Urban And Regional Planning.docx

TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE

1.0 1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

2.0

CONTENTS COURSE TITLE and SUMMARY COURSE OVERVIEW GRADING SYSTEM & COURSE REQUIREMENTS CLASS CODE OF ETHICS COURSE OUTLINE/ COURSE SCHEDULE AN INTRODUCTION OVERVIEW OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING HISTORY History of Planning, Ancient Civilizations Evolution of Planning Planning Philosophies Approaches to Planning History of Urban Planning in the Philippines DEFINITION OF TERMS Urbanism Urbanization Urbanized Area Metropolis and Metropolitan area City Conurbation, Megalopolis, Superconurbation City System or Urban System Pre-Industrial City Post-Industrial City Primary City Colonial City Socialist City New Towns FUNDAMENTAL OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING What is Planning? Planning Theories Differentiation of Planning The Architect in the Realm of Urban and Regional Planning THE PLANNING PROCESS The Planning Process Planning Paradigms

PAGE NO. v vi vii ix x

1 7 11 13 21 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 29 29 29 29 29 30 30 32 32 32 34 34 36

URBAN PLANNING TODAY ii

URBAN PLANNING IN DEVELOPED 2.1 COUNTRIES Britain France Italy and Greece URBAN PLANNING IN DEVELOPMENT 2.2 COUNTRIES Indian Subcontinent China Southeast Asia 2.3 THE PHILIPPINE PLANNING SYSTEM 2.4 CURRENT URBAN PLANNING PROBLEMS Excessive Size Overcrowding Shortage of Services Traffic Congestion Lack of Social Responsibility Unemployment and Underemployment Racial and Social Issues Environmental Degradation Urban Expansion and Loss of Agricultural Land Administrative Organization 3.0 REGIONAL PLANNING 3.1 PRINCIPLES OF REGIONAL PLANNING 3.2 REGIONAL PLANNING IN THE PHILIPPINES SECTOR PLANNING: SOCIO-ECONOMIC 4.0 DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 4.1 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 4.2 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 5.0

SECTOR PLANNING: PHYSICAL PLANNING 5.1 LAND USE PLANNING Function of Land Use Planning Land Use Regulation Private Land Use Regulation Land Use Regulation Strategies Comprehensive Zoning Techniques of Comprehensive Zoning Trends and Techniques of Land Use Planning Concepts of Land Use Planning 5.2 TRANSPORTATION PLANNING Concepts of Transportation Planning Forecasting Transportation Planning in Metro Manila

43 43 44 45 48 48 49 50 52 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 54 54 54 54 55 56

58 60

61 61 61 62 62 62 62 66 67 70 70 70 74 iii

5.3 INFRASTRCTURE PLANNING Introduction Technical/Urban Infrastructure Technical System Water Sewerage Waste Disposal Energy Telecommunications Traffic Infrastructure and Planning 6.0 6.1

6.2 6.3 6.4

SPECIALIZED FIELDS PLANNING FOR THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Philippine Agenda 21 The Ecosystems Sustainable Development Unsustainable Development LOCAL ADMINISTRATION, FISCAL PLANNING, AND MANAGEMENT HISTORIC PRESERVATION TOURISM PLANNING IN THE PHILIPPINES

ABSTRACTS OF CHOSEN BOOKS RECOMMENDED CLASS ACTIVITIES SAMPLE EXAM LIST OF REFERENCES APPENDICES APPENDIX A: TIMELINE AND CHRONOLOGICAL MATRIX OF PLANNING CITIES AND SETTLEMENTS APPENDIX B: PLANNING CHART APPENDIX C: FUTURE DIRECTIONS OF PLANNING IN THE PHILIPPINES

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ARCH 62 INTRODUCTION TO URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

This course is normally taken in the student’s fifth year. The aim of this course is to given the student an introduction to urban and regional planning and the concepts, principles, and skills involved. The student is taught the basics of these topics and aims to increase the awareness of the student with regards to these aspects of architecture. This course also aims to impart to the students concepts and emerging trends in the realm of urban and regional planning, an overview of the methods and techniques involved, and the significance or importance of planning in the spatial arrangement of various elements in the built environment.

v COURSE OVERVIEW Course Code

ARCH 62

Course Title

INTRODUCTION TO URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

Course Description

No. of Hours/ Week

Concepts and emerging trends; cursory survey of methods and techniques in urban and regional planning; its importance to the proper spatial development of the built environment. Three (3) hours lecture

Credit Units

Three (3) units

Pre-Requisites

ARCH 61 Fundamentals of Urban Design and Community Arch.

Objectives

1. To be able to understand and explain the general planning process. 2. To be able to understand and expound on the basic foundation of planning. 3. To be able to foresee the implication of specific projects by having a broader framework in architecture. 4. To be able to identify, describe, and apply the techniques relevant to the rank of the architect as a design professional. 5. To be able to discuss the current thoughts and practices with regards to the plan formulation and implementation.

List of References

          

Introduction to Planning, 2nd Ed., Ernest Alexander, 1993. Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning, 3rd Ed., Peter Hall, 1992. Action Planning for Cities, N. Hamdi & R. Goethert, 1997. HLRB Planning Guides Cities of the World, Brunn & Williams, 1993. An Introduction to Regional Planning, John Glasson, 1974. Applied Methods of Regional Analysis, D.A. Rodinelli, 1985. Urban Planning, Catanese & Snyder, 1998. Environmental Problems in Third World Cities, Jorge E. Hardoy, et al., 1992. National Urban Development and Housing Framework Report, HLRB, 1999. Urban Development and Planning in Metro Manila, MMDA, 1996.

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GRADING SYSTEM AND COURSE REQUIREMENTS Grading System Level of learning

Grade Excellent Very Good Good Satisfaction

96-100 90-95 86-90 81-85 76-80 71-75 66-70 61-65 50-60 Bellow 50

Fair

Passed Failed

Point equivalent 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 5.00

Course Requirements

Requirement Options

Grade Percentage Share NonExempted exempted

Site Design Plate

20%

20%

Examinations per Module (3)

30%

30%

Group Presentation

10%

15%

Group Written Report

15%

20%

Group Peer Grade

5%

10%

Definition/Parameters/Intent This is meant to assess the experiences of the student that could be related to better clarity concepts, techniques and issues to be lectured and discussed in class. These would be graded in terms of thoroughness and honesty in expression and presentation of personal ideas. This is to assess the level of learning grasped and understood by the student by course modules. This is to communicate and apply the basic concepts, theories and tools learned in the course on a specific local area. This is to document the works of the students to contribute to the body of knowledge in the field. This is to learn effectively and constructively interact with each other to achieve an end and assess each other’s learning capacity. vii

Student Attitude/Interest

5%

Final Examination

15%

TOTAL

100%

5%

100%

*** May vary according to the lecture/teacher’s preference.

This includes class attendance, participation, demeanor, and general behavior in class. This is to give opportunity for those who cumulatively was not able to learn satisfactorily in class and for those who want to take the risk to raise their exemption grade. Finals Exemption Grade: 2.5 ( refer to Grading System )

