Urban Mass Transit

Urban Mass Transit Planning Transit could be defined as a public transportation system intended for the mass movement of passengers. They are often characterised by fixed time schedules and predetermined routes.

1.1 Major issues in transit planning a) Highways vs. transit There has been a debate over whether to favour highway planning over transit and vice versa. The rich definitely want more streets opened up to facilitate more convenient car use. The poor on the other hand, who cannot afford the car, would naturally want a \ better organised, more efficient transit system in place.

_ b) Responsibility for transit Should transit be owned and operated by the public or the private sector? Proponents of privatisation argue that public officials are not entrepreneurial, that lack of competition removes incentives for better management as private firms usually operate transit systems more efficiently than their public counterparts. However, in most cases, particularly in the South, transit investments require huge capital outlays which the private sector may not be willing to commit unless they are sure of sufficient returns on investment. Moreover, private firms need to make profits; most transit riders are poor and it is difficult to make money from the poor. Because transport is such a necessity in an urban set-up, it becomes necessary to provide this vital service to all, even if this means minimal or no profits at all. Otherwise the poor, really deserving of such services will be left un-serviced. Only the public can do this. ~

c) Financing Closely related to the last point is that of financing transit. The costs of building, operating and maintaining transit is great, while revenues can sometimes be limited. If financing is wholly left to the private sector it may not be feasible as the profits may not justify the investment. But the public sector has also been experiencing a crunch in its resources. meaning that it can hardly afford to entirely finance the building. operation and maintenance all by itself. There is however a possibility for public-private sector partnerships, where for example, the public sector may undertake to build and maintain the trunk infrastructure, while the private sector assumes the responsibility of operating the vehicles.

d) Choice of technology What form should transit take? In the west, the debate has been between the rail and the bus. Back home the debate is between the bus and the matatu, and even lately, the rail (tram for Nairobi). About rail, there is debate about light and heavy rail, whether ths should be at grade, below or above grade. The advantage of the light rail, especially

the tram is that it can share facilities with other motor vehicles. This is also true of the bus, hence many car-owners support for it.

1.2 Conventional transit modes A major work in planning transit improvements is to select the particular mode to implement. There are two general families of transit modes in modern cities: the rail, and the bus .

. 1.2.1 Rail transit a) Suburban rail This is mainly a service for commuters. It is also called commuter rail or regional rail, and is usually implemented in large cities. They are active in cities like Paris and London. The system is characterised by heavy equipment, high maximum speeds and slow acceleration and deceleration (which means stops must be sited far apart). Most of them are powered by electricity (through overhead cables), though older lines are still powered by diesel. Networks typically originate from stations in the CBD and terminate in the suburbs, will a few stops in between (to maintain the high speeds). Ridership is usually concentrated in the peak hours. Some lines with heavy traffic use double-decker coaches to accommodate more riders. Because these trains are fast, and given the long distance to the suburbs, the trains are capable of competing with the car.

b) Heavy rail The term heavy rail is used to distinguish this mode from light rail (discussed next), although the equipment used is much lighter than that used on suburban railroads. The mode is variously referred to popularly as the subway (US), metro (Paris, Amsterdam), or underground (London). The tracks may be located underground or on elevated structures, but are also sometimes laid at grade. All systems are electrically powered, with power coming from a third rail, typically carrying around 600 volts. It is this high power source that gives the mode its name - heavy rail. This power can easily kill anyone who comes into contact with the rail, hence the roadbed must be protected. This is another reason why most of these systems are located underground. Heavy rail is primarily intended to cater for transit within the central city, although newer lines may extend to the suburbs. Stations are fairly close together as compared to the suburban railroad.

c) Light rail or tram Light rail transit (LRT) differs from heavy rail in that it is powered from an overhead source, instead of a third rail. This makes it safer than the latter as there is no need to fence the track. It can operate in the same streets as buses or cars, except that modifications must be made to accommodate the tracks. This also makes it possible to share roadside furniture with transit buses.

It is also less capital intensive and is thus recommended for medium-sized cities such as Nairobi, where the alternative is the bus. Where it operates on separate ROWs, average speed is higher than that of the bus.

