Voidable Contracts - Implied Trusts.docx

Chapter 7 – VOIDABLE CONTRACTS ART. 1390. The following contracts are voidable or annullable, even though there may have been no damage to the contracting parties: (1) Those where one of the parties is incapable of giving consent to a contract; (incapacitated persons) (2) Those where the consent is vitiated by mistake, violence, intimidation, undue influence or fraud. (vitiated consent) These contracts are binding, unless they are annulled by a proper action in court. They are susceptible of ratification. RESCISSIBLE vis-à-vis VOIDABLE RESCISSION VOIDABLE (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k)

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The basis here is lesion (damage). The defect here is external or intrinsic. The action is subsidiary. This is a remedy. Private interest governs. Equity predominates. Plaintiff may be a party or a third person. There must be damage to the plaintiff. If plaintiff is indemnified, rescission cannot prosper. Compatible with the perfect validity of the contract. To prevent rescission, ratification is not required.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

(h) (i) (j) (k)

The basis here is vitiated consent or incapacity to consent. The defect here is intrinsic (in the meeting of the minds. This action is principal. This is a sanction. Public interest governs. Law predominates. Plaintiff must be a party to the contract (whether bound principally or subsidiarily). Damage to the plaintiff is immaterial. Indemnity here is no bar to the prosecution of the action. Here, a defect is presupposed. To prevent annulment, ratification is required.

Grounds for Annulment (Declaration of Nullity): (a) Incapacity to consent (b) Vitiated consent

The Action to Bring: (a) For POSITIVE REDRESS, an action (complaint, or counterclaim) must be filed; otherwise, the contract remains binding. (b) For use as a DEFENSE – ordinarily, no affirmative action is needed. ART. 1391. The action for annulment shall be brought within four years. (Prescriptive period4yrs) This period shall begin: In cases of intimidation, violence or undue influence, from the time the defect of the consent ceases. (Vitiated consent) In case of mistake or fraud, from the time of the discovery of the same. (Vitiated consent) And when the action refers to contracts entered into by minors or other incapacitated persons, from the time the guardianship ceases. (Incapacitated persons)  Effect of Prescription: if the action prescribed, the contracts can no longer be set aside. ART. 1392. Ratification extinguishes the action to annul a voidable contract. (Ratification cleanses all defects.)  Confirmation, Ratification, Acknowledgement Distinguished: Technically and properly, the following terms must be used: (a) Confirmation – to cure a defect in a voidable contract. (Art. 1396, CC) (b) Ratification – to cure the defect of lack of authority in an authorized contract (entered into by another). (Arts. 1317 & 1405, CC) (c) Acknowledgement – to remedy a deficiency of proof. (Art. 1405, CC) NOTE: Under the new Civil Code, all the three terms are now uniformly called RATIFICATION.  Effects of Ratification: (a) The action to annul is extinguished. (Art. 1392, CC); thus, the contract becomes a completely valid one. (b) The contract is cleansed of its defect from the beginning. (Art. 1396, CC)  Requisites of Ratification (Properly, Confirmation of a Voidable Contract): (a) The contract must be a voidable one. (b) The person ratifying must know the reason for the contract being voidable (that is, the cause must be known). (c) The cause must not exist or continue to exist anymore at the time of ratification. (d) The ratification must have been made expressly or by an act implying a waiver of the action to annul. (e) The person ratifying must be the injured party.

ART. 1393. Ratification may be effected expressly or tacitly. It is understood that there is tacit ratification if, with knowledge of the reason which renders the contract voidable and such reason having ceased, the person who has a right to invoke it should execute an act which necessarily implies an intention to waive his right.  Kinds of Ratification (a) Express – oral or written; (b) Tacit – implied, as from conduct implying a WAIVER. Tacit ratification is shown in your actions where a waiver can be seen.  Examples of Tacit Ratification: (a) A minor bought a land, but sold the same, after reaching 21 years of age, to a 3 rd person. (b) A minor sold land, and upon reaching majority age, collected the unpaid balance of the selling price, or spend the greater part of the proceeds of the sale. (c) Use of proceeds by a person who had been previously intimidated into selling his property. (d) Voluntary performance by the injured party of his own obligation, after the cause of the nullity was known to him.  Lapse of Time: Mere lapse of time does not legalize a voidable contract; but remaining silent for a certain period of time ratifies such a contract. ART. 1394. Ratification may be effected by the guardian of the incapacitated person.  Ratification by Guardian: (a) This article refers to the ratification of a contract entered into by the incapacitated person. (b) Since the person entitled to ratify is still incapacitated, his guardian acts in his behalf.  Ratification by an Injured Party Himself: Ratification made by the injured party himself, provided he is capacitated, or has become capacitated.  Ratification by Guardian distinguished from Action to Rescind: Art. 1394 does not refer to a rescissible contract entered into by the guardian in behalf of his ward. ART. 1395. Ratification does not require the conformity of the contracting party (capacitated person/party) who has no right to bring the action for annulment.  Conformity of Guilty Party Not needed: Reason: The guilty party’s consent is not needed; otherwise, he may find a way of getting out of the contract by the simple expedient of refusing to ratify. ART. 1396. Ratification cleanses the contract from all its defects from the moment it was constituted.  Retroactive effect of Ratification: (a) Note the retroactive effect; thus, once ratification has taken place, annulment based on the original defects cannot prosper. (b) Although there is a retroactive effect, the rights of innocent third persons must not be prejudiced. ART. 1397. The action for the annulment of contracts may be instituted by all who are thereby obliged principally or subsidiarily. However, persons who are capable cannot allege the incapacity of those with whom they contracted; nor can those who exerted intimidation, violence, or undue influence, or employed fraud, or caused mistake base their action upon these flaws of the contract. G.R.: The action for the annulment of contracts may be instituted by all who are thereby obliged principally or subsidiarily. EXPN: Persons who are capable cannot allege the incapacity of those with whom they contracted; nor can those who exerted intimidation, violence, or undue influence, or employed fraud, or caused mistake base their action upon these flaws of the contract. (Stranger to the Contract)  Persons who may ask for annulment: The victim (principal or subsidiary party) may ask for annulment, not the guilty party or his successor. Reason: He who comes to equity must come with clean hands.  GENERAL RULE: The action for the annulment of contracts can only me maintained by those who are bound either principally or subsidiarily by virtue thereof.  EXPN: A person who is not obliged principally or subsidiarily in a contract may exercise an action for nullity of the contract if he is prejudiced in his rights with respect to one of the contracting parties, and can show the detriment which could positively result to him from the contract which he had no intervention.  EXPN to the EXPN: A person not obliged principally or subsidiarily in a contract may nevertheless ask for its annulment if he is prejudiced in his rights regarding one of the contracting parties. (DBP vs. CA)  Only the incapacitated person can bring action to annul, based on the ground of estoppel. (Earth Minerals Exploration vs. Deputy Exec. Sec. Macaraig, Jr.)

