Water Purification Report.docx

Vibrio Infections

Vibrio is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria, possessing a curved-rod shape (comma shape), several species of which can cause foodborne infection, usually associated with eating undercooked seafood. Typically found in salt water, Vibrio species are facultative anaerobes that test positive for oxidase and do not form spores. All members of the genus are motile and have polar flagella with sheaths. Vibrio species typically possess two chromosomes, which is unusual for bacteria. Each chromosome has a distinct and independent origin of replication, and is conserved together over time in the genus. Recent phylogenies have been constructed based on a suite of genes (multilocus sequence analysis).

Treatment

Vibrio gastroenteritis Because Vibrio gastroenteritis is self-limited in most patients, no specific medical therapy is required. Patients who cannot tolerate oral fluid replacement may require intravenous fluid therapy. Although most Vibrio species are sensitive to antibiotics such as doxycycline or quinolones, antibiotic therapy does not shorten the course of the illness or the duration of pathogen excretion. However, if the patient is ill and has a high fever or an underlying medical condition, oral antibiotic therapy with doxycycline or a quinolone can be initiated.

Noncholera Vibrio infections Patients with noncholera Vibrio wound infection or septicemia are much more ill and frequently have other medical conditions. Medical therapy consists of:

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Prompt initiation of effective antibiotic therapy (doxycycline or a quinolone) Intensive medical therapy with aggressive fluid replacement and vasopressors for hypotension and septic shock to correct acid-base and electrolytes abnormalities that may be associated with severe sepsis Early fasciotomy within 24 hours after development of clinical symptoms can be life-saving in patients with necrotizing fasciitis. Early debridement of the infected wound has an important role in successful therapy and is especially indicated to avoid amputation of fingers, toes, or limbs. Expeditious and serial surgical evaluation and intervention are required because patients may deteriorate rapidly, especially those with necrotizing fasciitis or compartment syndrome. Reconstructive surgery, such as skin grafts, is used in the recovery phase.

Intestinal Worms

Intestinal worms, also known as parasitic worms, are one of the main types of intestinal parasites. Common types of intestinal worms include:

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flatworms, which include tapeworms and flukes roundworms, which cause ascariasis, pinworm, and hookworm infections

Common symptoms of intestinal worms are:      

abdominal pain diarrhea, nausea, or vomiting gas/bloating fatigue unexplained weight loss abdominal pain or tenderness

A person with intestinal worms may also experience dysentery. Dysentery is when an intestinal infection causes diarrhea with blood and mucus in the stool. Intestinal worms can also cause a rash or itching around the rectum or vulva. In some cases, you will pass a worm in your stool during a bowel movement. Some people may have intestinal worms for years without experiencing any symptoms.

Causes

One way to become infected with intestinal worms is eating undercooked meat from an infected animal, such as a cow, pig, or fish. Other possible causes leading to intestinal worm infection include:  

consumption of contaminated water consumption of contaminated soil

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contact with contaminated feces poor sanitation poor hygiene

Roundworms are typically transmitted through contact with contaminated soil and feces. Once you’ve consumed the contaminated substance, the parasite travels into your intestine. Then they reproduce and grow in the intestine. Once they reproduce and become larger in amount and size, symptoms may appear.

Treatment Some types of intestinal worms, such as tapeworms, may disappear on their own if you have a strong immune system and healthy diet and lifestyle. However, depending on the type of intestinal worm infection, one may require treatment with an antiparasitic medication. Serious symptoms shouldn’t be ignored. See your doctor if you:

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have blood or pus in your stool are vomiting daily or frequently have an elevated body temperature are extremely fatigued and dehydrated

Your treatment plan will be determined based on the type of intestinal worm you have and your symptoms. Tapeworm infections are usually treated with an oral medication, such as praziquantel (Biltricide), which paralyzes the adult tapeworm. The praziquantel (Biltricide) causes the tapeworms to detach from the gut, become dissolved, and then pass out of your body through your stool.

Common treatments for a roundworm infection include mebendazole (Vermox, Emverm) and albendazole (Albenza).

