World Civ Midterm

1 April Hughes October 17, 2006 Dr. Shelton World Civ. Midterm

European Relationships Between China and the Ottoman Empire

Through global trade Europeans encountered Chinese and Ottoman civilizations. During the 15th through the 18th centuries, the latter two empires had acquired a level of prosperity that European’s admired and envied. As a result of their interactions of commerce and exploration, Europe’s attitude towards these cultures have been shaped, and likewise Chinese and Ottomans formed opinions of their neighbors to the West. European leadership did indeed face conflicts with both of these powerful empires, yet through their writing the admiration and intrigue of Europe for the Chinese and Ottoman empires became evident. Europe endeavors attempted to make pacts and trade agreements to expand their empire, yet Chinese and Ottoman Empires did occasionally pose a threat to Europeans, and they did in fact face very real and great tensions with the Ottoman Turks. Although Europe viewed the East with intrigue, the Chinese and even the Ottoman Turks seem disinterested, or especially apathetic in the case of the Chinese, towards European culture. Through the writings of Johnathan Spence, Emperor Ch’ienlung, Ghislain de Busbecq, and Lady Mary Wortley Montague, Europe’s relationship with China, as well as Europe’s relationship with the Ottoman Empire between the 1440s-1700s is explored and understood.

2 By the 15th century, the vast and powerful empire of the Chinese had been well established. They had already hosted grand and glamorous overseas expeditions under Zheng, but by the year 1433 their navy was abruptly dissolved and many viewed overseas exploration and extensive trade as a force that was destructive to their superior culture. The Ming dynasty formed the most highly centralized and stable government of the time. This Chinese stability intrigued the Europeans, who were still constantly fighting autonomous feudal lords. The Europeans, who admired the exquisitely crafted Chinese goods, petitioned the Chinese emperors for trading rights and freedoms in China, but the requests were met with indifference. The Chinese viewed the Europeans as their barbarian neighbors of the west and felt that they did not have anything worth trading with them. The Chinese viewed their society to be far superior to any Europeans civilization and viewed the them as filthy, disease-ridden, and inferior. Johnathan Spence, provides a secondary source’s account of the Ming Empire during its peak around 1600. At this time the Chinese government ruled over 120 million subjects effectively. This population totaled more than all other European countries combined. This society was strongly centralized and lead by the intellectual elites in an already highly educated society. Unlike other sources, this scholarly writing was written centuries after the Ming dynasty, and therefore biases toward the Chinese, or towards Europeans have been extracted and only the truth of the solidarity of the Chinese empire remains. Because of the apparent power of the Chinese during this time, it is easy to understand why and how Europe became to be viewed quite inferiorly in their eyes. And, likewise is become obvious why Europe is intrigued by such a prosperous empire such as

3 China. In Europe at this time attempts are being made to stabilize their countries, however, due to the devastation of the Black Death civil and political chaos seemed to prevail. Plague killed many European traders, and other countries, including China, were disinclined to trade with them because of the their susceptibility to disease when trading with the sickly Europeans. In short, Europe desperately sought to create bonds of trade and commerce between the mature, wealthy, and stable China, yet all that the Chinese felt that these barbarians offered was the threat of disease. Through the writings of Emperor Ch’ien-lung in his “Letter to King George 3rd,” Chinese views of Europeans can be seen. In 1793 London sends a mission, headed by Lord Macartney, in honor of Emperor Ch’ien-lung’s eighty-third birthday. During this time Macarteny petitioned the Emperor for a more friendly trading agreement and less restrictions for British merchant ships entering the Chinese port city of Canton. The emperor was angered by the audacious requests of Lord Macarteny and the British monarch. He soundly rejected their proposals and criticized them for their requests. He states that he could not make exceptions and indulgences for the Europeans, but that he did take into account the isolation and loneliness of Britain’s “remote island.” He notes that he has written his message to the king consequently because he does not feel that Lord McCartney will be able to deliver his message accurately. Initially, the emperor was under the impression that Lord Macarteny’s visit to China had been to pay tribute, and thus recognize Chinese sovereignty and superiority over Europeans. Once Ch’ien-lung realized this was not Macarteny’s mission, he was greatly taken aback and insulted. The Chinese view of the European culture was that of