CLASS CODE OF ETHICS

Students are expected to understand that learning is a two-way process. The teacher and the students should enrich each other. Such being the case, the responsibility of making sure that would come out of the course as better individuals falls on both parties. All lectures and inputs by the teacher shall serve as take-off points and guides only. They are best complemented by analytical thinking that is supposed to be simulated by the student’s own observation’s readings, and discussions done outside the classroom, To facilitate this learning process, these class policies shall be adhered to by the students: 1. No “late” option. Students shall come to class either early or on-time or be marked absent. This policy seeks to discourage habitual tardiness that disrupts the class once it has already started with the session’s activities. 2. Academic noise. Only this type of noise (immediate reactions/remarks on what the teachers presented that are naturally shared with the seatmate) shall be occasionally allowed. Students, however, are encourage to share these reactions with the whole class. Prolonged discussions, as well as discussion not related with the course shall be grounds for asking students to leave the room, 3. No electronic or communication devices. All cellular phones, pagers, radios shall be turned off during the class and during examination. 4. Proper decorum. Students are to observe proper decorum in class. They are also expected to dress up decently for the class. Sleeping and eating are not allowed in the classroom. 5. Representation. Students shall ask permission from the teacher and/or the College Dean if they are to seek access to facilities or information in the College’s name. Letters for other offices/institutions shall be properly prepared using the college stationery. 6. Group Works. All group members shall contribute to the group works that shall be collectively graded. For group presentation, the members are expected to make the necessary arrangements for the required room and presentation equipment. 7. Use of the classroom. Students and teacher alike shall leave the classroom in the same state it was in when they entered it. Rooms shall left clean with chairs and tables in the same order and electric fans, air conditions, and lights turned off. 8. Honesty. Cheating in any form shall be penalized with a grade of 5.0 for the course and/or expulsion from the College/University. ix

COURSE OUTLINE SESSION

MODULE

CONTENT Course Objectives, Policies, Requirements

1.0

2.0

An introduction History of Planning, Ancient Civilization Evolution of Planning Planning Philosophies Approaches to Planning History of Urban Planning in the Philippines Definition of Terms Fundamentals of Urban and Regional Planning The Planning Process Planning Paradigms Urban Planning Today Urban planning in Development Countries Urban planning in Development Countries

The Philippines planning system, current urban planning issues

3.0

ACTIVITY OPTIONS Discussion

Lecture, Readings, Discussion

Lecture, Readings, Discussion

OBJECTIVES To understand the nature of the course. To provide an introduction to the history of planning, its concepts, its process, and its relevance to the architectural field/profession.

To be able to analyzed and compare the development and developed countries of today. To further bring understanding to the planning system of the country and to be able to analyze the pitfalls and successes and be able to give feasible solutions to the different problems plaguing the cities today

Regional Planning

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4.0

Principles of Regional Planning, Regional Planning in the Philippines

Lectures, Readings, Discussion

To be able to explain the principles of regional planning and apply it in theoretical/actual samples.

Sector Planning: SocioEconomic Development Planning Social Development Planning, Economic Development Planning

Lecture, Readings, Discussion

To be able to distinguish the differences between social development planning, economic development planning and knows its importance in the field of planning.

Learning Assessment 5.0

Sector Planning: Physical Planning Land Use Planning: Functions, Regulations Land Use Planning: Comprehensive Zoning, Techniques Land Use Planning: Trends & Techniques of Land Use Planning Land Use Planning: Concepts Transportation Planning: Concepts, Forecasting Transportation Planning in Metro Manila Infrastructure Planning: Introduction Technical Infrastructure, Technical System Infrastructure Planning: Water, Sewerage, Waste, Disposal, Energy Infrastructure Planning: Telecommunications, Traffic, Infrastructure and Planning

Q2: Modules 2, 3, & 4

Lectures, Readings, Discussion

To understand the concepts of land use planning and its relation to the architectural field. To know the many aspects involved in transportation & infrastructure planning and to be able to integrate it into theoretical/actual planning situations.

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6.0

Learning Assessment Specialized Fields Planning for the Physical Environment: Philippine Agenda 21, the ecosystem

Sustainable Development and Unsustainable Development Local Administration, Fiscal Planning, and Management Historic Preservation and Tourism Planning Consolidation

Final Class Learning Assessment

Q3: Module 5 Lecture, Readings, Discussion

To understand why there is a need to involve environmental planning in the local context and know its importance in society. To determine what is the role of local administration, fiscal planning and management in the planning professional.

Consolidation Lecture or Discussion Final Examination Final Grading of Students

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NOTE: This syllabus was created with notes from previous lectures from teachers and students. Not all sources used in the creation of this syllabus are obtained and mentioned at the end pages. These notes were taken down verbatim, and the sources of which are not identified.

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MODULE MODULE 1.0 AN INTRODUCTION 1.1 OVERVIEW OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING HISTORY 1.1.1 HISTORY OF PLANNING, ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS The first urban civilizations were those located in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, Egypt, China, Peru, and India. See Appendix A for the Timeline.

Time chart showing the comparative dates of the seven first civilizations. From the book by AEJ Morris, “History of the Urban Form”

The physical base of the city were the elements that give it form, such as buildings, parks, roads, and the like. The economic base of the city provides it with the reason for its existence. Order is important for the political base of a city, and a social base is vital for a city’s meaning. The physical base of cities are well-defined in the classical cities of the ancient times. The imposition of regular street patterns, the domination of the center by buildings devoted to worship, government, and business, which meant that power and domination was based on the core of the classical city. Housing, while present in the remaining spaces, was not responsible for the city form. Planners during this time planned cities and designed them to satisfy the wishes of the ruling parties or leaders. They were constrained by political, economic, social, and physical conditions. The planning of cities in ancient times is the precursor of what we consider as urban pattern today.

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MODULE 1.1.1.1

THE FERTILE CRESCENT Urbanization is said to have begun at around 4000 BC (Bronze Age: 4000 to 3000 BC) at the Fertile Crescent, which stretched from the Nile Valley to the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Urban planning began with the development of the Sumerian citykingdoms. The Sumerians of Assyria had warrior-kings who build cities that were both fortresses and marketplaces. Most of these cities had a population of around 3000 to 5000 people. These cities were planned, built around a ziggurat that served as both temple and astronomical observatory. The center of the city contained the ziggurat, the palace, and other public buildings. A massive wall surrounded the entire city and the lower walls of the public buildings were decorated with the earliest-known examples of public art: paintings on plaster and/or bas-reliefs.. The capital of the Babylonian Empire, Babylon, was one of the earliest cities, and has as many as 10,000 people at its height in history. It was built like other Sumerian cities of the Bronze Age but was rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar II in the 6th century BC. The new plan had a regular street plan, with the Hanging Gardens on the Euphrates River at the north wall, while the temple and tower remained in the center.