~ .2.2 Bus transit Bus transit is the most common form of urban public transportation, particularly in cities of the developing world. A number of issues are involved in bus transit:

a) The vehicles Most transit agencies use bus types designed specifically for urban use, most of them preferring longitudinal seating which reduces the number of seats but provides more room for standing passengers (the good old KBS!). There are many smaller models of buses, often called minibuses, matatus (Kenya), daladalas (Tanzania), utoda taxis (Uganda), etc. These are the main mode of urban transit in East Africa. There are also larger buses, commonly employed in Europe. Double-decker buses are a common site in London. Even more popular worldwide are articulated buses which accommodate more than one coach and have a hinge in the middle to facilitate bending around corners. They also have several doors to facilitate rapid engress and egress. Such buses are usually meant to raise the productivity of drivers and- increase passenger capacity and are often deployed on high traffic routes or at peak times.

b) separate roadways or free lanes Traditionally, buses used to run on the same streets as other vehicles and were thus not immune to traffic congestion. This realisation made many cities build special roadways or designated special lanes for buses, to raise their speed. These are called busways or buslines. But because buses have little capacity, it is common to allow vanpools and carpools to also use such lanes, particularly during peak hours. In such an arrangement, the lanes are then called high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes. Other approaches include building dedicated roadways separated from other traffic, either by railing or a concrete barrier. Most of these are in use in the Netherlands. A different design which requires minimal investment is the so-called concurrent flow lane. This involves a freeway designated as an HOV lane but without any physical separation. It is usually marked by white paint, together with other overhead signals. Such lanes may be dedicated to HOV24 hours a day, or may be open to other modes except at peak times. HOV lanes, especially where there is no physical separation, are open to violation as the vehicles in such lanes move at higher speeds and often have priority rights of way at intersections, as compared to adjacent lanes of traffic. There thus has to be considerable efforts at enforcement.

c) City street treatment Another way to improve bus service is to turn an entire city street over to buses, excluding all other motorised traffic. These are called transit malls and are usually created in down town areas. These are often integrated with pedestrian infrastructure to facilitate walking and lounging. Other arrangements involve according buses priority at traffic signs. Some buses are equipped with radio transmitters that send pulses to make traffic lights turn green as the bus approaches an intersection.

1.3 Factors in the comparison of transit modes Transportation planning usually involves a comparison of modes as part of alternatives analysis prior to implementation. There are a number of factors to consider when comparing various transit modes in a given city. These include:

I.Passenger capacity: This is often measured by the maximum number of persons that can be moved on a single track or lane in one hour. It is important in determining whether a line can handle peak time demand.

2.Speed: Since rail lines have a separate right of way, trains are not affected by traffic congestion. Buses running in mixed traffic are slow, particularly at peak times. This is solved by dedicated bus lanes. Train speeds can compete that of the car. Buses are often slower.

3.Costs: Different modes have different requirements in terms of initial capital investment, operation and maintenance, as well as later upgrades.

4.Labour requirements: Usually, the greater the capacity, the lesser labour-intensive the mode requires. But labour can also be greatly cut down through automation - traffic signals, automatic gates at intersections, automated ticketing, etc.

5.Energy consumption and air pollution: Transit modes generally consume less energy per capita than the automobile. It is believed that the higher the capacity, the lesser energy per capita consumption a vehicle has. From a strategic perspective, modes using electricity are more sustainable than those powered by oil fuels - as electricity can be generated from other natural sources, e.g. HEP, geothermal, agro-processes and wind power. 6.Comfort One operational advantage of the rail over the bus is that trains give a more comfortable ride. This is because steel rails are smoother than road pavement and trains are less likely to get into stop-and-go traffic.

7.Permanency and impacts on land use: To planners, the permanency of the rail implies a more definite impact on land development. A rail track is a more permanent facility on which a lot of money has been invested. It is less likely to disappear easily over time. In contrast, bus routes can be changed overnight in answer to changes in

demand. Developers are thus more likely to take advantage of a rail track than a bus line.

8.Physical adjustability: The length of trains can easily be varied by addition or removal of coaches so as to respond appropriately to peak time demand. This increases capacity with little increase in operating costs. It is much more difficult to carry out such adjustments on buses.

9.Flexibility: A bus is more flexible in other ways. A stalled bus only causes inconvenience to passengers in one vehicle. A train that beaks down may interrupt traffic on an entire line. The routing of buses is also more flexible, particularly where there are not many dedicated physical infrastructure. Routes can be dropped, modified, or new ones opened more easily as compared to rail operations. Where situations dictate it, bus ways can still be used by other modes like cars and trucks.