4 apathy, disinterest, and almost disgust, which is apparent in the emperor’s letter to King George III. Because the author of this primary document is the emperor himself, it becomes apparent that he would view his own culture and political system as superior over a rival power. His view of the Europeans as barbarians is more than an overstatement, and therefore his validity must be judged accordingly. His view of Europeans, however, is probably congruent with that of most Chinese. Similarly, the relationship between Europeans and the Ottoman Turks during the 1400s through the 1700s can be revealed through writings of the period. By the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire had risen as the most prosperous of the three Islamic dynasties and occupied much of the area between Europe and Asia. The Ottoman Empire was predominantly Turkish in ethnicity, and first acquired their land through military expansion and conquest. They would conquer lands, yet promise the citizens of those lands peace and prosperity in return for their support. During Suliman’s reign the empire reached its height and created the great city of Istanbul from the former Byzantine city of Constantinople in 1453. The prosperity of the Ottoman Empire was known throughout Europe and Suleiman was known the them as ‘The Great Turk.” In 1555, a European diplomat by the name of Ghislain de Busbecq, traveled to Istanbul by order of Hapsburg ruler, Ferdinand I Archduke of Austria and King of Hungary and Bohemia. At this time Ottoman conquest and expansion has been progressing threateningly close to European borders, and Busbecq was sent on one hand as a foreign diplomat, and also as a advisor to Ferdinand as to the strength of this government and military. Busbecq finds much to admire and fear in his visit to the

5 Ottoman Empire. He admires their system of government and power that is based on merit and ability rather than an individual’s status at birth. He claimed that because of this system, the Turks seemed to succeed in everything that they did. He notes the regality of their towering turbans, and was impressed by the idea that each man dressed alike regardless of his societal status. Busbecq continues to speak about the Suliman’s military affairs and of the humane treatment and protection of their troops. He puts a lot of emphasis in his letter about the Ottoman military, and this is part due to the fact that the Hapsburg ruler, Ferdinand I knew that he very well may find himself in opposition to the Ottoman’s in the near future. Busbecq made sure that he informed his leader of their military status and ability. He ends by expressing his concern and fear about the possibility of having to combat the Turkish system. Another primary document that expresses the admiring view of Europeans toward the Ottoman Empire was that of a European aristocrat, Lady Mary Wortley Montague. In her letter to a friend back in England, she describes the Turkish method of smallpox treatment through inoculation. Being a survivor of smallpox herself, she was aware of the infections threat and feared for her own son’s life. She describes how women would open the veins of people and purposefully infect them with a mild version of the smallpox. They would become feverish for a few days, and after their recovery would be immune to the infection. She is fascinated by the process and admires their ingenuity.

She expresses her hope that this new treatment will become popular in

Europe, but she doubtfully fears that it never will.

6 These sources are particularly interesting in that they both admire the Ottomans and revere them for their achievements. Through these accounts, the reader is also able to understand the view of the Ottoman’s towards the Europeans. Unlike the Chinese, the Ottoman Empire relied on trade and commerce, and therefore valued the interaction with their neighbors, the Europeans. Although Busbecq, Lady Montague, and many Europeans were intrigued by the Ottomans and sought interaction with them through trade and diplomacy, there relationship had far greater tensions than the relationship between Europe and China. Admittedly, China and Europe often failed to understand each other culturally, their conflicts during this time were little more than bickering letters of disapproval, such as the Emperor Ch’ien-lung’s letter the King George III. The nature of the relationship between the Ottoman’s and the European’s was much different in that the two empires were geographically closer than Europe and China. The Ottoman Empire reached its peak by conquest and expansion from neighboring lands, and when the Turks continued to expand towards Europe tensions arose, and rightfully so. Because of the local threat, the relationship between the two empires demanded to be cautiously approached.