1.1.1.2

EGYPT Cities in Egypt were generally small, although its civilization was city-oriented. One of the oldest cities was Kahun, which was built to house the workers and artisans working on the Illahun pyramid. Housing consisted of little cells grouped together for the slaves, with a hierarchy of accommodations for the artisans. The city of Kahun, like the others such as Giza, was abandoned after the pyramids were completed. These were never considered as permanent

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MODULE towns, but were more appropriately considered a necropolis, or city for the dead.

Housing layout in Kahun, Egypt From the book by Arthur B. Gallion, “The Urban Pattern”.

1.1.1.3

INDUS VALLEY In the Indus Valley, Mohenjo-daro and Harrrapa had streets that were arranged in a regular pattern. The dwellings were compactly built about the interior courts and the height of buildings was established in proportion to the width of the streets. Sanitation was of relatively high order and underground sewers extended about the towns, disposal lines were connected to the dwellings. The city Mohenjo-Daro was built in 3000 B.C. A relatively advanced civilization thrived in this city, with houses ranging in size – from two room affairs to mansions with a multitude of rooms. A major street ran in the north-south (Frist Street) and east-west (East Street) directions. The buildings were made of masonry and the street were paved, and sewer drainage existed. The principal buildings that were found when the site was excavated were the public bath and the monastery.

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Mohenjo-daro, Stupa view From www.harappa.com

Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan From www.harappa.com

1.1.1.4

GREECE Greek city planning, planning followed a gridiron form. In the 5th century BC, when Pericles led the establishment of democracy, the

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MODULE democracy assembly area where the people had their meetings became the city center in urban design (replace the ruler’s palace). Eventually, as democracy grew and became more developed, the houses and community facilities became the most important elements of the city.

Hippodamus developed the first theoretical basis for physical planning in cities. By observing Sumerian and Egyptian cities, he came up with the proposal of the rectangular street system or gridiron pattern for cities. This was meant to give geometric form to urban spaces. He developed the concept of the central marketplace called an agora. The city’s commercial business was conducted in this space, considered distinct from the people’s political assembly area called the pynx or open-air forum. Eventually, democracy was threatened when the wealthy citizens began to flee the city to move to their country estates and villas to avoid debated and civic involvement to enjoy a life of luxury without struggle. The lesser leaders and more corrupt and greedy politicians were allowed to assume a position that allowed them to plunder the cities’ assets. The flight of wealthy city residents from the city center is the first example of city deterioration caused by suburbanization.

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MODULE The Hellenistic period gave way to the classical style of planning and design, which is still in evidence until now. This period was a transition phase to the more military and defense-oriented planning of the Romans.. 1.1.1.5

ROME

Athens was replaced by Rome as the center of the western world during the time of the Roman Empire. The Roman Republic expanded its rule throughout neighboring lands and continued to conquer other lands to establish their world order – Pax Romana or Roman peace. The concept was one world composed of different people under one supreme leader.

The population of Rome increased as it grew in power and wealth, and caused problems regarding housing, water, and transportation. Apartment blocks were built to cope with the problem. These eight-story buildings were being built until the first century AD, when Augustus imposed a 70-foot height limit. This was the first example of zoning. Aqueducts were constructed to bring in fresh water due to water shortage within the city. Each emperor built one greater than the previous. Roman are considered to be the first regional planners due to their understanding of the importance of transportation within the empire. Roads were planned and built to connect the different cities and to allow communications and commerce from Rome to the other cities. These roads also allowed imperial armies to travel quickly to maintain order and peace. The Romans built military cities throughout the empire as an attempt to draw off some of the migration to Rome and to serve ass Roman symbols of law and order. These military cities had a master plan with very few variations. These were built in a gridiron pattern, dominated by civic buildings at the intersection of the two main roads. The housing in these cities were basically small apartments, with atrium-style houses for the wealthy.

The Roman Forum From www.kent.com

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MODULE Planned city building as a symbol of governmental power and presence was the major contribution of the Roman Empire. 1.1.2

EVOLUTION OF PLANNING 1.1.2.1

MEDIEVAL PLANNING

There are two stages in medieval planning: the dark ages and the revival. In the Dark Ages, the Christian Church kept the civilized values alive in Europe. The Dark Ages was marked by the invasion of Europe by the Ostrogoths, the Huns, the Visigoths, the Alans, the Sueves, the Slavs, and the Vandas. This is the reason Christian monasteries were built on the fingers of Europe. The arrival of the Augustine and other officials brought the ancient Roman concepts of law and properly and ecclesiastical hierarchy for the administration. The Church eventually imposed the peasant’s code of living with central control, discipline, written charters, and legacies. England was also divided into sees, each with its own cathedral and bishopric. The bishopric was responsible for the spiritual welfare, financial and legal affairs of the citizens it was assigned to. Once a cathedral was established, a considerable number of people would create a community around it. Eventually, monasteries were built in and around these cities. The recovery of Europe from the Dark Ages brought about new urban forms courtesy of the invaders. Some older walled Roman cities survived the attacks and invasions. Trade routes between northern Europe and the Mediterranean in the Dark Ages were cut because of the invasions. Many cities became deserted and fell into decline due to this. Large dominant towers called keeps were built for defense against attack and these towers were big enough that it accommodated the family of the lord and his tenants. These European castles were built for defenses and people clustered around them protection. This type of settlement is called a burgus, where the word borough is derived.

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MODULE Place of Refuge From the book by Ludwig Hilberseimer, The Nature of Cities.

Europe eventually recovered from the invasions and the villagers began to clear the land around the villages for agricultural use. The population grew and abbots and bishops began planning for new towns to be located outside the gates of their monasteries and cathedrals. Lords started planning new towns below their castle gates; traffic could still be controlled due to the presence of the gates. A tax or duty can be levied on virtually everything that passes through these gates, whether going in or out of town. The portcullis draw at sundown, the gates were locked, and the city becomes insulated from the outside world. Those that could not afford to live within the city were also isolated.

OUT IN RICH

POOR

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MODULE Trade and manufacturing were the two factors that influenced the form of the medieval city. Merchant agglomerations were constructed close to the old ecclesiastical towns or feudal fortresses. The marketplace is the center of affairs in the cities and towns and the lots adjacent to the market place commanded a high price for occupancy. The frontages that were considered second-best were those that were located on the streets that led from the gates. Anything else aside from these were considered third-best and were used for housing. As more merchants and trades came to the cities, it became congested and new burgs were built outside the walls of the city, against the walls of the old one. This was called the “outside burg”. When the merchants could afford to, their fabourgs grew and they built walls and palisades. Others started their fabourgs outside theirs and built against the wall they erected. This resulted in a city that grew in concentric, irregular loops. For all intents and purposes, the city may have been initially planned, but was eventually left to grow on its own. Medieval cities were usually irregular in nature and followed the topography of the site since it was much simpler than grading or flattering the land. Transportation was via mules, wheeled vehicle weren’t in use yet so there was no use for regular streets. The buildings had the tendency to encroach the street. In York, for example, the shanties’ upper stories were projected until they almost touched each other. Medieval cities had regulations regarding the type of materials used for building. They used fireproof materials due to the proximity of the houses and the threat that thatched and timber-framed houses posed. Siena is a classical example of a highly irregular city. It is clustered around the Castel Vecchio.

