Values
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Values Values Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. Value System A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity. 1
Characteristics • Judgmental element - what is right, good, or desirable. • Values have both content and intensity attributes. • Values are not generally fluid and flexible. They tend to be relatively stable and enduring. 2
Importance of Values • Provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation, and behaviors of individuals and cultures. • Influence our perception of the world around us. • Represent interpretations of “right” and “wrong.” • Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over others. 3
Types of Values – Rokeach Value Survey Milton Rokeach created the Rokeach Value Survey consisting of two sets of values, with each containing 18 individual value items. Terminal Values Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime. e.g.: A comfortable life, Equality, National Security, Self-respect
Instrumental Values Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values. e.g.: Ambitious, Courageous, and Obedient 4
Dominant Work Values in Today’s Workforce
5
Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures To analyze variations among cultures a research was done in late 1970s by Greet Hofstede. He surveyed more than 1,16,000 IBM employees in 40 countries about their workrelated values. Power Distance The extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. Low Distance: Relatively equal distribution High Distance: Extremely unequal distribution 6
Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d) Individualism
Collectivism
The degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than a member of groups.
A tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.
7
Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d) Achievement The extent to which societal values are characterized by assertiveness, materialism and competition. Nurturing The extent to which societal values emphasize relationships and concern for others. 8
Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d) Uncertainty Avoidance The extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.
9
Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d) Long-term Orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence. Short-term Orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the past and present, respect for tradition, and fulfilling social obligations. 10
The GLOBE Framework
• Assertiveness • Future Orientation • Gender differentiation • Uncertainty avoidance
for Assessing Cultures
• Power distance • Individual/collectivism • In-group collectivism • Power orientation • Humane orientation 11
Attitudes Attitudes Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.
Cognitive component The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.
Affective Component The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.
Behavioral Component An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something. 12
Types of Attitudes Job Satisfaction A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds toward his or her job. Job Involvement Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, and considering performance important to selfworth. Organizational Commitment Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and wishing to maintain membership in the organization.
13
The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance Leon Festinger, in the late 1950s, proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance, seeking to explain the linkage between attitudes and behavior. He argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will attempt to reduce the dissonance. Dissonance means “an inconsistency.” Cognitive Dissonance: Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes. Desire to reduce dissonance • Importance of elements creating dissonance • Degree of individual influence over elements • Rewards involved in dissonance 14
Measuring the A-B Relationship •
Early research on attitudes and common sense assumed a causal relationship to behavior. • In the late 1960s, this assumed relationship between attitudes and behavior (A-B) was challenged. • Recent research indicates that attitudes (A) significantly predict behaviors (B) when moderating variables are taken into account. Moderating Variables • Importance of the attitude • Specificity of the attitude • Accessibility of the attitude • Social pressures on the individual • Direct experience with the attitude 15
Self-Perception Theory Attitudes are used after the fact to make sense out of an action that has already occurred.
16
An Application: Attitude Surveys Attitude Surveys Eliciting responses from employees through questionnaires about how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, and the organization. Using Attitude Surveys on regular basis provides managers with valuable feedback on how employees perceive their working conditions.
17
Job Satisfaction •
Measuring Job Satisfaction – Single global rating •
–
Asking individuals to respond to one question, such as “All things considered, how satisfied are you with your job?”
Summation score •
•
It identifies key elements in a job and asks for the employee’s feelings about each one ranked on a standardized scale. Typical factors that would be included are the nature of the work, supervision, present pay, promotion opportunities, and relations with co-workers.
18
The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance • Satisfaction and Productivity – Satisfied workers aren’t necessarily more productive. – Worker productivity is higher in organizations with more satisfied workers. • Satisfaction and Absenteeism – Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences. • Satisfaction and Turnover – Satisfied employees are less likely to quit. – Organizations take actions to retain high performers and to weed out lower performers. 19
Job Satisfaction and OCB • Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) – Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and are trusting of the organization are more willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond the normal expectations of their job.
20
Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction • Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction because: – They are more friendly, upbeat, and responsive. – They are less likely to turnover which helps build long-term customer relationships. – They are experienced.
• Dissatisfied customers increase employee job dissatisfaction. 21
Responses to Job Dissatisfaction
22
How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction Exit
Voice
Behavior directed toward leaving the organization.
Active and constructive attempts to improve conditions.
Loyalty
Neglect
Passively waiting for conditions to improve.