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Creditors of the Victim: The creditors of the victim cannot ask for annulment for they are not bound by the contract Example: A was forced by B to sign a contract. C, a creditor of A, wants to annul the contract. Is C allowed to do so? Ans: No, C is not allowed to do so. If the contract prejudices him, and A has no other property, then C may ask for the rescission of the contract, not its annulment. C cannot ask for annulment because he is not obliged by the terms of said contract, either principally or subsidiarily.  Intimidation or Fraud by a Minor: If a minor misinterprets his age and the other party is misled as to his age, may the minor later on sue for annulment? (a) No, because of estoppel. (b) Later on, the SC had a different view and answered YES, because according to it, a minor can never be guilty of estoppel since he is not liable for his conduct or act. (c) Still later on, the SC again changed its mind and answerd NO, reiterating the Mercado Case, where the minor, nearly 20 yrs. Old, appeared to be very clever. ART. 1398. An obligation having been annulled, the contracting parties shall restore to each other the things which have been the subject matter of the contract, with their fruits, and the price with its interest, except in cases provided by law. In obligations to render service, the value thereof shall be the basis for damages.  Effects of Annulment: (a) If the contract has not yet been complied with, the parties are excused from their obligations. (b) If the contract has already been performed, there must be MUTUAL RESTITUTION (n general) of: 1) The thing, with fruits; 2) The price, with interest.  Non-availability to strangers: Art. 1398 cannot be availed of by stranger to the contract. Innocent third parties cannot be obliged to restore. (Remedy for strangers: Rescission instead of restitution.)  Effect of Registration of Land: Even if the land has already been registered, Art. 1398 still applies, provided there has been no estoppel.  Extra liability of the Guilty Party: A guilty party who, for example, used force can be held liable for damages under Arts. 20 and 21 of the Civil Code. (Extra liability aside from restitution) (Action pauliana – Action made by a prejudiced third person; Action directa – action made by the creditor himself.)  Personal Obligations: Here the value of the service shall be the basis for damages. ART. 1399. When the defect of the contract consists in the capacity of one of the parties, the incapacitated person is not obliged to make any restitution except insofar as he has been benefited by the thing or price received by him. G.R.: When the defect of the contract consists in the capacity of one of the parties, the incapacitated person is not obliged to make any restitution. EXPN: Except insofar as he has been benefited by the thing or price received by him.  Generally, no restitution by incapacitated party: (a) The article applies only if the defect is INCAPACITY. (b) This constitutes an exception to the obligation of mutual restitution under Art. 1398. (c) Here in Art. 1399, restitution is only to the extent of enrichment (pecuniary or otherwise).  No Presumption of Enrichment: The law does not presume this enrichment or benefit; therefore, the incapacitated person has the burden of showing such enrichment. (burden of proof) Just because the property has been delivered, it does not necessarily follow that there was enrichment. Of course, if the incapacitated person still has the property, this by itself is a benefit which he must return and not squander; otherwise, this will amount to a ratification.  The capacitated person must restore whether he benefited or not, except if Art. 1427 of the CC applies: Art 1427 – When a minor between 18 and 21 years of age who has entered into a contract without the consent of the parent or guardian voluntarily pays a sum of money or delivers a fungible thing in fulfillment of the obligation (natural obligation), there shall be no right to recover the same from the oblige who has spent or consumed it in good faith.

ART. 1400. Whenever the person (capacitated) obliged by the decree of annulment to return the thing cannot do so because it has been lost through his fault, he shall return the fruits received and the value of the thing at the time of the loss, with interest from the same date.  Value may be substituted for thing itself: in the duty of mutual restitution, the value of the thing with interest substitutes for the thing itself that was lost through the party’s fault.  Example: A forced B to sell him (A) the house of B. B brought an action to annul the contract. The contract was annulled on the ground of fraud. A was asked by the court to return to B whatever he (A) has received. But the house had been destroyed through the fault of A. What should A now give? Ans.: A should give all of the following: (a) The fruits or rentals of the house received from the time the house was given to him to the time of its loss; (b) The value of the house at the time of the loss; (c) Interest at 6% per annum on the value of the house from the time the house was destroyed. ART. 1401. The action for annulment of contracts shall be extinguished when the thing which is the object thereof is lost through the fraud or fault of the person (incapacitated person) who has a right to institute the proceedings. If the right of action is based upon the incapacity of any one of the contracting parties, the loss of the thing shall not be an obstacle to the success of the action, unless said loss took place through the fraud or fault of the plaintiff. (Action for annulment shall prosper, except through the fraud or fault of the incapacitated person.)  Problem: A, a minor, was sold a house by B. The house was destroyed by a fortuitous event. May A still annul the contract so as to recover from B the price (and interest) he (A) had given? Ans.: Yes. As a rule, if the right of action is based upon the incapacity of anyone of the contracting parties, the loss of the thing shall not be an obstacle to the success of the action. Here, the minor was not guilty of fraud or fault. ART. 1402. As long as one of the contracting parties does not restore what in virtue of the decree of annulment he is bound to return, the other cannot be compelled to comply with what is incumbent upon him.  Reason why one party cannot be compelled if other party does not restore: A reciprocal obligation of restitution is created.

Chapter 8 – UNENFORCEABLE CONTRACTS  Unenforceable contracts distinguished from Voidable and Rescissible contracts: Unenforceable contracts cannot be sued upon or enforced unless ratifies; this it is as if they have no effect yet. But they may be ratified; hence, they can have in such case the effect of valid contracts. In one sense, therefore, they may be called validable. Voidable and rescissible contracts, upon the other hand, produce legal effects until they are annulled or rescinded. Thus, unenforceable contracts are nearer absolute nullity than the other two.  Kinds of Unenforceable Contracts: (a) Unauthorized contracts (b) Those that fail to comply with the Statute of Frauds. (c) Those where both parties are incapable of giving consent to a contract. ART. 1403. The following contracts are unenforceable, unless they are ratified: (1) Those entered into in the name of another person by one who has been given no authority or legal representation, or who has acted beyond his powers (unauthorized contracts); (2) Those that do not comply with the Statute of Frauds as set forth in this number. In the following cases an agreement hereafter made shall be unenforceable by action, unless the same, or some note or memorandum thereof, be I writing, and subscribed by the party charged, or by his agent; evidence, therefore, of the agreement cannot be received without the writing, or a secondary evidence of its contents: (a) An agreement that by its terms is not to be performed within a year from the making thereof (performance of the agreement); (b) A special promise to answer for the debt, default, or miscarriage of another (contract of guarantee); (c) An agreement made in consideration of marriage, other than a mutual promise to marry (pre-nup/marriage settlements); (d) An agreement for the sale of goods, chattels or things in action, at a price not less than five hundred pesos (P500), unless the buyer accept and receive part of such goods and chattels, or the evidences, or some of them, of such things in action, or pay at the time some part of the purchase money; but when a sale is made by auction and entry is made by the auctioneer in his sales book, at the time of the sale, the amount and kind of property sold, terms of sale, price, names of the purchasers and person on whose account the sale is made, it is sufficient memorandum; (e) An agreement for the leasing for a longer period than one year, or for the sale of real property or of an interest therein; (f) A representation as to the credit of a third person. (simply representing the standing of the debtor but not a guarantor but merely a reference.) (3) Those where both parties are incapable of giving consent. (Parents/guardians of both contracting parties should ratify for the defect to be cleanse.)  Statute of Frauds vs Statute of Limitations (extinctive prescription)  Statute of Frauds – should all be in writing, these 6 agreements should be in writing, note or memorandum by the party charged or his agent. Parole and oral evidence is inadmissible in the statute of Fraud.  Unauthorized Contracts: (a) These are “those entered into in the name of another person by one who has been given no authority or legal representation, or who has acted beyond his powers.” (b) Example: Without my authority, my brother sold my car, in my name, to X. The contract is unauthorized and cannot affect me unless I ratify the same expressly or implicitly, as by accepting the proceeds of the sale. (c) Mere lapse of time, no matter how long, is not the ratification required by law of an unenforceable contract. (d) Without ratification, the “agent” assumes personal liability.