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Sierra Civic Square From the book by Ludwig Hilberseimer, The Nature of Cities.

1.1.2.2

RENAISSANCE PLANNING

The advocate of medieval irregular planning in the Renaissance Period was Leona Battista Albert, According to Albert, the town should have its squares for commerce and defense and should have narrow, winding streets that may offer the people protection from the sun or let them enjoy it. These streets would also be for defense so the enemy may be confused and get lost within the maze of streets. Like Vitruvius, he suggested that the town should be located in the healthiest possible climate, and should be walled, with battlements, tower, and gates. While advocated of irregular planning were many, the Renaissance city was more regular than the medieval as the gridiron theme was used, with piazzas grouped symmetrically within the grid. 1.1.2.3

BAROQUE PLANNING

Baroque planning was the final flowering of Renaissance planning in Europe. The planning was first manifested in the spaces between the buildings, for example, Michelangelo’s Piazza del Campidoglio in Rome. The axis was defined, and the facades were made symmetrical. 1.1.2.4

THE INDUSTRIAL CITY

The invention of the steam engine in 1769 signalled the beginning of the industrial revolution. Human labor was supplemented and/or replaced with machinery. The early impacts of this period were increased congestion, safety hazards, and air and water pollution. Transportation became a key elements in the industrial city and streets, raliways, shipping lines, and canals were built to aid in the transfer of raw materials to the factories for

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MODULE processing. Unfortunately, these transportation facilities were simply laid over existing patterns, without much thought to the dire consequences. People were starting to have to travel to get to their workplace. Suburban living became popular due to the hazards and increased congestion within the city. Those who could afford to move to the outskirts of the city moved to the suburbs. Those who could not stayed in the congested central areas. 1.1.2.5

TWENTIETH CENTURY PLANNING

Planning in the twentieth century is marked by the presence of the skyscraper. Elevators broke barriers in vertical building. There were major improvements in the transportation systems and the use of air-conditioning and metal frames in buildings became prevalent. The industrial sector made their presence known in the city, with different kinds of industries: services and manufacturing. Zoning laws were created and implemented to control and limit developments – setbacks were prescribes, as well building heights, etc. Developments emerged due to the use of electricity. Along with these improvements, crime rates and birth rates skyrocketed. A new urban form was developed. 1.1.3

PLANNING PHILOSOPHIES

The historic modes of planning give us different ways of thinking about the city, its development, and design. The Greeks and Romans used ceremonies made to their godsto determine where the cities should be located. Consultations to the oracles or the augurs, etc. were made before anything was decided upon. They were also concerned with the aspect, prospect, water requirements, sun path related to the city, the need for shade, the direction of the prevailing winds, the factors that affected comfort, convenience, and well-being. They were basically concerned about the pleasure of those who were going to be living in the city. There were three (3) basic ways of thinking: (1) pure geometry, (2) experience of the human senses, and (3) trial and error. These basic ways of thinking were developed over the centuries and are coherent and rival philosophies. These philosophies, empiricism, rationalism, and pragmatism, eventually became more complex and had numerous supporters. The empiricists placed their trust in the human senses, the rationalists worked in logical steps to come to a conclusion, and the pragmatism preferred things which were know to work in practice. 1.1.3.1

EMPIRICISM

The advocates of Empiricism were Sir Frances Bacon (1620), John Locke (16321704), bishop Berkeley (1685-1753), and David Hume (1711-1776). ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning

MODULE Sir Francis Bacon argued that everything that we know about the world around us was grained through experience as received by the senses. Ideas are built through the process of induction. John Locke was considered the first true empiricist. According to him, all our ideas are based on sensations (receiving information by way of the senses), and knowledge can only be accumulated by experience over the years. Once the ideas have been accumulated, the processes such as thinking, doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, and willing may be applied to the information. Locke also distinguished “primary” and “secondary” qualities in what we perceived. Primary qualities were those that could not always be perceived: solidarity, figure, motion, rest, number, etc. Secondary qualities were those that could easily be perceived: color, shape, taste, sound, etc. He also developed ideas of association. Bishop Berkeley and David Hume examined Locke’s works in detail. Berkeley suggested that objects cannot exist outside the mind of the perceiver, and for Hume, “the real world crumbles into a series of mere sensory impressions”. For him, nothing exists if there is no one to experience – see, touch, hear, etc. – it. In general, empiricism is the acceptance of the evidences given by one’s senses, the comparison of sensations as they happen, linked with memories of the past already recorded in the brain. 1.1.3.2

RATIONALISM

The great advocate of rationalism was Renee Descartes (1597-1650). Descartes argued that since the senses could be confused by optical or other illusions, we cannot trust the evidence of our senses, and should instead search for universal truths that could not be reached by logical thinking. He deliberated on the processes of thinking itself and came up with conclusions on how to distinguish what is true from what is false. According to him, there is less perfection in what has been put bit by bit by different people than one person. “…one of the first that came to my mind was that there is often less perfection in what has been put together bit by bit by different masters, than in the work of a single hand. Thus we see how a building, the construction of which has been undertaken and completed by a single architect, is usually superior those that many have tried to restore by making use of old walls which have been built for other purpose.” ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning

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MODULE “…so too, those old places which beginning as villages, have developed in the course of time into great towns, are generally so ill-proportioned in comparison with those an engineer can design at will in an orderly fashion, that, even though the buildings, taken severally, often display as much as art as in other places, or even more, yet the disorder is such with a large house here and a small one there, and the street all tortuous and uneven, that the whole place seems to be the product of chance rather than the design of men who use their reason.” - Discours del la Methode (1637) Descartes preferred the new, fortified towns which were being built in France. Rationalism are more concerned with the purity of form, whether two-dimensional, than in the ways in which the design may affect the senses of the users. Cogito, Ergo Sum. I think, therefore I am. Things can exist without one seeing them. 1.1.3.3

PRAGMATISM

Pragmatism was a philosophy that grew out of America conditions. Its advocates were Charles Sanders Pierce (1839-1914), William James (1842-1910), and John Dewey (1859-1952). As new technologies were applied in industries, the effect should have been that poverty, disease, crime and ugliness should have diminished, but it flourished even more. Pierce: think of an object, what are its effects? What are the practical result of the effects? What are the practical results of the effects? The results and thoughts will contain your perception of the object. James saw pragmatism as an extension of Empiricism. For him, the Pragmatism talks about truths in the plural, about their utility, their practicality, the ways in which they work. For Dewey, Pragmatism’s greatest achievement was “reconciliation of the scientific view of the universe with the claims of moral life” 1.1.4

