees to the secret deal and orders all ‘cargoes’ to return to the USSR.

Short-Term Kennedy and the USA appeared victorious as Khrushchev was seen by the world as the one to publically back down. This propaganda defeat contributed to Khrushchev resigning in 1964. Kennedy had agreed to pull US missiles out of Turkey. In reality, the event did end in compromise. European allies of the US were shocked at how little they were consulted throughout the crisis. French leader Charles de Gaulle pulls France out of NATO in response. NATO is weakened. The Chinese were not impressed with the performance of the USSR so began to pursue a more independent foreign policy. World communism was also weakened. This led to the creation of a ‘hotline’ in June 1963 between Washington and Moscow in order to avoid future ‘misunderstandings’. The Limited Test Ban Treaty was agreed in August 1963. Both sides agreed to ban nuclear testing in space, in the sea and above ground. Long-term Both sides recognised the dangers of direct conflict. The USA and USSR began to search for meaningful ‘peaceful co-existence’ as they realised how close they came to nuclear war. This led to a policy called ‘détente’ – a relaxing of tension in the Cold War which dominated superpower relations in the 1970s.