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STATUTE OF FRAUDS: (a) Purpose – to prevent fraud, and not to encourage the same. Thus, certain agreements are required to be I writing so that they may be enforced. (b) How the Statute of Frauds prevents frauds: since memory is many times unreliable, oral agreements may sometimes result in injustice. To aid human memory, to prevent the commission of injustices due to faulty memory, to discourage intentional misrepresentations, are the principal aims of the Statute of Frauds. (c) Some basic and fundamental principles concerning the Statute of Frauds (General Rules of Application): 1) The Statute of Frauds applies only to executory contracts (contracts where no performance has yet been made) and not partially or completely executed (consummated contracts). If oral evidence will not be allowed to prove an agreement where one party has performed his obligation, unfairness would result. Indeed, oral or parole evidence may be introduced to prove partial performance. If documentary or written evidence would still be required for the proof of partial performance, the precise evil sought to be avoided by the Statute of Frauds would be present, namely, one who has received some benefits would be allowed to defraud the grantor thereof. 2) The statute of Frauds cannot apply if the action is neither for damages because of the violation of an agreement nor for the specific performance of said agreement, 3) The Statute of Frauds is exclusive, that is, it applies only to the agreements or contracts enumerated herein. (Inclusio unios est exclusion alterius – what the law does not include, it excludes, or the enumeration of certain things excludes those not so enumerated.) 4) The defense of the Statute of Frauds may be waived. (Failure to object in the presentation of oral evidence; acceptance of benefits under them.) 5) The Statute of Frauds is a personal defense, that is, a contract infringing it cannot be assailed by third persons. 6) Contracts infringing the Statute of Frauds are not void; they are merely unenforceable. 7) The Statute of Frauds is a Rule of Exclusion. 8) The Statute of Frauds does not determine the credibility or weight of evidence. It merely concerns itself with the admissibility thereof. 9) The Statute of Frauds does not apply if it is claimed that the contract does not express the true agreement of the parties. As long as the true or real agreement is not covered by the Statute of Frauds, it is provable by oral evidence.  Examples of the First Principle – the Statute of Frauds applies only to executory contracts: ART. 1404. Unauthorized contracts are governed by Article 1317 and the principles of agency in Title X of this book.  Unauthorized Contracts: Ratification cures an unauthorized contract. Unless ratified, the contract has no effect. ART. 1405. Contracts infringing the Statute of Frauds, referred to in No. 2 of Article 1403, are ratified by the failure to object to the presentation of oral evidence to prove the same, or by the acceptance of benefits under them.  Ratification of contracts infringing the Statute of Frauds: Two ways of ratification of contracts infringing the Statute of Frauds are given here: (a) Failure to object to the presentation of oral evidence (this is deemed a waiver). (b) Acceptance of benefits under them (thus, the statute does not apply to executed or partially executed or performed contracts). NOTE: Partial performance of a contract of sale does not only occur when part of the purchase price is paid. There are other acts of partial performance such as possession, payment of taxes, building improvements, tender of payment plus surveying of the lots at the buyer’s expense. ART. 1406. When a contract is enforceable under the Statute of Frauds, and a public document is necessary for its registration in the Registry of Deeds, the parties may avail themselves of the right under Article 1357.  Right of one party to compel the other to execute the needed instrument: It must be stressed here that the right of one party to have the other execute the public document needed for convenience in registration, is given only when the contract is both valid and enforceable.

ART. 1407. In a contract where both parties are incapable of giving consent, express or implied ratification by the parent, or guardian, as the case may be, of one of the contracting parties shall give the contract the same effect as if only one of them were incapacitated. If ratification is made by the parents or guardians, as the case may be, of both contracting parties, the contract shall be validated from the inception.  Example: A and B, both 15 years old, entered into a contract. The contract is unenforceable because both parties cannot give consent. Now if the guardian or parent of A ratifies cannot give consent. Now if the guardian or parent of A ratifies expressly or impliedly the contract, it becomes voidable, valid unless annulled by the guardian or parent of B. However, if the guardian or parent of B also ratifies, the contract is validated right from the time it was first entered into. ART. 1408. Unenforceable contracts cannot be assailed by third persons.  Stranger cannot assail unenforceable contracts: Just as strangers cannot attack the validity of voidable contracts, so also they cannot attack a contract because of its unenforceability. Indeed, the Statute of Frauds cannot be set up as a defense by strangers to the transaction.

Chapter 9 – VOID OR INEXISTENT CONTRACTS Voidable and Void Contracts Distinguished VOIDABLE (a) May be ratified. (a) (b) Produces effects until annulled. (b) (c) Defect is due to incapacity or vitiated consent. (c) (d) Valid until annulled. (e) May be cured by prescription. (f) Defense may be invoked only by (d) the parties (those principally or subsidiarily liable), or their successors in interest and privies. (g) Referred to as relative or (e) conditional nullity. (f)

VOID Cannot be ratified. Generally, effects are not produced at all. The defect here is that ordinarily, public policy is militated against. Void from the very beginning so generally, no action is required to set it aside, unless the contract has already been performed. Cannot be cured by prescription. (imprescriptible) Defense may be availed of by anybody, whether he is a party to the contract or not, as long as his interest is directly affected. Referred to as absolute nullity.