APPROACHES TO PLANNING 1.1.4.1 EDWIN CHADWICK Public Health Acts were created to improved sanitation, in general, living conditions for the poor urban masses. In 1842, Edwin Chadwick was the Secretary of the Poor Law Board. He was responsible for the report on the conditions of the working classes. ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning

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MODULE Public Health Acts culminated in the most comprehensive Act: Act of 1875. These acts prescribes the minimum standards for urban living and resulted in what is now known as the “Bye-Law Housing”. They were concerned with the actual construction of dwellings, provision of sanitary facilities, drained, etc. It empowered the authorities to build water supply systems, drains, and sewers (when there was adequate finances). Bye-laws were required to be written about the following: (1) With respect to the level, width, and construction of new streets and provision for the sewerage thereof. (2) With respect to the structure of walls, foundations, roofs, and chimneys for securing stability and the prevention of fires and for the purpose of health. (3) With respect to the drainage of buildings, from water closets, earth closets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools in connection with buildings and to the closing of buildings, or parts of buildings, unfit for human habitation and to prohibit their use for such habitation. (4) With respect to the sufficient of space about buildings, to secure a free circulation of air, with respect to the ventilation of buildings. The Act also recommended carriageway widths (36 ft. wide), the widths of all other streets (24 ft. wide), and setbacks (front: at least 24 ft., backyard: at least 150 sq. ft.), etc. 1.1.4.2

BARON HAUSSMANN

Baron Haussmann was given the task of redeveloping Paris after the Revolution of 1848. He was to design Paris in such a way that the angry mob could never build barricades in the streets and throw missiles at the police from behind them. He wanted to link the major monuments of the city and focuses on the visual and functional intention of the great monuments of the city and focuses on the visual and functional intention of the great monuments of Paris: the Bourse, the National Assembly the Church of the Madeline, the Pantheon, the Cathedral of Notre Dame, etc. Haussmann’s Boulevard were not really designed for any intrinsic beauty, but it gave the longest feasible sight-lines for Louis Napoleon’s troops and give long perspective views of the monuments. It succeeded in speeding up the flow of traffic between the monuments. The trees humanized the boulevards and made barricade-building very difficult (the boulevards were also quite wide). It was considered neo-conservative, and many people were dispossessed of their homes as the boulevards were pushed through. 1.1.4.3

CAMILLO SITTE

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MODULE monumental. He wanted irregularly in planning and attempted to abstract principles for design of plazas, streets, and public spaces from the analysis of historic examples (particularly of the medieval Italian cities). He proposed the use of architecture projections, more frequent interruption of the building line, the use of zig-zag and winding streets, uneven street widths, different building heights, different flights of stairs, loggias, balconies, gables, etc. He wanted to use the interior elements (such as staircases, galleries, etc.) in the exterior to create what he considered as charming medieval designs. Sitte was enamored with the picturesque hill towns of Northern Italy. 1.1.4.4

JULIEN GAUDET

Julien Gaudet was a director of the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris and supported Sitte’s ideas. He considered picturesque as a variety. He saw planning for traffic one of the major challenges of urban design and saw that the absence of highway regulation in the past as a key factor in the growth of the Picturesque. For him, road works must and can be artistic, not only functional. Road planning is based entirely on utility and there are times that it must be compromised.

1.1.4.5

THE CITY BEAUTIFUL

The City Beautiful originated in the World’s Columbian Exposition, held in 1893 in Chicago. The entrepreneurs who sponsored the Exposition wanted Chicago to be known not only as the commercial center of America, but also as its cultured capital, and commissioned architects to develop a plan that would make this possible. Frederick Law Olmsted was responsible for the layout, Daniel Burnham was responsible for choosing the architects, sculptors, painters, and others who would develop a three-dimensional realization of the entrepreneur’s ambition.

The City Beautiful From www.xroads.virginia.edu The result was a plan devised from Haussmann’s Boulevards and its successors and opposed in principle to the works of Sitte and Gaudet. The

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heart of City Beautiful of Burnham was the classical monumentality of his Civic Center. His plan for Chicago was by far the most completed that had ever been made for any city. He had ideas of unity between the two sorts of architectural beauty (one is the individual building, and the other the orderly arrangement of many buildings). 1.1.4.6

EBENEZER HOWARD

Ebenezer Howard conceptualized the Garden City. His was the next great set of planning conventions and his major concern was to control the flow of the population from the rural to the urban areas. He presented the alternatives as “town and country magnets”.

E. Howard’s Garden City From www.planning.org

He characterized the towns as one that closes out nature. For him, it closes out nature. It also has many disadvantages and advantages. The disadvantages: (a) isolation of the crowds, (b) high rent and prices, (c) great distance from work to home, (d) excessive hours of work, (e) great number of unemployed, (f) fogs and droughts, (g) costly drained, (h) foul air and murky sky, (i) great number of slums, (j) sin palaces, etc. The advantages: (a) social opportunity, (b) many places of amusement, (c) higher chances of employment, (d) well-lit streets, (e) palatial edifices, etc. He characterized the country as having many advantages such as: (a) beauty of nature, wood, forest and meadow, (b) fresh air, (c) low rents, (d) abundance of water, (e) abundance of bright sunshine, etc., and the country as having many disadvantages such as: (a) lack of society, (b) lack of work,

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MODULE (c) low wages, (d) lack of drained, (e) idle land, (f) lack of amusement, (g) no public spirit, (h) need for reform, (i) corrode dwellings, (j) deserted villages, etc. By incorporation the advantages of both town living and country living, he came up with his Garden City. His plans are based on the ideas of a central park or garden that would occupy around five (5) acres, around which all of the city’s main functions could be grouped concentrically. He segregated the major components as: (1) First ring around the central garden: public building (2) Second ring around the central garden: park land (3) Third ring around the central garden : housing (4) Fourth ring around the central garden: Grand Avenue (5) Fifth ring around the central garden: industrial uses (6) Sixth ring around the central garden: for agricultural uses

E. Howard’s Garden City from the book by AEJ Morris, “The History of Urban Form”. The public buildings would consist of the town hall, concert and lecture halls, theaters, libraries, museum, picture galleries, and hospital. The parkland would be cut through radially by the six (6) principal boulevards and surrounded by the Crystal Palace. The Crystal Palace was a wide glass arcade that would combine the Greek Agora, the Roman Forum, and 20th century fun palace. The housing ring would have around 5,500 buildings lots, averaging 130x20 ft., enough for a population of around 30,000 people. Another 2,000 people would be housed on the agricultural estates surrounding the town. The houses themselves would be greatly varied in character.