Allowing conditions to worsen.
23
Characteristics • Judgmental element - what is right, good, or desirable. • Values have both content and intensity attributes. • Values are not generally fluid and flexible. They tend to be relatively stable and enduring. 2
Importance of Values • Provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation, and behaviors of individuals and cultures. • Influence our perception of the world around us. • Represent interpretations of “right” and “wrong.” • Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over others. 3
Types of Values – Rokeach Value Survey Milton Rokeach created the Rokeach Value Survey consisting of two sets of values, with each containing 18 individual value items. Terminal Values Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime. e.g.: A comfortable life, Equality, National Security, Self-respect
Instrumental Values Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values. e.g.: Ambitious, Courageous, and Obedient 4
Dominant Work Values in Today’s Workforce
5
Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures To analyze variations among cultures a research was done in late 1970s by Greet Hofstede. He surveyed more than 1,16,000 IBM employees in 40 countries about their workrelated values. Power Distance The extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. Low Distance: Relatively equal distribution High Distance: Extremely unequal distribution 6
Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d) Individualism
Collectivism
The degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than a member of groups.
A tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.
7
Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d) Achievement The extent to which societal values are characterized by assertiveness, materialism and competition. Nurturing The extent to which societal values emphasize relationships and concern for others. 8
Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d) Uncertainty Avoidance The extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.
9
Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d) Long-term Orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence. Short-term Orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the past and present, respect for tradition, and fulfilling social obligations. 10
The GLOBE Framework
• Assertiveness • Future Orientation • Gender differentiation • Uncertainty avoidance
for Assessing Cultures
• Power distance • Individual/collectivism • In-group collectivism • Power orientation • Humane orientation 11
Attitudes Attitudes Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.
Cognitive component The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.
Affective Component The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.
Behavioral Component An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something. 12
Types of Attitudes Job Satisfaction A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds toward his or her job. Job Involvement Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, and considering performance important to selfworth. Organizational Commitment Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and wishing to maintain membership in the organization.
13
The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance Leon Festinger, in the late 1950s, proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance, seeking to explain the linkage between attitudes and behavior. He argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will attempt to reduce the dissonance. Dissonance means “an inconsistency.” Cognitive Dissonance: Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes. Desire to reduce dissonance • Importance of elements creating dissonance • Degree of individual influence over elements • Rewards involved in dissonance 14
Measuring the A-B Relationship •
Early research on attitudes and common sense assumed a causal relationship to behavior. • In the late 1960s, this assumed relationship between attitudes and behavior (A-B) was challenged. • Recent research indicates that attitudes (A) significantly predict behaviors (B) when moderating variables are taken into account. Moderating Variables • Importance of the attitude • Specificity of the attitude • Accessibility of the attitude • Social pressures on the individual • Direct experience with the attitude 15
Self-Perception Theory Attitudes are used after the fact to make sense out of an action that has already occurred.
16
An Application: Attitude Surveys Attitude Surveys Eliciting responses from employees through questionnaires about how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, and the organization. Using Attitude Surveys on regular basis provides managers with valuable feedback on how employees perceive their working conditions.
17
Job Satisfaction •
Measuring Job Satisfaction – Single global rating •
–
Asking individuals to respond to one question, such as “All things considered, how satisfied are you with your job?”
Summation score •
•
It identifies key elements in a job and asks for the employee’s feelings about each one ranked on a standardized scale. Typical factors that would be included are the nature of the work, supervision, present pay, promotion opportunities, and relations with co-workers.
18
The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance • Satisfaction and Productivity – Satisfied workers aren’t necessarily more productive. – Worker productivity is higher in organizations with more satisfied workers. • Satisfaction and Absenteeism – Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences. • Satisfaction and Turnover – Satisfied employees are less likely to quit. – Organizations take actions to retain high performers and to weed out lower performers. 19
Job Satisfaction and OCB • Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) – Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and are trusting of the organization are more willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond the normal expectations of their job.
20
Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction • Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction because: – They are more friendly, upbeat, and responsive. – They are less likely to turnover which helps build long-term customer relationships. – They are experienced.
• Dissatisfied customers increase employee job dissatisfaction. 21
Responses to Job Dissatisfaction
22
How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction Exit
Voice
Behavior directed toward leaving the organization.
Active and constructive attempts to improve conditions.
Loyalty
Neglect
Passively waiting for conditions to improve.
Allowing conditions to worsen.
23