(g) Unenforceable and Void Contracts Distinguished UNENFORCEABLE VOID (a) May be ratified. (a) Cannot be ratified. (b) There is a contract but it cannot (b) No contract at all. be enforced by a court action. (c) Can be assailed by anybody (cannot be sued upon until directly affected. ratified) (c) Cannot be assailed by third parties. ART. 1409. The following contracts are inexistent and void from the beginning: (1) Those whose cause, object or purpose is contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order, or public policy; (void contract) (2) Those which are absolutely simulated or fictitious. (Inexistent contract – no contract at all); (3) Those whose cause or object did not exist at the time of the transaction. (Inexistent contract); (4) Those whose object is outside the commerce of men. (Void Contract); (5) Those which contemplate an impossible service. (void contracts); (6) Those where the intention of the parties relative to the principal object of the contract cannot be ascertained (void contract); (7) Those expressly prohibited or declared void by law (void contract); These contracts cannot be ratified. Neither can the right to set up the defense of illegality waived.  Two Kinds of Void Contracts: (a) Inexistent one – like those where essential formalities are not complied with; example: a donation in a private instrument – this produces no effect whatsoever. (b) Illegal or illicit ones – like a donation made because of an immoral condition, such as illicit sexual intercourse. Here, in some way, the donation produces some effect in that he who gave the donation cannot get back what he has given.  Simulated contracts: (a) If absolutely simulated, the contract is void for utter lack of consent. (b) If relatively simulated, the hidden or intended contract is generally binding.  Characteristics of Void Contracts: (a) The right to set up the defense of illegality cannot be waived, and may be considered on appeal even if not raised in the trial court. (b) The action or defense for their declaration as inexistent does not prescribe. (Imprescriptible) (c) The defense of illegality of contracts is not available to third persons whose interests are not directly affected. (d) Cannot give rise to a contract; thus “a contract which is the direct result of a previous illegal contract is also void and inexistent.” (e) Generally produces no effect. (f) Generally, no action to declare them void is needed, since they are inexistent from the very beginning. (g) They cannot be ratified.

ART. 1410. The action or defense for the declaration of the inexistence of a contract does not prescribe. (Imprescriptible)  This Article is a new provision of the Civil Code. If a contract is null and void, the action to declare it null and void or to declare its non-existence is imprescriptible. On the other hand, the illegality of the contract can always be set up as a defense despite the passage of time. ART. 1411. When the nullity proceeds from the illegality of the cause or object of the contract, and the act constitutes a criminal offense, both parties being in pari delicto, they shall have no action against each other, and both shall be prosecuted. (no relief) Moreover, the provisions of the Penal Code relative to the disposal of effects or instruments of a crime shall be applicable to the things or the price of the contract. This rule shall be applicable when only one of the parties is guilty; but the innocent one may claim what he has given, and shall not be bound to comply with his promise.  Criminal act = prosecution  The ‘Pari Delicto’ rule refuses legal remedy to either party to an illegal agreement and leaves them where they were: The reason – ours are courts of both law and equity – they compel fair dealing and do not abet clever attempts to escape just obligations. ART. 1412. If the act in which the unlawful or forbidden cause consists does not constitute a criminal offense, the following rules shall be observed: (1) When the fault is on the part of both contracting parties, neither may recover what he has given by virtue of the contract, or demand the performance of the other’s undertaking (in pari delicto – no recovery); (2) When only one of the contracting parties is at fault, he cannot recover what he has given by reason of the contract, or ask for the fulfillment of what he has been promised him. The other, who is not at fault, may demand the return of what he has given without any obligation to comply with his promise (one is guilty, one is innocent – may recover).  No criminal act = no prosecution  Two Kinds of Illegal Contracts: (a) Those where there is a criminal offense; (b) Those where there is no criminal offense.  Illegal and Criminal Contracts: Those contracts where there is a CRIMINAL OFFENSE may be of two kinds: (a) Those where both parties are guilty (in pari delicto); (b) Those where only one is guilty and the other is innocent. NOTE: (a) Those where BOTH are GUILTY: 1) Example: both entered into a contract for smuggling or importation of contraband. 2) Effects: (a) Since they are in pari delicto, they shall have no action against each other. (b) Both shall be prosecuted. (c) The effects or the instruments of the crime (things or price of the contract) shall be confiscated in favor of the government.  The Pari Delicto Doctrine: (a) If two parties to a contract are in pari delicto, the doctrine applies even to the spouse of one of them, who although not a signatory to the contract, has sufficiently manifested by affirmative acts her unequivocal concurrence to the contract in controversy. (b) The doctrine does not apply to fictitious or absolutely simulated contracts, since these contracts are inexistent; not to a contract where one party, a minor, is much less guilty than another, who is of age; nor to a case where the government is involved for the government is not estopped by the neglect of its officers; nor finally to a contract of sale, where on account of a breach of warranty due to a double sale of the same property, damages are suffered – in a case like this the governing articles would be Arts. 1495, 1547, and 1555 on the law of Sales. (c) The doctrine does not apply where a superior public policy intervenes. Thus, even if a homestead owner sells it within the prohibited period and with presumed knowledge that it is illegal, still the owner or his heir may sue for its recovery, for the purpose of the law is to grant land to said owner or his heir. (NOTE: While the doctrine does not apply to the sale of the homestead, it applies to the loss of the products received by the buyer and the value of the necessary improvements made by him on the land. Prescriptive period – 5 years)

(d)

The “pari delicto” rule does not apply in case of void contracts which are simulated to circumvent. For instance, a donation between spouses is generally void under Art. 133 of the Civil Code.  Some Questions on Gambling: (a) What does the law provide regarding gambling losses and gains? Ans.: “No action can be maintained by the winner for the collection of what he has won in a game of chance. But any loser in a game of chance may recover his loss from the winner, with legal interest from the time he paid the amount lost, and subsidiarily from the operator or manager of the gambling house.” (b) Suppose the loser refuses to bring the action to recover, what may be done? Ans.: “If the loser refuses or neglects to bring an action to recover what has been lost, his or her creditors, spouse, descendants, or other persons entitled to be supported by the loser may institute the action. The sum thereby obtained shall be applied to the creditors’ claims, or to the support of the spouse or relatives, as the case may be.”  Gambling distinguished from Betting: While generally gambling on the results of a game of chance is prohibited, betting (which concerns itself with games of skill, like chess) is ordinarily allowed. ART. 1413. Interest paid in excess of the interest allowed by the usury laws may be recovered by the debtor, with interest thereon from the date of the payment.  Usury law - repealed ART. 1414. When money is paid or property delivered for an illegal purpose, the contract may be repudiated by one of the parties before the purpose has been accomplished, or before any damage has been caused to a third person. In such case, the courts may, if the public interest will thus be subserved, allow the party repudiating the contract to recover the money or property. (Court determines if there can be recovery.)  One instance where recovery can be had even in the presence of pari delicto: this one case where recovery can be made even if the parties be in pari delicto. Note, however, that recovery can be done only: (a) If the purpose has not yet been accomplished; (b) Or if damage has not been caused any third person.  Example: If public interest allows the party repudiating the contract to recover the money or property given. If, however, the repudiation took place after the crime has been done, such repudiation is invalid and both parties will be guilty. ART. 1415. Where one of the parties to an illegal contract is incapable of giving consent, the courts may, if the interest of justice so demands, allow recovery of money or property delivered by the incapacitated person.  The law determines.  Contract entered into by an incapacitated person and the cause of the contract is unlawful.  Effect if one party is incapacitated: This is another instance when recovery can be had.  Example: An insane man gave money to another to kill X. May the insane man recover what he has paid? Yes, since the interest of justice so demands. - The illegal purpose has not yet been done/accomplished. ART. 1416. When the agreement is not illegal per se but is merely prohibited, and the prohibition by the law is designed for the protection of the plaintiff, he may, if public policy is thereby enhanced, recover what he has paid or delivered.  Contracts illegal per se and those merely prohibited: this article distinguished between contracts that are: (a) Illegal per se; and (b) Merely prohibited contracts.  Illegal Per Se: Illegal per se contracts are those forbidden because of public interest.  Merely prohibited: Merely prohibited contracts are those forbidden because of private interests. Here, recovery is permitted, provided that: (a) The contract is not illegal per se; (b) The prohibition is designed for the protection of the plaintiff; (c) And public policy would be enhanced by allowing the recovery. ART. 1417. When the price of any article or commodity is determined by statute, or by authority of law, any person paying any amount in excess of the maximum price allowed may recover such excess.  Rule in case of payment in excess of maximum price: Purpose of the Article: To curb the evils of profiteering.