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MODULE The main ring of housing was surrounded by the Grand Avenue, which as approximately 420 ft. wide, dividing the main part of the town into two concentric belts. The Avenue was then divided into six (6) radial boulevards into six (6) segment, which would be occupied by the public schools, playground, and gardens. The other areas would be sites for churches. The outer regions of the town were allocated for industrial uses. These were areas for factories, warehouses, dairy markets, coal yards, timber yards, etc., with access to a circular railways line that surrounded the town and enable the transport of goods. Beyond this was the agricultural areas, where large farms, small holdings, and allotments for cow pastures could be found. Howard initiated the building of two Garden Cities, Letchworth and Welwyn, to act as living examples of his work and what his city should be like. His ideas were taken up and further development by others such as Sir Partrick Geddes. 1.1.4.7

PATRICK GRDDES

Patrick Geddes made the major philosophical contribution to planning in this era: comprehensive planning. He theorized that physical planning could not improve urban living conditions unless integrated with social and economic planning in a context of environmental concern. According to him, this integration should happen at the regional scale. 1.1.4.8

DANIEL BURNHAM

Daniel H. Burnham was the chief planner and architect for the Chicago’s World Fair in 1893. It was done to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America and was called the Columbian Exposition. He used classical buildings and expansive promenades and open spaces on the Chicago waterfront even though the fair was supposed to honor the new industrial power of the country.

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Daniel Burnham’s Plan for Chicago 1.1.4.9

CALRENCE PERRY

Clarence Perry’s concept was that all day-to-day facilities such as shops, schools, playgrounds, etc., should be within walking distance of every house. He suggested that the optimum size of a neighborhood should be around 500 people. This would be large enough to provide for most people’s day-to-day needs, yet it would be small enough for a sense of community to develop. Wright and Stein further demonstrated ways that Perry’s ideas could be achieved. These could be done on a gridiron system, on rolling agricultural land, or on a hillside. Two features that developed were: (1) the separation of through traffic from the neighborhood roads and streets, and (2) the neighborhood parks taking the form of a complete greenbelt which surrounded the town. They separated neighborhood roads from the major traffic arteries. Cul-de-sacs were used for vehicular access to the parts of the houses, which left areas of traffic-free land where children in the neighborhood could play safely. 1.1.4.10

LE CORBUSIER

Le Corbusier was the greatest opponent of dispersionist planning. In his plans and designs, he used vast glass and concrete tower blocks, apartment slabs, etc. He tried converting the city into a park where the buildings would only occupy around five per cent (5 %) of the land. Residential suburbs of luxury housing would also be present and the rest of the land would be used for open, green courtyards.

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MODULE He liked to use rectilinear (Cartesian) grids as the basis of city planning and designed the city around a transport intercharge. He believed that the elevator would eventually revolutionize the form of the city. His Contemporary City was planned for three million (3 Million) people. It was first displayed as drawings and models at the Salon d’ Automne in 1992. It was a city within a garden, based on four (4) fundamental principles: (1) freeing the center from traffic congestion, (2) enhancing the overall densities, (3) enhancing the means of circulation, and (4) augmenting the area of planting. He presented an abstract view of his concept of what cities ought to be like.

Ville Contemporaine From www.planning.org The Ville Radieuse was centered on a railway station with an airport and included elevated motorways. It had a large central intersection of motorways and a park where twentyfour (24) sixty-storey buildings were located, spaced 250 meters apart surrounded the center. Restaurant, cafes, luxury shops, theater, concert halls, etc. would occupy two to three-storey buildings. Large buildings on the side of the center was for the town hall, museum, and other public facilities. Parking was found at the ground level and in multi-storey parks. Beyond the central area, warehouses, industrial zones, goods yards, etc. were located. The city is surrounded by a service zone and forest and grassland. Further on, a large belt of houses with gardens were located two types of housing located immediately around the city center was proposed: (1) terraces and (2) apartment blocks.

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MODULE Terraces would consist of 6-storey maisonettes crossing the parkland in rectilinear forms, and the apartment blocks would be located beyond the terraces, and would have adjoining balconies hollowed into the facades of his blocks. These were intended to open up day-to-day living to sunlight, fresh air, and greenery. 1.1.5

HISTORY OF URBAN PLANNING IN THE PHILIPPINES

The development of Metro Manila can be attributed to the different influential historic events in our history. 1.1.5.1

PRE-COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS

Tribes of various cultural-linguistic characteristics lived in small, discreet villages and hamlets scattered around the archipelago. These settlements were located along seashores and riverbanks. The barangay is the basic socio-political unit, comprised of around 30-100 families. These were semi-permanent fold societies that subsisted on shifting cultivation and engaged in hunting, fishing, and food gathering. Local chiefdoms emerged in areas such as Maynilad, Tondo, Cebu, and the sultanate of Jolo in the south. Maynilad was a thriving agricultural settlement due to its highly advantageous location. It was considered the largest indigenous settlements in the archipelago and consisted of barangays of more than 2000 inhabitants. Cebu had the next largest settlement and port of call and had close to 2000 inhabitants. It became the hub of important for other large. Tagalog settlements and for inland villages around the Laguna Lake. It performed port, commercial, and trading functions as a key transshipment point for goods entering and leaving the island. The high economic activity level in Maynilad was fostered by barter trade with local tribes and foreign junks coming from China, Brunei, Malacca, the Moluccas, and Japan. It also performed non-agricultural activities and service the needs of the nearby villages. Some villagers became merchants and goldsmiths. Others were farmers, and hunters. Rajah Sulayman was the leader of Maynilad who began the supra- barangay confederation of villages along the Pasig River. This was nipped in the bud by the Spanish Conquest. On the eve of Spanish colonization, indigenous settlements in the archipelago were socially, economically, and politically independent of one another. 1.1.5.2

SPANISH PERIOD

The Spanish period lasted from 1570 to 1898. After Magellan landed in Cebu in 1521, Spain colonized the Philippines and Manila became a colony of Spain in 1570.

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MODULE The Spaniards established Manila as their permanent urban base from where they commanded the colony. By the end of the 16th century, Intramuros had been converted into an imposing colonial capital as a symbol of Spanish colonial power. The planned city was influence by the Roman city planning and inspired by the piazza planning of the Italian Renaissance. It was laid out according to the Laws of the Indies issued by King Philip II in 1573. This detailed the rules of the Spanish city planning. Other Hispanized parts of the islands were widely-dispersed regional urban centers called ciudades and villas with population ranging from 2500 to 5000. Spanish missionaries founded many provincial religious and administrative hubs or cabereras. These were established around nearby existing hamlets and villages as beachheads in order to subdue the natives and convert then to the Catholic faith. The Church is the nucleus of these rural settlements. Many of the cabeceras eventually became poblaciones or towns with populations ranging from 500 to 2000. Visitas and barrios surrounded each poblacion when the poblacion settlement system spread to the lowlands. These Hispanic settlements displayed the Spanish principles of urban design known as the Church-plaza complex. By 1655, the urban settlement system was composed of four tiers: the capital city of Manila, several region urban centers, 180 cabeceras or poblaciones and a host of rural barrios. Manila was the governmental, ecclesiastical, military, cultural, social, and economic nerve center of the Spanish colonial government in the archipelago for the subsequent three centuries. It became the entrepot of Spain in Southeast Asia and the focal point of the entrecot economy. It also served as vital cog in the annual Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade between Mexico and Spain. Manila became a primate city due to the highly centralized, urban-based administration system of the colonial government. It became the dominant growth center of the colonial economy as its regional maritime trade and economic role grew in size and importance. Manila was also the control point for external trade. It was used to control insular commerce and trade, became the processing and transportation hub of the country, serviced the needs of the frontier regions, and provided spatial locus necessary for the organization of predominantly rural space as well as for linking the regional and provincial centers and the hinterlands. As the city grew more prosperous, urbanization spilled over the walls of intramuros and engulfed the surrounding arrabales. The pre-urban hamlets and villages where Spanish friars founded their missions formed the nuclei of the arrabales, or suburbs, and pueblos around Intramuros. Some examples are the mission settlements of Tondo, Binondo, Sta. Cruz, and Quiapo.

