War Of 1812

Causes of War Two major issues: 2. US trade/shipping conflicts w/ the British and French 3. Conflicts w/ Native Americans in the frontier, in which Europeans appeared to Americans to be involved.

American Neutrality & a World at War

• Renewal of French-British war (Napoleonic War- 1803) creates problems for the US – US has become world’s largest neutral carrier and main food supplier to Europe

• French naval defeat (Battle of Trafalgar) causes them to wage economic war w/ England. – Napoleon creates the “Continental System.

• British and neutral ships that had called on British ports forbidden from Europe.

– British answer w/ “orders in council” which forbids neutral ships to go to European ports unless they stop at British ports first. – US caught in the middle.

Impressment Issue

• A British ship to sailors was known as a “floating hell.” – – –

Floggings for discipline Terrible pay Terrible food and other conditions

• Absent volunteers, sailors force- impressed- to serve. • British impressed Americans when they were short sailors. – Difficult for Americans to prove they were not British. – Even with “protection papers”, Americans were often impressed. British simply didn’t care or respect American rights.

• Impressment a major insult and embarrassment to Americans.

Embargo Act (1807) • US not prepared for war; so Jefferson avoids war by an embargo on US exports – All exports from US to any foreign port were forbidden. – Jefferson calls this ‘peaceable coercion.’

• Well intentioned, but unpopular because hurts US economy more than belligerent economies – Law war largely avoided, but still hurt the US economy- led to an economic depression. – Hardest hit were merchants of Northeastmost of whom were Federalists.

Embargo Act (cont.)

• 1808 election is intense; Democratic-Republicans (Madison) win – But--Federalists gain seats in Congress by opposing embargo

• Jefferson recognizes failure of Embargo, accepts repeal. • Non-Intercourse Act (1809) reopens US trade except w/ belligerents • Macon’s Bill No. 2 replaces this act in 1810.

– Opens trade to Britain and France, but allows President to cut off trade again if either again violates neutral rights. • France immediately seizes opportunity and allows US shipping. • Madison announces that embargo against England will go into effect again if they don’t renounce their restrictions. – They do, but too late to prevent war.

Problems in the West

• Westward movement sparked conflicts w/ Native Americans. • Tecumseh and his brother (Tenskwatawa, The Prophet) led largest rebellion. – Attempted to unite diverse tribes. – Tecumseh’s ‘confederacy’ defeated at Tippecanoe (he lived on and died during the War of 1812).

• Most fighting was result of Native initiative, but British did play some role in encouraging and supplying natives. – Americans picked up on this encouragement and exploited it politically.

Vote for War

• War-Hawks elected to Congress (1810), frustrated by failure of economic pressure and by attacks of Natives in the west. • Democratic-Republicans demand war to assert US independence and neutral rights • Also want expansion west and maybe north into Canada; War-Hawks strong in south and west; coast areas and Federalists oppose war • October, 1812- war declared – British had withdrawn orders in council, but news had not reached the US.

Presidential Election of 1812

British Gen. Brock Meets Tecumseh

“War Hawks” John C. Calhoun [SC]

Henry Clay [KY]

Why War? A Summary

• Madison and other Republicans felt the need to assert themselves to protect their party and its ideals. – Europeans often asserted (as did some Americans) that republican government was weak, could not act aggressive, quickly and decisively, and would fail. – The War of 1812 seemed necessary to many Republicans to prove this thinking false, and get respect for the US.

• "Peaceful coercion" had failed to deal w/ the British, and anything short of war seemed surrender. • British seemed an obstacle to western expansion.

Political Cartoon of the Period

“Mr. Madison’s War?”