ART. 1418. When the law fixes, or authorizes the fixing of the maximum number of hours of labor, and a contract is entered into whereby a laborer undertakes to work longer than the maximum thus fixed, he may demand additional compensation for service rendered beyond the limit. ART. 1419. When the law sets, or authorizes the setting of a minimum wage for laborers, and a contract is agreed upon by which a laborer accepts a lower wage, he shall be entitled to recover the deficiency.  Minimum Wage – No waiver of Right: “No worker or organization of workers may voluntarily or otherwise, individually or collectively, waive any rights established under this Act, and no agreement or contract, oral or written, to accept a lower wage or less than any other benefit required under this act shall be valid.” (Minimum wage Law)  Alfanta vs. Noe: In the promotion of social justice, the State shall regulate the acquisition, ownership, use, enjoyment, and disposition of private property, and equitably diffuse property ownership and profits.  Penalty: Any employer who underpays an employee is liable to the employee affected in the amount of the unpaid wages with legal interest. Action to recover such liability may be maintained in any competent court by any one or more employees on behalf of himself or themselves. The court in such action shall in addition to any judgment awarded to the plaintiff or plaintiffs, allow a reasonable attorney’s fee.”  When Wages Should be paid: “Wages shall be paid not less than often once every two weeks or twice a month at intervals, no exceeding 16 days; it shall be the duty of the employer: (a) To make payment on account not less often than once every two weeks or twice a month at intervals not exceeding 16 days; and (b) To make a final settlement within two weeks after the completion of the task.” ART. 1420. In case of a divisible contract, if the illegal terms can be separated from the legal ones, the latter may be enforced.  Illegal terms of a Contract: The contract may be indivisible or divisible. (a) If indivisible the whole contract is void, even if only some terms are illegal. (b) If divisible, the legal terms may be enforced if same can be separated from the illegal terms. NOTE: He who wants to enforce a contract must show how much of the cause is legal; otherwise, if partly legal and partly illegal, it will result in the contract being considered as wholly void. ART. 1421. The defense of illegality of contracts is not available to third persons whose interests are not directly affected.  Defense of Illegality Not Generally Available to Third Persons: (a) Even if a contract is illegal, the defense of illegality may be set up only by whose interest are directly affected. (b) Note the rule for annullable and unenforceable contracts. ART. 1422. A contract which is the direct result of a previous illegal contract, is also void and inexistent.

TITLE III. – NATURAL OBLIGATIONS (Not Demandable)  In all the specific cases of natural obligations recognized by the Civil Code, there is moral duty, but not legal duty to perform or to pay, but the person thus performing or paying feels that in good conscience, he should comply with his undertaking which is based on moral grounds.  Equity; Morality; Justice = POSITIVE LAW ART. 1423. Obligations are civil (based on positive law) or natural (based on equity). Civil obligations give a right or action to compel their performance. Natural obligations, not being based on positive law but on equity and natural law, do not grant a right of action to enforce their performance, but after voluntary fulfillment by the obligor, they authorize the return of what has been delivered or rendered by reason thereof. Some natural obligations are set forth in the following articles.  Voluntary Fulfillment: The debtor complied with the same even if he knew that he could not have been legally forced to do so. (Payment through a coercive process of the writ of execution issued at the instance and insistence of the prevailing party, is NOT considered voluntary, and the provision of the law on natural obligations cannot be applied thereto.) In case of partial voluntary fulfillment, the balance cannot be recovered, since on said balance, there has not yet been created a legal obligation.  Undue Payment Distinguished from Natural Obligation: If I pay a debt that has prescribed – (a) Not knowing it has prescribed, I can recover on the ground of undue payment. (b) Knowing it has prescribed, I cannot recover for this would be a case of a natural obligation.  No Juridical Tie in Moral Obligations: While there is a juridical tie in natural obligations, there is none in moral obligations.  Example of other natural obligations: Art. 1423 says: “Some natural obligations are set forth in the following articles.” Hence, there may be other natural obligations. Examples: (a) Obligation to pay interest for use of money, even if not agreed upon in writing. (b) Duty to support natural or spurious children (even if not recognized voluntarily or by judicial compulsion and even if there is a judgment denying recognition). (c) Giving of material and financial assistance to children upon their marriage. ART. 1424. When a right to sue upon a civil obligation has lapsed by extinctive prescription, the obligor who voluntarily performs the contract cannot recover what he has delivered or the value of the service he has rendered.  Effect of Extinctive Prescription: By virtue of extinctive prescription, a right or property has been lost. ART. 1435. When without the knowledge or against the will of the debtor, a third person pays a debt which the obligor is not legally bound to pay because the action thereon has prescribed, but the debtor later voluntarily reimburses the third person, the obligor cannot recover what he has paid.  Payment by a Third Person: Here, the third person pays: (a) Without the knowledge (of the debtor); or (b) Against the will (of the debtor).  Payment with Debtor’s Consent: If payment is made with the consent of the debtor, a civil obligation arises. ART. 1426. When a minor between eighteen (18) and twenty-one (21) years of age who has entered into a contract without the consent of the parent or guardian, after the annulment of the contract voluntarily returns the whole thing or price received, notwithstanding the fact that he has not been benefited thereby, there is no right to demand the thing or price thus returned.  Contracts by Minors between 18 and 21 – when there has been annulment: (a) This applies to minors between 18 and 21 when the contract was without parental consent. (here the minor is considered mature enough) (b) Here after annulment, there was a VOLUNTARY return.  Majority Age: The age of majority today is 18. ART. 1427. When a minor between eighteen and twenty-one years of age, who has entered into a contract without the consent of the parent or guardian, voluntarily pays a sum of money or delivers a fungible thing in fulfillment of the obligation, there shall be no right to recover the same from the oblige who has spent and consumed it in good faith. (No annulment of the contract)  Contracts by Minors – No Annulment yet: (a) Generally, annulment requires mutual restitution. Here, the obligee who has spent or consumed the object in good faith is not required to restore. (b) Good faith of the obligee must be present at the time of spending or consuming.