Symptoms typically begin to improve after a few weeks of treatment. Your doctor will most likely take and analyze another stool sample after treatment is complete to see if the worms have disappeared.

Prevention To prevent intestinal worms, regularly wash your hands with soap and hot water before and after using the toilet and before preparing or eating foods. You should also practice food safety:      

avoid raw fish and meat thoroughly cook meat to temperatures of at least 145°F (62.8°C) for whole cuts of meat and 160°F (71°C) for ground meat and poultry let cooked meat rest for three minutes before carving or consuming freeze fish or meat to –4°F (–20°C) for at least 24 hours wash, peel, or cook all raw fruits and vegetables wash or reheat any food that falls on the floor

Fluorosis Fluorosis is a cosmetic condition that affects the teeth. It’s caused by overexposure to fluoride during the first eight years of life. This is the time when most permanent teeth are being formed. After the teeth come in, the teeth of those affected by fluorosis may appear mildly discolored. For instance, there may be lacy white markings that only dentists can detect. In more severe cases, however, the teeth may have:   

Stains ranging from yellow to dark brown Surface irregularities Pits that are highly noticeable

Fluorosis Causes A major cause of fluorosis is the inappropriate use of fluoride-containing dental products such as toothpaste and mouth rinses. Sometimes, children enjoy the taste of fluoridated toothpaste so much that they swallow it instead of spitting it out. But there are other causes of fluorosis. For example, taking a higher-than-prescribed amount of a fluoride supplement during early childhood can cause it. So can taking a fluoride supplement when fluoridated drinking water or fluoride-fortified fruit juices and soft drinks already provide the right amount.

Fluoride Levels in Drinking Water Fluoride occurs naturally in water. Natural fluoride levels above the currently recommended range for drinking water may increase the risk for severe fluorosis. In communities where natural levels exceed 2 parts per million, the CDC recommends that parents give children water from other sources. Prompted by concerns that children may be getting too much fluoride, the Health and Human Services Department in January 2011 lowered its recommended level of fluoride

in drinking water. And the Environmental Protection Agency is reviewing its rules on the upper limit of fluoride levels in drinking water.

Symptoms Symptoms of fluorosis range from tiny white specks or streaks that may be unnoticeable to dark brown stains and rough, pitted enamel that is difficult to clean. Teeth that are unaffected by fluorosis are smooth and glossy. They should also be a pale creamy white. Since the 1930s, dentists have rated the severity of fluorosis using the following categories:

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Questionable. The enamel shows slight changes ranging from a few white flecks to occasional white spots. Very mild. Small opaque paper-white areas are scattered over less than 25% of the tooth surface. Mild. White opaque areas on the surface are more extensive but still affect less than 50% of the surface. Moderate. White opaque areas affect more than 50% of the enamel surface. Severe. All enamel surfaces are affected. The teeth also have pitting that may be discrete or may run together.

Treatments In many cases, fluorosis is so mild that no treatment is needed. Or, it may only affect the back teeth where it can’t be seen. The appearance of teeth affected by moderate-to-severe fluorosis can be significantly improved by a variety of techniques. Most of them are aimed at masking the stains. Such techniques may include:   

Tooth whitening and other procedures to remove surface stains; note that bleaching teeth may temporarily worsen the appearance of fluorosis. Bonding, which coats the tooth with a hard resin that bonds to the enamel Crowns

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Veneers, which are custom-made shells that cover the front of the teeth to improve their appearance; these are used in cases of severe fluorosis. MI Paste, a calcium phosphate product that is sometimes combined with methods like microabrasion to minimize tooth discoloration

Prevention Parental vigilance is the key to preventing fluorosis. If your water comes from a public system, your doctor or dentist -- as well as your local water authority or public health department -- can tell you how much fluoride is in it. If you rely on well water or bottled water, your public health department or a local laboratory can analyze its fluoride content. Once you know how much fluoride your child is getting from drinking water and other sources such as fruit juices and soft drinks, you can work with your dentist to decide whether or not your child should have a fluoride supplement. At home, keep all fluoride-containing products such as toothpaste, mouth rinses, and supplements out of the reach of young children. If a child ingests a large amount of fluoride in a short period of time, it may cause symptoms such as:    