2 Urban Paratransit Beyond conventional transit, there is also what is called urban 'paratransit'. The term paratransit is used to cover certain types of operations which are midway between conventional transit and the private car. Whereas transit modes operate on fixed routes and at fixed schedules, paratransit have a variable route and schedule. They are also called demand-responsive transit. They are similar to transit in that their services are available to the public; they are similar to the private car in that they operate on demand - not following a fixed route or fixed time schedule. In general, paratransit appears to be more economical and efficient in low density and suburban settings where the level of demand may not accommodate conventional transit. These modes are therefore sometimes referred to as demand-responsive transit. The demand-responsiveness occurs in two ways:

a)Routing - vehicles go exactly where the passenger wants them to; they have no predefined routes, though they operate within designated areas or zones. b) Scheduling - the vehicles arrive when desired by the passenger.

2.1 The Taxi The taxi plays an important role in urban transportation. In some places, the taxi is the only form of public transport available. Most of them are private, but there are situations where taxis are operated by government (e.g. KENA Tea in Kenya).

2.1.1 Ridership characteristics In some cities, taxis are used equally by almost all classes of people. However in most cases, taxi riders have peculiar characteristics, including:

I.Out-of-town visitors: this includes particularly business people and tourists. For this reason, the highest concentration of taxis usually occurs at the CBD and the airport.

2.The elderly: in some cities, taxis are often patronised by the elderly or the infirm, who are unable to put up with the hustles of conventional traffic.

3.Late-night-travellers: this includes those who work late and those who stay up late in entertainment joints. The reason is that at such times, most conventional transit modes have stopped operations.

4.The invalid and the sick: these groups, for reasons of not being comfortable riding conventional traffic, will sacrifice a higher pay to ride a taxi, also because it is more flexible and will deliver them closer to their destination.

5.The transit disadvantaged: there is a class that will ride taxis not necessarily because it offers superior service, but because hey live or work in locations that are off the transit routes.

2.1.2 Service characteristics There are three arrangements of getting a taxi cab:

• •

Summon one by phone; In bigger cities like New York, it is common to hail a passing cab by the sidewalk; In most cities, taxis wait at designated points, known as taxi ranks or stands. Such stands are usually located

• next to major hotels, theatres, discos, transport terminals like bust stations and airports.

From a planning perspective, all the three methods are inefficient. About half of all taxi vehiclekilometres occur with the driver alone. Most of the time, the taxi drives empty on its return (or collection) trip. There are three main systems of pricing. One involves calculating fares by the metre so that the farther you go the more you pay. There is a base charge, beyond which fares increase by increase in distance. Where there is heavy congestion, the fare may also be adjusted to account for time wasted in traffic jams. It may also be adjusted where more than one passenger (or additional luggage) is carried. The second method is the zone system. Here, the fare goes up when you cross a boundary into a new zone. A map showing the zones is posted in the vehicle to help you calculate the fare. The advantage is that the driver cannot con you by taking a longer route to a destination as usually is the case in the first system. A third way is a flat fare which does not change with distance travelled. It is mostly employed in small communities where distances are fairly short. It is also used for trips from the airport to the CBD.

2.2 Ride-sharing Another common paratransit mode is ride-sharing, in which travellers form groups to share vehicles that operate when and where they want. Several authorities have promoted this mode as one way of reducing solo commuting which adds tc? traffic congestion. There are different forms depending on the size of vehicle used. These include:

2.2.1 Carpooling This is the most obvious way of taking cars off the road. The many empty seats in solo car commuting unnecessarily adds to wastage of space and thereby congestion. Regulations often require, for example, that cars entering the city at peak times must carry a certain minimum number of passengers. Where this is well organised, such cars then become eligible to use HOVs, thereby greatly improving their speeds.

2.2.2 Vanpooling Vanpooling may appear as just carpooling with greater capacity, but there are differences. Most vanpools are organised by employers as individual initiatives do not work well in this case. Another difference is that since vans have greater capacity, they pick more passengers with more dispersed homes. To reduce the number of detours occasioned by picking up every passenger from home, van pools will always pick up passengers at agreed (not designated!) collection and drop-off points. Examples abound in Mombasa where several beach hotels, schools, banks, etc pick and drop off their workers or students. In Kisumu, CDC and Kenya Airports Authority are good examples of vanpoolers.