(c)

Note that the majority age today is 18. And “fungible” here really means “consumable.” ART. 1428. When, after an action to enforce a civil obligation has failed, the defendant voluntarily performs the obligation, he cannot demand the return of what he has delivered or the payment of the value of the services he has rendered.  Winner in Action to Enforce a Civil Obligation: Here the defendant may have realized that he should have lost the case, instead of winning it, thus the existence of the Article. ART. 1429. When a testate (there is a will) or intestate (no will) heir voluntarily pays a debt of the decedent exceeding the value of the property which he received by will or by the law of intestacy from the estate of the deceased, the payment is valid and cannot be rescinded by the payer. ART. 1430. When a will is declared void because it has not been executed in accordance with the formalities required by law, but one of the intestate heirs, after the settlement of the debts of the deceased, pays a legacy in compliance with a clause in the defective will, the payment is effective and irrevocable.  Payment of Legacies despite the Fact that the will is void: If the will is void, the legacy would also be void and the deceased is considered to have died without a will. This is the reason for the existence of the Article.  Analogous Cases: By analogy, all alienations defective for lack of the proper formalities may be included under Art. 1430.

TITLE IV. – ESTOPPEL ART. 1431. Through estoppel an admission or representation is rendered conclusive upon the person making it, and cannot be denied or disproved as against the person relying thereon.  Concept of ESTOPPEL: Estoppel is a bar which precluded a person from denying or asserting anything contrary to that which has been, in contemplation of law, established as the truth either by acts of judicial or legislative officers, or by his own deed or representation either express or implied.  Under the principle of estoppel, petitioners are barred from claiming co-ownership of the lands in issue. In estoppel, a person, who by his deed or conduct has induced another to act in a particular manner, is barred from adopting an inconsistent position, attitude or course of conduct that thereby causes loss or injury to another. It further bars him from denying the truth of a fact which has, in the contemplation of law, become settled by the acts and proceedings of judicial or legislative officers or by the act of the party himself, either by conventional writing or by representations, express or implied of in pais.  Origin of Estoppel: The doctrine of estoppel has its origin in equity, and is based on moral rights and natural justice. Its applicability to any particular case depends to a very large extent upon the special circumstances of the case.  Examples of Estoppel: (a) If the husband in a sworn declaration constituting a family home has stated in said documents that he was married, naming his wife, he cannot thereafter be heard to say that he and the girl are not married. Therefore, the family home should be considered as conjugal property. (b) A holder of a promissory note given because of gambling who indorses the same to an innocent holder for value and who assures said party the note has no legal defect, is estopped from asserting that there had been an illegal consideration for the note, and so, he has to pay its value. (c) A person who alleged at one time in court that he was the owner of a certain cabaret cannot afterwards deny his ownership thereof. ART. 1432. The principles of estoppel are hereby adopted, insofar as they are not in conflict with the provisions of this Code, the Code of Commerce, the Rules of Court and special laws.  Suppletory effect of the General Principles of Estoppel: The principles of estoppel are only suppletory. Art. 1433. Estoppel may be in pais (equitable) or by deed (technical).  KINDS OF ESTOPPEL: (a) Estoppel IN PAIS (Equitable estoppel; this may be estoppel: 1) By conduct or by acceptance of benefits, 2) By representation or concealment, 3) By silence, 4) By omission, 5) By laches (unreasonable delay in suing). (b) Estoppel BY DEED (technical estoppel); this may be 1) Estoppel by deed proper (written instrument may also be in the form of a bond or a mortgage).

2)

Estoppel by judgment as a court record (this happens when there could have been res judicata.) NOTE: While res judicata makes a judgment conclusive between the parties as to the things which were directly adjudged, estoppel by judgment prevents the parties from raising questions that could have been put in issue and decided in the previous case.  Estoppel IN PAIS (Equitable estoppel) (a) Definition: It arises when one, by his acts, representations or admissions, or by his silence when he ought to speak out, intentionally or through culpable negligence, induces another to believe certain facts to exist, and such other rightfully relies and acts on such belief, so that he will be prejudiced if the former is permitted to deny the exercise of such facts. (b) Examples of Estoppel in pais: 1) If a vendee a retro agrees to accept a check in payment of the repurchase price, he cannot afterwards allege that the check is not legal tender. He is bound by his own act. 2) If the real owner of a house pretends to be merely a broker in the sale thereof, he is estopped from asserting ownership over the same.  Estoppel BY DEED (a) Definition: It is a bar which precludes a party to a deed and his privies from asserting as against the other and his privies any right or title in derogation of the deed, or from denying the truth of any material fact asserted in it. (b) Examples of estoppel by deed: 1) If several persons, each claiming ownership over certain property deposited in a warehouse, I a written document agree that it should be sold, said persons cannot later on modify the terms of the agreement. ART. 1434. When a person who is not the owner of a thing sells or alienates and delivers it, and later the seller or grantor acquires title thereto, such title passes by operation of law to the buyer or grantee.  Sale or Alienation by Non-Owner: (a) Example: Jose sold in his own name Brigitte’s car to Gina. He also delivered the car to Gina. If later on Brigitte donates the car to Jose, ownership over the same passes to Gina, not by tradition, but by operation of law. (b) In this kind of estoppel, prejudice is not essential. ART. 1435. If a person in representation of another sells or alienates a thing, the former cannot subsequently set up his own title as against the buyer or grantee.  Sale or Alienation in Representation (agent) of Another: This is estoppel in a representative capacity. In this kind of estoppel, prejudice is also not essential. ART. 1436. A lessee or a bailee is estopped from asserting title to the thing leased or received, as against the lessor or bailor.  Estoppel on the Part of a Lessee or a Bailee: Under the Revised Rules of Court, one of the instances of conclusive presumptions is in the case of the tenant. Who is not permitted to deny the title of his landlord at the time of the commencement of the relation of landlord and tenant between them.  When Presumption does not apply: If the alleged tenant does not admit expressly or implicitly the existence of the lease contract (such as when the landlord did not attach or plead in his complaint the contract of lease), the presumption does not apply. ART. 1437. When in a contract between third persons concerning immovable property, one of them is misled by a person with respect to the ownership or real right over the real estate, the latter is precluded from asserting his legal title or interest therein, provided all these requisites are present: (1) There must be fraudulent representation or wrongful concealment of facts known to the party estopped; (2) The party precluded must intend that the other should act upon the facts as misrepresented; (3) The party misled must have been unaware of the true facts; and (4) The party defrauded must have acted in accordance with the misrepresentation.  CRISTOBAL vs. GOMEZ: Facts: To misled others, two brothers, Epifanio and Marcelino Gomez, drew up a plan whereby Epifanio. Although the registered owner of a parcel of land, admitted that Marcelino was really the owner. Issue: May Marcelino Gomez or his successors-in-interest claim ownership over the land by virtue of such written admission by Epifanio?

Held: No, because Marcelino was a party to the collusion, and therefore, he could not have been misled. Had third parties been misled, there would have been estoppel.

ART. 1438. One who has allowed another to assume apparent ownership of personal property for the purpose of making any transfer of it, cannot, if he received the sum for which a pledge has been constituted, set up his own title to defeat the pledge of the property, made by the other to a pledgee who received the same in good faith and for value. ART. 1439. Estoppel is effective only as between the parties thereto or their successors-ininterest.  Persons Bound by Estoppel: Both parties are, however, bound, such as parties to a sale. Successors-in-interest (as well as privies and grantees) are bound. But third parties are not.  Is the Government bound by estoppel? Generally, the Government is not bound by estoppel, particularly so if there has been an erroneous application and enforcement of the law.  Applicability to Question of Fact: The rule on estoppel applies only to questions of fact, not of law, about the truth of which the other party is ignorant.