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MODULE Wealthy Spaniards built their country estates, complete with orchards, baths, and gardens in the suburbs, especially along the banks of the Pasig River. By the 1650s, the immediate extramural areas around Intramuros were become urbanized while the outlying peripheral areas remained largely rural. Thus, the spatial expansion of the effluence Spanish residential sector highly influenced the direction of city growth and urbanization. As a result of such residential growth, the pueblos of Bagumbayan, Ermita, Binondo, Quaipo, Santa Ana de Sapa, San Pedro Makati, and Sab Juan del Monte became the emerging major suburbs of Manila. The style of urban development promoted by Spain in its colonies included a church and a square at the center of the city called of the city called the plaza mayor. The castle city of Intramuros was built in Manila to serve as a residential district for the Spaniards. The street network of this walled city was latticed. 1.1.5.3

AMERICAN PERIOD

The American period (1898-1946) ushered in the development of roads done by the colonizing government. The development of the transport network and housing was done by the private sector. It was at this time that the basic frame of the present road network of Metro Manila was formed. The first master plan of Manila was done by Daniel Burnham and Pierce Anderson. Only part of this plan was implemented, and in 1933, the transfer of the capital city from Manila to Quezon City was decided and planned upon. Unfortunately, the plan did not push through due to the outbreak of World War II. In July 1903, the City of Manila was incorporated by virtue of Act No. 183. It encompassed Intramuros, and twelve (12) rapidly urbanizing towns of Binondo, Tondo, Santa Cruz, Quiapo, San Miguel, San Nicolas, Sampaloc, Santa Ana, Malate, Ermita, Paco, and Pandacan, Manila became the first chartered city in the Philippines. The presence of a large service sector in Manila also spoke of its more diverse urban economic functions compared to the nest ranked port town of Iloilo and Cebu. The Americans started developing the city and its suburbs through infrastructure improvements such as sanitary and drainage facilities. More roads and railways were built and improve to facilities the transport of goods to and from Manila. Manila retained its prominence as the primate city in the Philippines throughout the American colonial period. Its economic and political roles grew in importance, and it became a satellite economy and link between the West and the colonial territory.

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MODULE 1.1.5.4

POST-WORLD WAR After World War II and the independence of the Philippines from America, the population in and around Manila continued to increase, particularly in the rapidly urbanizing towns of Tondo, Sampaloc, Ermita, Malate, Paco, Pandacan, and Sta. Ana. A steady stream of migrants from the provinces was lured by the promise of a better life and better jobs in the city. The abnormal growth of the inner district of Intramuros can be attributed to the massive influx of squatters after it had been badly bombed during the Japanese occupation. Reconstruction of Manila began in 1946 and the Quiapo became the business and financial center of Manila. The jeepney, a recycled army jeep, was created and became a popular mode of transportation. In 1975, Metro Manila was established to promote orderly urban development and to solved many of the urban problems prevailing, such as slums, traffic congestion, and garbage. Metro Manila consisted of four cities and thirteen municipalities. 1.1.5.5

URBAN GROWTH OF METRO MANILA Three factors accounted for the growth of the city. These were (1) natural population increase, (2) position net migration, and (3) areal classification. By 1960, urbanization had spread to the emerging suburbs of Manila which were previously rural. The City of Manila was the core of the emerging conurbation. As the central city of an expanding metropolis, it was the population nucleus and adjacent areas that were socially and economically linked to it. In the 1960 census, Manila and its suburbs consisted of: (1) City of Manila (2) Caloocan City (3) Pasay City (4) Quezon City (5) Makati, Rizal (6) Mandaluyong, Rizal (7) San Juan, Rizal (8) Paranaque, Rizal As early as the sixties, urbanization had extended to six (6) outer peripheral towns of the newly metropolitanized areas such as Malabon, Navotas, Marikina, Pasig, Pateros, and Las Pinas, all in the province of Rizal. The tremendous growth of Metro Manila after 1960 is the most significant urban phenomenon to happen in the country. The whole metropolitan region became the pivotal center of the country’s economic, social, political, cultural, and educational life. It was not until 1975 that the government attempted to integrate the administrative discreet cities and municipalities of Metro Manila. This was done to enable the local governments to cope with the complex problems of metropolitanization and become more efficient in the delivery of metrowide basic services. ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning

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MODULE In 1975, Metro Manila (later to be renamed the National Capital Region) was composed of four (4) cities and thirteen (13) municipalities. These included: (1) City of Manila (2) Caloocan City (3) Pasay City (4) Quezon City (5) Las Pinas (6) Makati (7) Malabon (8) Mandaluyong (9) Marikina (10) Muntinlupa (11) Navotas (12) Paranaque (13) Pasig (14) Pateros (15) San Juan (16) Taguig (17) Valenzuela At present, the National Capital Region’s territorial composition remains the same as that of the original except for seven (7) more towns that became cities: (1) City of Manila (2) Caloocan City (3) Pasay City (4) Quezon City (5) Las Pinas City (6) City of Makati (7) Malabon (8) Mandaluyong City (9) Marikina City (10) Muntinlupa City (11) Navotas (12) Paranaque City (13) Pasig City (14) Pateros (15) San Juan (16) Taguig (17) Valenzuela Present day Metro Manila is a product of its long colonial history and of contemporary economic, social, cultural, and political processes.