Nausea Diarrhea Vomiting Abdominal pain

Although fluoride toxicity usually doesn’t have serious consequences, it sends several hundred children to emergency rooms each year. It’s also important to monitor your child’s use of fluoridated toothpaste. Only place a pea-sized amount of toothpaste on your child’s toothbrush. That is sufficient for fluoride protection. Also teach your child to spit out the toothpaste after brushing instead of swallowing it. To encourage spitting, avoid toothpastes containing flavors that children may be likely to swallow.

Poliomyelitis Poliomyelitis, often called polio or infantile paralysis, is an infectious disease caused by the poliovirus. In about 0.5 percent of cases there is muscle weakness resulting in an inability to move. This can occur over a few hours to a few days. The weakness most often involves the legs but may less commonly involve the muscles of the head, neck and diaphragm. Many but not all people fully recover. In those with muscle weakness about 2 to 5 percent of children and 15 to 30 percent of adults die. Another 25 percent of people have minor symptoms such as fever and a sore throat and up to 5 percent have headache, neck stiffness and pains in the arms and legs. These people are usually back to normal within one or two weeks. In up to 70 percent of infections there are no symptoms. Years after recovery post-polio syndrome may occur, with a slow development of muscle weakness similar to that which the person had during the initial infection.

Symptoms It’s estimated that 95 to 99 percent of people who contract poliovirus are asymptomatic. This is known as subclinical polio. Even without symptoms, people infected with poliovirus can still spread the virus and cause infection in others.

Non-paralytic polio Signs and symptoms of non-paralytic polio can last from one to 10 days. These signs and symptoms can be flu-like and can include:      

fever sore throat headache vomiting fatigue meningitis

Paralytic polio About 1 percent of polio cases can develop into paralytic polio. Paralytic polio leads to paralysis in the spinal cord (spinal polio), brainstem (bulbar polio), or both (bulbospinal polio).

Initial symptoms are similar to non-paralytic polio. But after a week, more severe symptoms will appear. These symptoms include:

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loss of reflexes severe spasms and muscle pain loose and floppy limbs, sometimes on just one side of the body sudden paralysis, temporary or permanent deformed limbs, especially the hips, ankles, and feet

It’s rare for full paralysis to develop. Less than 1 percent of all polio cases will result in permanent paralysis. In 5–10 percent of the polio paralysis cases, the virus will attack the muscles that help you breathe and cause death.

Post-polio syndrome It’s possible for polio to return even after you’ve recovered. This can occur after 15 to 40 years. Common symptoms of post-polio syndrome (PPS) are:          

continuing muscle and joint weakness muscle pain that gets worse becoming easily exhausted or fatigued muscle wasting, also called muscle atrophy trouble breathing and swallowing sleep apnea, or sleep-related breathing problems low tolerance of cold temperatures new onset of weakness in previously uninvolved muscles depression trouble with concentration and memory

Talk to your doctor if you’ve had polio and are starting to see these symptoms. It’s estimated that 25 to 50 percent of people who survived polio will get PPS. PPS can’t be caught by others having this disorder. Treatment involves management strategies to improve your quality of life and reduce pain or fatigue.

Transmission As a highly contagious virus, polio transmits through contact with infected feces. Objects like toys that have come near infected feces can also transmit the virus. Sometimes it can transmit through a sneeze or a cough, as the virus lives in the throat and intestines. This is less common. People living in areas with limited access to running water or flush toilets often contract polio from drinking water contaminated by infected human waste. According to the Mayo Clinic, the virus is so contagious that anyone living with someone who has the virus can catch it too. Pregnant women, people with weakened immune systems — such as those who are HIV-positive — and young children are the most susceptible to the poliovirus. If you have not been vaccinated, you can increase your risk of contracting polio when you:     

travel to an area that has had a recent polio outbreak take care of or live with someone infected with polio handle a laboratory specimen of the virus have your tonsils removed have extreme stress or strenuous activity after exposure to the virus

Treatment Doctors can only treat the symptoms while the infection runs its course. But since there’s no cure, the best way to treat polio is to prevent it with vaccinations.