TITLE V. – TRUSTS Chapter 1 – General Provisions  Trust defined: (a) It is the right to the beneficial enjoyment of property, the legal title to which is vested in another. (b) It is a fiduciary relationship concerning property which obliges the person holding it to deal with the property for the benefit of another. The person holding, in view of his equitable title, is allowed to exercise certain powers belonging to the owner of the legal title.  Characteristics of Trust: (a) It is a fiduciary relationship. (b) Created by law or by agreement. (c) Where the legal title is held by one, and the equitable title or beneficial title is held by another.  Trust distinguished from Guardianship or Executorship: In a trust, the trustee or holder has LEGAL TITLE to the property; a guardian, administrator, or executor does not have.  Trust distinguished from a Stipulation Pour Autrui: (a) A trust may exist because of a legal provision or because of an agreement; a stipulation pour autrui can arise only in the case of contracts. (b) A trust refers to a specific property; a stipulation pour autrui refers to specific property or to other things.  A trust by operation of law is the right to the beneficial enjoyment of a property where legal title is tested in another. ART. 1440. A person who establishes a trust is called the trustor; one in whom confidence is reposed as regards property for the benefit of another person is known as the trustee; and the person for whose benefit the trust has been created is referred to as the beneficiary.  Parties to a Trust: (a) Trustor or Settler – he establishes the trust. (b) Trustee – holds the property in trust for the benefit of another. (c) Beneficiary or cestui que trust – the person for whose benefit the trust has been created. [NOTE: The trustor may at the same time be also the beneficiary.]  Elements of a Trust: (a) Parties to the trust (b) The trust property or the trust estate or the subject matter of the trust ART. 1441. Trusts are either express or implied. Express trusts are created by the intention of the trustor or of the parties. Implied trusts come into being by operation of law.  Classification of Trusts: (a) Express Trust – created by the parties, or by the intention of the trustor. (b) Implied Trust – created by operation of law (“trust by operation of law”). NOTE: There are TWO KINDS of implied trust: 1) Resulting Trust (bare or passive trust) – there is an intent to create a trust but it is not effective as an express trust. (Ex.: where a person who inherits property registers the same in another’s name, whom he does not intend to have any beneficial interest therein for he wants this for himself. 2) Constructive Trust – no intention to create a trust is present, but a trust is nevertheless created by law to prevent unjust enrichment or oppression. (Ex.: if a person acquires property by mistake, he is considered by the law as a trustee while he holds the same. ART. 1442. The principles of the general law of trusts, insofar as they are not in conflict with this Code, the Code of Commerce, the Rules of Court and special laws are hereby adopted.  Suppletory effect of the General Law of Trusts: The principles of the general law of trusts are merely suppletory.

Chapter 2 – EXPRESS TRUSTS ART. 1443. No express trust concerning an immovable (real property) or any interest therein may be proved by parol evidence. (Express trusts may not be proved by parole/oral evidence.)  Formalities Re Express Trusts: The law says that “no express trusts concerning an immovable or any interest therein may be proved by parol (oral) evidence.” Therefore: (a) The requirement that the express trust be written is only for enforceability, not for validity between the parties. (by analogy this article may be included under the Statute of Frauds) (b) By implication, for a trust over personal property an oral agreement is valid and enforceable between the parties. (c) Regarding third persons, the trust must be; in a public instrument and REISTERED in the Registry of Property, of it concerns Real Property.  Distinguished from the Formalities of an Implied trust: an implied trust (whether real or personal property is involved) may be proved by oral evidence. ART. 1444. No particular words are required for the creation of an express trust, it being sufficient that a trust is clearly intended.  How an Express Trust is created (conveyed): (a) By conveyance to the trustee by an act inter vivos or mortis causa (as in a will). (b) By administration of the trustee that he holds the property, only as trustee.  Clear Intent: there must be a CLEAR INTENTION to create a trust. (No particular or technical words are required.)  Capacity: (a) The trustor must be capacitated to convey property. (A minor cannot create an express or conventional trust of any kind. However, joint owner of a things may be a trustor and the other a trustee of one’s share.) (b) The trustee must be capacitated to hold property and to enter into contracts. (c) The beneficiary must be capacitated to receive gratuitiously from the trustor. (If he is incapacitated to be the trustor’s done, heir or legatee, or devisee, he cannot become a beneficiary of a gratuitous trust.  Administration of the Trust: (a) The trustee must file a bond. (like a guardian/administrator) (b) The trustee must make an inventory of the real and personal property in trust. (like an ordinary administrator) (c) The trustee must manage and dispose of the estate and faithfully discharge his trust in relation thereto, according to law or according to the terms of the trust instrument as long as they are legal and possible. (d) The trustee must render a true and clear account. (e) The trustee cannot acquire the property held in trust by prescription as long as the trust is admitted. (If he repudiates, and this is made known to the party involved, prescription is permitted.) ART. 1445. No trust shall fail because the trustee appointed declines the designation, unless the contrary should appear in the instrument.  Effect if Trustee Declines: The trust ordinarily continues even if the trustee declines, because the court will appoint a new trustee, unless otherwise provided for in the trust instrument. A new trustee has to be appointed, otherwise the trust will not exist. ART. 1446. Acceptance by the beneficiary is necessary. ED Nevertheless, if the trust imposes no onerous condition upon the beneficiary, his acceptance shall be presumed, if there is no proof to the contrary.  Necessity of Acceptance by the Beneficiary: For the trust to be effective, the beneficiary must accept: (a) Expressly, or (b) Impliedly, or (c) Presumably.  When acceptance is presumed: If the granting of benefit is PURELY GRATUITOUS (no onerous condition), the acceptance by the beneficiary is presumed. EXCEPT if there is proof that he really did NOT accept.  How Express Trusts are ENDED: (a) Mutual agreement by all the parties (b) Expiration of the term (c) Fulfillment of the resolutory condition (d) Rescission or annulment (as in other contracts) (e) Loss of subject matter of the trust (physical loss or legal impossibility) (f) Order of the court (as when the purpose of the trust is being frustrated (g) Merger (h) Accomplishment of the purpose of the trust.