2.2.3 Subscription bus These normally employ conventional bus sizes. However, commuters usually pay in advance and have guaranteed seats. Sometimes, there are amenities not found in conventional buses, such as snacks, newspapers, TVs and music systems. This may sometime necessitate paying a little more that would be the case in conventional transit. Such buses may be organised by employers, private companies, or even by transit authorities. KBS operates one such service for high-end commuters in Nairobi.

2.3 Other urban transportation modes Other lesser important modes of urban transportation include: • Water transport: the ferry, passenger boats, ete. for water-side cities; and • Air transport: helicopters (for special passengers, like delivery of the sick, VIPs, etc).

3 Non-Motorised Transportation (NMT) modes Until now, provision of adequate infrastructure for both pedestrians and cyclists has largely been ignored in most cities of the South. This concerns independent pedestrian and bicycle access infrastructure and routes as well as walkways and facilities for cycling

and safe crossings on existing roads. In most cases, the omission was done without even thinking of the issue in the first place. The implicit argument has always been that the construction of carriageways for motor vehicles was the first priority, and that the available budget was never sufficient to be extended towards NMT infrastructure. It is also instructive to note that most of our cities, particularly those with colonial heritage, were designed for the car and not for NMT use. Post-colonial developments have not changed the trend as funds continue being channelled towards motorised modes at the expense of NMT modes. This trend needs to be reversed rather urgently. There is need first of all to address the backlog of missing NMT facilities within the existing road network. But it is also important to ensure that new road constructions and rehabilitation do not once again, ignore NMT aspect, as this would only aggravate further, the plight of the users of this mode.

(Read and make further notes on this!)

4 Issues in Airport Planning Air transport has developed very rapidly ever since the Wright brothers made their historic flight in December 1903. The early facilities were then correctly referred to as airfields because they were reasonably flat level fields that had sufficient length, orientation and clearways to allow for landings and takeoffs. A contemporary airport that serves larger quantities of airport movements still performs the same functions. However, because of larger aircrafts, the volume of movements involving passengers and cargo, the interchange of people and cargo with other modes, and the other housekeeping functions performed on the airport property, airports have become larger, costly and vital parts of most communities. Large amounts of gently-sloping land with good access, and close proximity to markets are required for even a minor airport that has commercial service. To planners, the airport is often in conflict with adjacent property owners because of noise, air and surface traffic, and other forms of annoyance and damage. Developments of adjacent conflicting activities are therefore continuing problems faced by planners and airport authorities the world over. For convenience, airport activities are often divided into two: (a) The air side which includes the runways, taxiways, aircraft parking areas (hangars), clearance zones, navigation. and landing aids and controls; and (b) The ground side which includes the terminal and other buildings, maintenance facilities and equipment. i.e. all the other parts that are not part ofthe 'air side'.

4.1 Planning considerations An airport provides takeoff, landing, and parking for aircraft. It also allows interchange between air transport service and other modes. The characteristics of the aircrafts involved and traffic generated dictate the requirements of a particular airport. Early airports catered mostly to the small airplanes of the time. They required a relatively flat, even surface so that straightline takeoffs and landings could take advantage of the prevailing wind conditions when a landing or takeoff was attempted. Generally airports serve private, commercial and military flying by fixed and rotary wing (helicopters) aircraft. Helicopters usually require a small landing pad area with steep clear approach and departure paths. As such, heliports pose fewer locational problems apart from safety and noise considerations. The airport is usually considered to have a 'ground' and an 'air' side. The air side includes the 'runways' and 'taxiways' that lead to the 'apron' area adjacent to the 'terminal' structures that are on the ground side. Runways are for takeoff and landing. Aircraft are heavier at takeoff time due to fuel load. For a large aircraft, the fuel load may be as much as 60% of the takeoff mass. Long flight distances mean large fuel loads. Aprons and taxiways must therefore be able to support the full mass of the aircraft for extended periods. They thus require the maximum structural strength to perform this task.

4.2 Airport compatibility with adjacent land uses The compatibility of an airport with its environs is made possible by proper siting of the airport, control of pollutiongenerating sources and land use planning of the area surrounding the airport. The aim is to provide the best possible conditions for the needs of the airport, community in the surrounding area and the ecology of the surrounding environment. Airport planning must be recognized as an integral part of an area-wide comprehensive planning programme. The location, size and configuration of the airport need to be coordinated with patterns of residential, industrial, commercial, agricultural and other land uses of the area, taking into account the effects of the airport on the people, flora, fauna, the atmosphere, water courses and other facets of the environment.