The most common supportive treatments include:   

bed rest painkillers antispasmodic drugs to relax muscles

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antibiotics for urinary tract infections portable ventilators to help with breathing physical therapy or corrective braces to help with walking heating pads or warm towels to ease muscle aches and spasms physical therapy to treat pain in the affected muscles physical therapy to address breathing and pulmonary problems pulmonary rehabilitation to increase lung endurance

In advanced cases of leg weakness, you may need a wheelchair or other mobility device.

Prevention The best way to prevent polio is to get the vaccination. Children should get polio shots according to the vaccination schedule presented by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Intestinal Helminths Helminths are worm-like organisms living in and feeding on living hosts. They receive nourishment and protection while disrupting their hosts' nutrient absorption. This can cause weakness and disease of the host. Those helminths that live inside the digestive tract are called intestinal parasites. They can live inside humans and other animals. In their adult form, helminths cannot multiply in humans. Helminths are able to survive in their mammalian hosts for many years due to their ability to manipulate the immune response by secreting immunomodulatory products. All helminths produce eggs (also called ova) for reproduction. These eggs have a strong shell that protects them against a range of environmental conditions. The eggs can therefore survive in the environment, outside their hosts, for many months or years.

Anaemia Anaemia is a condition that develops when your blood does not contain enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin. These cells are important for carrying oxygen around the body. Iron deficiency anaemia is the most common type of anaemia.

Symptoms Symptoms of iron deficiency anaemia include:    

Tiredness, lethargy, lack of energy Shortness of breath Paler complexion Dry nails

There are more than 400 types of anaemia, which are divided into three groupings:    

Anaemia caused by blood loss Anaemia caused by decreased or faulty red blood cell production Anaemia caused by excessive destruction of red blood cells Anaemia caused by blood loss

Red blood cells can be lost through bleeding, which can occur slowly over a long period of time, and can often go undetected. This kind of chronic bleeding commonly results from the following:

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Gastrointestinal conditions such as ulcers, hemorrhoids (piles), gastritis (inflammation of the stomach) and cancer of the bowel. Menstruation and childbirth in women, especially if menstrual bleeding is excessive and if there are multiple pregnancies Anaemia caused by decreased or faulty red blood cell production

The body may produce too few blood cells or the blood cells may not work properly. In either case, anaemia can result. Red blood cells may be faulty or decreased due to abnormal red blood cells or a lack of minerals and vitamins needed for red blood cells to work properly. Conditions associated with these causes of anaemia include the following:

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Sickle cell anaemia Thalassemia Iron deficiency anaemia Vitamin deficiency Bone marrow and stem cell problems

Other health conditions Iron deficiency anaemia occurs because of a lack of the mineral iron in the body. Bone marrow, found in the center of the long bones in the body, needs iron to make hemoglobin, the part of the red blood cell that transports oxygen to the body's organs. Without adequate iron, the body cannot produce enough hemoglobin for red blood cells. The result is iron deficiency anaemia. Iron deficiency anaemia can be caused by the following:

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An iron-poor diet, especially in infants, children, teens and vegetarians The metabolic demands of pregnancy and breastfeeding that deplete a woman's iron stores Menstruation Frequent blood donation Endurance training Conditions affecting the bowel, such as Crohn's disease or surgical removal of part of the stomach or small intestine Certain drugs, foods, and caffeinated drinks

Treatment With iron deficiency anaemia your doctor will probably recommend increasing consumption of iron-rich foods and possibly iron supplements that contain the ferrous form of iron, which your body can absorb easily. If you use iron supplements, remember the following cautions:

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Always consult with your doctor before taking iron supplements. Excess iron intake can be harmful. Symptoms of iron overload include fatigue, vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, irritability and joint problems Iron supplements - like all supplements and any medication - should be kept out of the reach of children. Iron poisoning is a major cause of accidental poisoning in young children. Eating even a few tablets can prove fatal in a matter of hours. Symptoms of poisoning in a child include dizziness, confusion, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Seek medical help immediately Watch for side effects. Taking iron supplements with food can help prevent common side effects, which may include nausea, diarrhea, constipation, and stomach pain. Let your doctor know if you continue to have side effects. Different formulations are available Watch for medication interactions. Tell your doctor if you are being treated for another condition. For example, calcium supplements interfere with iron absorption so it is best to take them at different times of the day.