Chapter 3 – IMPLIED TRUSTS (based on equity and justice)  The doctrine of implied trust is found on equity. The principle is applied in the American legal system to numerous cases where an injustice would result if the legal estate or title were to prevail over the equitable right of the beneficiary. Even though there has been no fraud or immorality involved, still there is a mutual antagonism between the trustee and the beneficiary. Fair dealing demands the establishment of the relation. ART. 1447. The enumeration of the following cases of implied trust does not exclude others established by the general law of trust, but the limitation laid down in Art. 1442 shall be applicable.  Enumeration of Instances of Implied Trust: the enumeration is not exclusive. But trusts are recognized only if not in conflict with: (a) The Civil Code, (b) The Code of Commerce, (c) The rules of Court, (d) Special Laws. Instances of Implied Trust: (ARTS. 1448-1456) ART. 1448. There is an implied trust when property is sold, and the legal estate is granted to one party but the price is paid by another, for the purpose of having the beneficial interest of the property. The former is the trustee, while the latter is the beneficiary. However, if the person to whom the title is conveyed is a child, legitimate or illegitimate, of the one paying the price of the sale, no trust is implied by law, it being disputably presumed that there is a gift in favor of the child.  Purchase of Property where Title is not given to payer but to another: (a) This is a RESULTING TRUST (because a trust is intended). (b) Reason: One who pays for something usually does so for his own benefit. (c) Example: A buys a piece of land form B. A pays the price so that he (A) may have the beneficial interest in the land but the legal title is given to C. C is the trustee and A is the beneficiary.  Rule if Document Expresses a Different Intent: there is no implied trust if the document expresses a different intention. ART. 1449. There is also an implied trust when a donation is made to a person but it appears that although the legal estate is transmitted to the done, he nevertheless is either to have no beneficial interest or only a part thereof.  When Donee does not get full ownership of benefit: This is a RESULTING TRUST, where the donee becomes the trustee of the real beneficiary.  Example: A donated land to B. But it was agreed that B is supposed to have only onethird of the products of said land. There is a trust here, with B as the trustee. ART. 1450. If the price of a sale of property is loaned or paid by one person for the benefit of another and the conveyance is made to the lender or payor to secure the payment of the debt, a trust arises by operation of law in favor of the person to whom the money is loaned for whom it is paid. The latter may redeem the property and compel a conveyance thereof to him.  Conveyance of property so that it may serve as security: (a) This is a CONSTRUCTIVE TRUST, the reason of the law being to prevent unjust enrichment (b) Example: Jose wants to buy a piece of land from Pedro, but Jose has no money. So Jose asks Carlos to pay for the land. The land is then given in Carlos’ name. This is supposed to be Carlos’ security until the debt of Jose is paid. Here an implied trust has been created. Carlos is only a trustee, the beneficiary being Jose. When Jose has the money, he may redeem the property from Carlos and compel a conveyance thereof to him (Jose). The trust here is implied, hence t exists even if in the title taken by Carlos, there is no mention of the interest of Jose or of his right to redeem. [NOTE: Do not confuse the above example with the case; Jose borrows money from Carlos, and Jose later buys land in his own name. Jose then executes a mortgage on the land in favor of Carlos. This is not an implied trust but a mortgage.] ART. 1451. When land passes by succession to any person and he causes the legal title to be put in the name of another, a trust is established by implication of law for the benefit of the true owner.  This is a RESULTING TRUST, for a trust is intended.  Example: A inherited a piece of land from his father, but A caused the legal title to be put in the name of X, a brother. Here a trust is impliedly established, with X as trustee and A as the beneficiary.

ART. 1452. If two or more persons agree to purchase property and by common consent the legal title is taken in the name of one of them for the benefit of all, a trust is created by force of law in favor of the others in proportion to the interest of each.  When property is in the name of only one of the co-buyers: (a) This is a RESULTING TRUST in view of the intent to create a trust. (b) Example: Facts: Some Chinese merchants bought a lot with a house on it so that the same could be used as their clubhouse. The property was registered under the name of only one of them. The registered owner leased the property, collected rents therefor, and when asked for an accounting, refused to so account on the ground that he was the owner thereof. Held: He is a mere trustee, and is therefore obliged to render proper accounting. The beneficiaries are all the members of the club.  The shares or interest of co-owners are presumed to be equal. ART. 1453. When property is conveyed to a person in reliance upon his declared intention to hold it for, or transfer it to another or the grantor, there is an implied trust in favor of the person whose benefit is contemplated.  When a person declares his intent to hold property for someone else: (a) This is a RESULTING TRUST, in view of the owner’s intention to create a trust. (b) Example: Jose bought from Pedro a parcel of land and it was conveyed to him (Jose) on Jose’s statement or declaration that he would hold it in behalf of Carlos. Here, Jose is merely the trustee, while Carlos is the beneficiary. ART. 1454. If an absolute conveyance of property is made in order to secure the performance of an obligation of the grantor toward the grantee, a trust by virtue of law is established. If the fulfillment of the obligation is offered by the grantor when it becomes due, he may demand the reconveyance of the property to him.  Absolute conveyance made for security purpose: (a) This is a CONSTRUCTIVE TRUST, the purpose of the law being to prevent unjust enrichment to the prejudice of the true owner. (b) Example: Marlene was indebted to Susan. For the sole purpose of guaranteeing her debt, Marlene sold her parcel of land to Susan. Here, a trust has been created. If Marlene pays her debt when it becomes due, Marlene may demand for the resale of the property to her. ART. 1455. When any trustee, guardian or other person holding a fiduciary relationship uses trust funds for the purchase of property and causes the conveyance to be made to him or to a third person, a trust is established by operation of law in favor of the person to whom the funds belong.  Use of Trust Funds: this is a CONSTRUCTIVE TRUST because the purpose is to prevent unjust enrichment.  This article applies to: (a) Any trustee ; (b) Guardian; or (c) Other person holding a fiduciary relationship (like an agent; therefore he acquisitions of the agent inure to the benefit of his principal).  Example: An agent using his principal’s money purchases land in his own name. He also registers it under his name. Here, he will be considered only a trustee, and the principal can bring an action for conveyance of the property to himself, so long as the rights of innocent persons are not adversely affected.  Reasons for the Rule: (a) Fiduciary or trust relations (b) Estoppel (c) To remove the temptation to place self-interest above all other things, and at the expense of one’s integrity and duty to another. ART. 1456. If property is acquired through mistake or fraud, the person obtaining it is, by force of law, considered a trustee of an implied trust for the benefit of the person from whom the property comes.  Property acquired through mistake or fraud: (a) This is a CONSTRUCTIVE TRUST. (b) Example: Bella was given a car by Mina although it should have been given to Erlinda. Bella is considered as merely the trustee of the car for the benefit of Erlinda.  Nature of the Mistake or Fraud: (a) The mistake referred to in Art. 145 is a mistake made by a third person, not that made by a party to the contract. For if made by a party, no trust is created. (b) Similarly, the fraud referred to in Art. 145 is extra-contractual fraud and the effects are those as mentioned.

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Art. 145 does not apply to a donation of property of which the done has acquired through a legal donation, even if she breaks and important condition thereof; thus, even with the breach condition, she does not become a trustee. It is still hers, subject to an action for revocation. If the action to revoke has prescribed, the property cannot be taken away from her. If prescription runs even in a case of implied trust, prescription certainly runs with greater reason in a case like this, where as we have seen, no trust ever existed or was created. Express trust do NOT prescribe as long as they have not been repudiated.

ART. 1457. An implied trust may be proved by oral evidence.  Proof of implied trust: (a) This article applies whether the property is real or personal. (b) The rule in Art. 1457 is different from that enunciated in Art. 1443 which states that “no express trust concerning an immovable or any interest therein may be proved by parol/oral evidence.”