4.2.1 The need for integrated land use and airport planning There is need to control land use in the vicinity of the airports in order to ensure that possible height hazards or obstructions to flight into or out of airports are minimized. Experiences on non-conforming purposes or land uses have indicated the need for control. Such experiences with adverse effects on airport functionality include: Uses which may cause electrical interference with radio communications and navigational aids; Tall structures that planes might crash into;

Lights which might confuse pilots in the clear interpretation of aeronautical lights and navigational aids; Smoke which may impair visibility around the airport; and Bird-attracting land uses, which may pose a danger of bird strikes. Land use planning within the vicinity of the airport must therefore provide for airport needs for example by obstacle limitation in areas slated for future airport development. Such planning must also ensure minimal interference with the natural environment and the public, for example, by locating residential areas away from zones subject to excessive airport noise or other pollution.

In practice, a number of issues need to be taken into consideration when planning for airports. These include: (i)

Atmospheric pollution: Emissions from aircraft and ground vehicle engines, incinerators, terminal buildings and other sources may contribute to the air pollution within the vicinity of airports.

(ii)

Flora and fauna: Utilization of land for airport purposes inevitably creates disturbances to flora and fauna. Airport development works frequently entails clearing and cutting back of trees and other vegetation; changes to the topography of the land and interference with watershed patterns through extensive grading and paving works. The airports may destroy the natural habitat and breeding grounds of wildlife and may in the process, eradicate or deplete certain flora important to the ecological balance of the area. Another important consideration is the prevalence and habits of birds in the area and the associated risk of aircraft bird strikes. Bird hazards at proposed new airports can be minimized by careful selection of the site to avoid established bird migration routes and areas naturally attractive to birds; and by using the land surrounding the airport for purposes that will not attract concentrations of birds to the area.

(iii)

Soil erosion: As a consequence of vegetation clearing and interference with watershed pattern, land on an airport, or within its vicinity, may be vulnerable to soil erosion by the natural elements and to a limited degree by aircraft jet blast. This can mostly be prevented by replanting. In arid areas it may be necessary to take artificial erosion protection measures such as paving of taxiway flanks and lining of drains.

(iv)

Neighbouring water bodies: Contaminants may enter streams or waterways from airport drainage systems and eventually run into lakes or the sea. These contaminants originate from ground vehicles and airport washing, terminal services, aircraft servicing, pavement cleaning and airport maintenance and construction work. Particular consideration should be given to possible water pollution during construction phase. Activities such as clearing of vegetation causes an increase in the amount of soil carried into streams. Fuel spillage from

equipment and chemicals employed in building and pavement construction work can also contribute to the upsetting of the hydrological balance of waterways in the area. Changes to the natural drainage patterns of an area may occur due to construction of an airport. This may in turn overtax certain streams and give rise to flooding. In other cases due to diversion of flow, streams may eventually dry up. (v)

Noise: The intensity and nature of aircraft engine noise is quite variable depending on the engine type and the nature of the operation being undertaken. Noise nuisance associated with an airport is also closely related to frequency of aircraft operations and their diurnal distribution (i.e. noise at night is more of a nuisance than in the daytime). High levels of noise are most undesirable. Noise is a particular health hazard to employees who by nature of their duties, are subjected to long durations of intense aircraft noise exposure. Strict precautionary measures are necessary for these people, such as mandatory usage of acoustical protective devices. The repercussions of excessive airport noise in residential areas are primarily of a social and behavioural nature. Airport noise is also known to have an effect on adjacent property values. Trees may be planted to screen certain areas from some airport noise. Good protection against ground run up noise might be expected from judiciously planted trees. When proposi ~ trees to be used for the development of a sound insulating forest, consideratio should be given to species which: Are suitable to the climatic conditions of the airport site; Have effective sound insulation properties (e.g. do not shed their leaves or needles, grow rapidly and densely, ete.; Do not generate a birc

zard; and

Are easy to care for once they are grown (e.g. normally healthy and not readily affected by blight or noxious insects ete. (vi)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Detailed study of the impact of airport development on the environment is an essential part of the assessment for any major project. Social and ecological impacts should be investigated fully before work is undertaken or, in the case of a new airport, when its site is being selected. Environmental impact studies, depending on the nature of the project, would take into account the following considerations: Compatibility with com unity including health, transport and social implications; Influence on ecology incluaing effects of pollution, preservation of flora and fauna; and Means of mitigating any adverse environmental impacts.