Your doctor may also recommend that you increase the amount of iron in your diet. Good dietary sources of iron include red meat, beans, egg yolk, whole-grain products, nuts and seafood. Your doctor will monitor your red blood cell counts, including hemoglobin, and ferritin levels during treatment. If your anaemia doesn't improve with iron supplements, your doctor will look for some other underlying cause. In rare cases, your doctor may prescribe iron injections or recommend you have iron intravenously (through a needle in the vein). In extremely rare cases of life-threatening iron-deficiency anaemia, treatment may involve blood transfusion. For vitamin B12 and folate deficiency anaemia, the treatment depends on the cause of the deficiency. If your body stores are depleted of vitamin B12, your doctor is most likely to prescribe vitamin B12 injections. If the vitamin B12 levels are borderline low then your doctor may try oral tablets in a high dose first to see your response. There is a good chance that many of the symptoms associated with this type of deficiency will improve very quickly once the body is provided with the needed B12. Many people with vitamin B12 deficiency, who have a condition called pernicious anaemia, have a permanent inability to absorb vitamin B12 and will need injections every three months or, if responsive, pills every day for the rest of their lives. Your doctor may also recommend that you increase the amount of vitamin B12 in your diet. Good dietary sources of vitamin B12 are meat, liver, and kidney; fish, oyster, and clams; and milk, cheese and eggs. For other types of anaemia specific treatment may be recommended, which will include treatment of any underlying causes identified.

Prevention

You can prevent anaemia by eating a well-balanced diet that includes good sources of iron, vitamin B12 and folate. Steps to take include the following:   

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If you are a vegetarian, talk to your doctor or a dietitian about your diet and any possible need for supplements Ask your doctor or dietitian if you should take vitamin C. Vitamin C can improve the absorption of iron in your diet Decrease your consumption of caffeinated products and tea. These substances can decrease iron absorption. Other offenders include the preservative EDTA, fibre, large amounts of calcium, and the phytates found in some vegetables Select iron-fortified cereals and breads Carefully follow safety guidelines if your occupation involves work with leadcontaining materials such as batteries, petroleum, and paint.

Arsenicosis Arsenic poisoning is a medical condition that occurs due to elevated levels of arsenic in the body. If exposure occurs over a brief period of time symptoms may include vomiting, abdominal pain, encephalopathy, and watery diarrhea that contains blood. Long-term exposure can result in thickening of the skin, darker skin, abdominal pain, diarrhea, heart disease, numbness, and cancer.

Causes Organic arsenic is less harmful than inorganic arsenic. Seafood is a common source of the less toxic organic arsenic in the form of arsenobetaine. The arsenic reported in 2012 in fruit juice and rice by Consumer Reports was primarily inorganic arsenic. In Drinking water Chronic arsenic poisoning results from drinking contaminated well water over a long period of time. Many aquifers contain high concentration of arsenic salts. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a limit of 0.01 mg/L (10 parts per billion) of arsenic in drinking water. This recommendation was established based on the limit of detection for most laboratories' testing equipment at the time of publication of the WHO water quality guidelines. More recent findings show that consumption of water with levels as low as 0.00017 mg/L (0.17 parts per billion) over long periods of time can lead to arsenicosis. Treatment Chelation Dimercaprol and dimercaptosuccinic acid are chelating agents that sequester the arsenic away from blood proteins and are used in treating acute arsenic poisoning. The most important side effect is hypertension. Nutrition Supplemental potassium decreases the risk of experiencing a life-threatening heart rhythm problem from arsenic trioxide.