Vote for War • War-Hawks elected to Congress (1810), frustrated by failure of economic pressure • Democratic-Republicans demand war to assert US independence and neutral rights • Also want expansion west and maybe north into Canada; War-Hawks strong in south and west; coast areas and Federalists oppose war

War of 1812 • War a series of scuffles and skirmishes • Neither Army nor Navy are prepared for war: lack equipment, officers, and enlistees • Lack of state support, especially from New England, hampers land operations • Invasion of Canada (1812–13) is a disaster • By 1814, England blockades most of coast

War of 1812 (cont.) • USA scores win in Great Lakes (1813), and Harrison secures Old Northwest • Tecumseh had allied w/ England because of promise of Great Lakes, but w/ his death at Thames (1813), Indian unity collapses • British launch offensive (1814); burn US capital in retaliation for destruction of York (1813) by US, but land offensive soon stalls

War of 1812 (cont.) • Final campaigns in South • Jackson defeats Creeks at Horseshoe Bend (1814), then English at New Orleans (1815) • Jackson initiates Indian removal in Treaty of Fort Jackson w/ Creeks • New Orleans makes Jackson a national hero, even though peace treaty is already signed

Overview of the War of 1812

3 U. S. Invasions of 1812

Campaigns of 1813

The Burning of Washington

BATTLE OF BALTIMORE

• The British tried to attack Baltimore as they had Washington, DC. They met resistance from US troops before they could reach the city. British ships could not get close enough to the city to damage Ft. McHenry with cannon fire. – Americans had sunk ships in harbor to prevent British ships from getting close to the fort.

• Francis Scott Key- captive on a British ship in the harbor. Observing the battle, he wrote the Star Spangled Banner.

– The flag he saw while writing the poem (later turned into a song to a popular British tune) still hangs in the Museum of American History in Washington, DC.

Battle of Fort McHenry, 1814

Star Spangled Banner Francis Scott Key

Attack on Ft. Oswego, 1814

Hartford Convention

December, 1814 – January, 1815

DISCONTENT OF NEW ENGLAND

• New Englanders were generally unhappy with "Mr. Madison's War” – dependent upon trade with England; disliked Republican policies (Embargo and War).

• Saw New England shrinking in political influence as the South and West grew.

DISCONTENT OF NEW ENGLAND • The Hartford Convention: A regional convention, largely Federalists, and opposed to the war. They discussed something like secession, and some constitutional amendments that would have weakened the influence of the South and West- Republican strongholds. • The meeting destroyed feelings for the Federalist party. – It also provided somewhat of a justification in later years for Southern secession.

Republican cartoonist criticizing the Hartford Convention. It portrays timid men representing Mass., Conn., and R.I. preparing to leap (or not?) into the arms of King George III

Jackson’s Florida Campaigns

BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS • Andrew Jackson was leading forces in the South. He was partly responsible for the defense of New Orleans. • New Orleans was crucial for control of the Mississippi River. For this reason, the British hoped to take control of the city. • The British attacked fortified American positions with a frontal assault. Attack failed.

BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS • The Battle of New Orleans was important for a couple of reasons: (1) It firmly established Jackson as a national figure (2) it restored American confidence after many lost battles during the war.

• Ironically, this battle was wasted. It took place in January, 1815, but peace had been agreed to in Dec., 1814. The news did not reach those who fought in New Orleans in time to prevent the battle.

The Battle of New Orleans January 8, 1815

TREATY OF GHENT • Treaty signed in Ghent, Belgium.

Treaty signed in Ghent, Belgium. Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams negotiated for America. • The final treaty did very little but stop the fighting. – No territory changed hands. – The issues of impressment and free trade for neutral ships were not settled.

• Americans were happy that the war was over, proud of the victory at New Orleans, and that the nations showed its ability and willingness to defend its rights in war.

Peace & Consequences • Victory strengthens US independence and desire to avoid European politics • Victory a disaster for Native Americans: lose potential ally (British), an effective leader (Tecumseh), and much land

Peace & Consequences (cont.) • After war, US Government improves roads and army for defense and expansion west • War stimulates economic growth • War destroys Federalists; they opposed war, and some talk of secession and government change at Hartford Convention (1814–15) • Rising nationalism (inspired by New Orleans win) paints Federalists as traitors

Treaty of Ghent December 24, 1814