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MODULE 1.1.5.6

CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT (CBDs)

The central business district has traditionally symbolized the socio-economic vitality of a city or conurbation of cities and towns. It usually contains prime metropolitan real estate, the high value of which necessitates very specialized uses. A large number of skyscrapers occupy the center. Metro Manila today exhibits several CBDs – the Manila CBD, Makati CBD, Ortigas CBD, and Cubao CBD. Manila CBD. Manila remains to be the center of business and commerce, a population nucleus, and the seat of the national government. The Manila CBD typifies the historical CBD in that it evolved from a commercial-trade district during colonial times to a retailoffice-commercial complex at mid-century, and most recently, to a convention-touristentertainment center. As such, it is located at the oldest part of the metropolis. It is also the center of financial trading due to the Binondo financial and banking district. Its service sector is largely comprised of consumer and personal services and retail trade. The Manila CBD is also the heart of the urban informal sector, with its narrow streets lined with vendors and rolling stores selling anything and everything. Makati CBD. The Makati CBD is the business, financial, commercial, convention, and recreational center of the metropolitan region as well as of the country. It was begun in 1948 by the Ayala conglomerate. It is a successful mixed-use development of residential, business, and commerce. Urban development is strictly regulated by the Ayala Corporation, in terms of building height, bulk, floor area ratio, and land use. It is also the national center of business and producer services, and is the base of almost all corporate headquarters of transnational corporations or TNCs. Producer services offer legal, financial, advertising, consultancy, and accountancy services to companies who provide the needs of the business elite and TNCs. These services thrived in Makati since it is the modern financial center of the country, as opposed to the Binindo financial district. Ortigas CBD. The Ortigas CBD in Pasig City is another business, financial, convention, shopping, and recreational node including its commercial extension, the Greenhills shopping complex. The Ortigas family conglomerate began developing the area in the 1950s but it only took shape in the late 1980s to the 1990s. The area is surrounded by low-density master planned residential subdivisions. Cubao CBD. The Araneta group began to develop the Cubao property in the late 1960s. It was to serve as an alternative commercial, recreational, and shopping node. With its small individual shops and throngs og hawkers and vendors, it eventually became another traditional shopping and retail district. It is also surrounded by high-density residential areas. Emerging CBD. There are quite a number of new developments in Metro Manila that promises to become economic nodes in the coming years.

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MODULE One of these is the Ford Bonifacio Global City located between the Makati CBD and Ortigas CBD. It involves the development of a former military base into another city in the 21st century. Another is the Filinvest Corporate City. It is a joint venture of the government and the private sector, aiming to become another major center with the proposed development of a city center surrounded by residential areas and with high accessibility to nearly industrial estate and technoparks.

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MODULE 1.2

DEFINITION OF TERMS 1.2.1 URBANISM Urbanism is a board concept generally referring to all aspects of the urban way of life. These aspects are political, economic, social, etc. It is considered the end result of urbanization. 1.2.2

URBANIZATION Urbanization is the process or urban growth. It involves two (2) phases or aspects: (1) the movement of people from rural to urban areas where they engage in primary non-rural functions or occupations, and (2) the change in their lifestyle from rural to urban with its associate values, attitudes, and behaviors. 1.2.3

URBANIZED AREA The urbanized area is defined as the built-up area where buildings, roads, and other essential urban land uses predominante. 1.2.4

METROPOLIS AND METROPOLITAN AREA The metropolitan is properly the chief city, but not necessarily the capital, of the country, state, or region. It is loosely used to refer to any large city. The metropolitan area is generally regarded as a central city and peripheral jurisdictions plus all surrounding territory integrated with the central city. 1.2.5

CITY The term city is essentially a political designation. It refer to a place governed by some kind of administrative body or organization. It is normally larger than a town or village. 1.2.6

CONURBATION, MEGALOPOLIS, SUPERCONURBATION Conurbation and megalopolis essentially mean the same thing: the spatial merging of two or more cities along major transportation corridors. The term conurbation was initially coined in reference to British urban growth. Megalopolis was originally coined to refer to the merging of cities along the urban corridor in the eastern United State from Boston to Washington. It later became a generic term referring to urban coalescence. A superconurbation is simply a giant conurbation or megalopolis having a population of least 12 million, based on a rather arbitrary population threshold. 1.2.7

CITY SYSTEM OR URBAN SYSTEM Every region or country has developed a hierarchy of cities which can be ranked on the basis of population size and economic and other functions. These are interlinked by increasingly sophisticated transportation and communication networks. 1.2.8

PRE-INDUSTRIAL CITY The pre-industrial city is sometimes referred to as the traditional city. It is a city that was founded and grew before the arrival of industrialization in the 19th and 20th centuries. Typically, it had different characteristics from the modern industrial cities of today. ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning

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1.2.9

POST-INDUSTRIAL CITY The origin and economic base of a post-industrial city is not tied to an industrial base. It is one where employment in the services sector is high. These are cities that are usually the headquarters for corporations or a series of governmental and intergovernmental organization such as those specializing in research and development (R&D) institute, tourism/recreation. 1.2.10 PRIMATE CITY The primate city is defined by size and function. The term is derived from urban primacy, a concept first development in the late 1930s to refer to the tendency for countries to have one city that is at least twice as large as the second largest city and has dominance over the country’s political, economic, and cultural life. 1.2.11 COLONIAL CITY This type of city as almost entirely gone from the face of the earth today. It had the profoundest impact on urbanization and urban patterns throughout much of the world. The colonial city is a unique type of city because of its special focus on commercial functions, its peculiar situation requirements, and the odd blend of European or Western urban forms with indigenous population and cultures. 1.2.12 SOCIALIST CITY The socialist city is peculiar to the communist-socialist countries of the world, particularly the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China. There is massive degree in government involvement, coupled with the absence of both private land ownership and freemarket forces. These have produced distinctly different cities in virtually all aspects of urbanism and internal spatial structure. 1.2.13 NEW TOWNS The new town is a phenomenon of the 20th century and refers to a comprehensive planned urban community built from scratch with the intent of becoming as selfcontained as possible by encouraging the development of an economic base and full range of urban services and facilities. These have come into existence around the world to fulfill a number of functions, which include relieving overcrowding of the larger central cities, providing optimum living environment for the residents, helping to control urban sprawl and preserve open land, and in some counties serving as growth poles for development of new industry and exploitation of natural resources.

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MODULE 1.3

FUNDAMENTALS OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING 1.3.1 WHAT IS PLANNING? Planning is part of the organization of society. It is a universal human activity that consist of making choices among options that appear to be open to the future; then securing their implementation, which depends on the allocation of necessary resources. It is a universal human activity that involves the consideration of outcomes before choosing among alternatives. It is a decision-making and resources activity, which makes it political. Options must be selected and these may not necessarily equally benefit all members of society. The means of deciding what wants and whose wants the available resources should be used to satisfy is political in nature and there is a complementary process of identifying and choosing among the various possible uses of productive resources. The preferred uses of these resources must be ensured. 1.3.2

PLANNING THEORIES There are two (2) major types of planning theories: (1) theories of system operations, and (2) theories of system change. 1.3.2.1 THEORIES OF SYSTEM OPERATIONS Theories of system operations try to understand and anticipate how complex social system operate and how they are likely to react to planned changes and interventions. For this, information from a number of different disciplines is taken. These disciplines may include botany, biology, economics, geography, political science, psychology, sociology, and other applied disciplines such as architecture, engineering, public administration, and public health. The General System Theory is not formally recognized as an academic discipline. It provides the closest approach to the total-system viewpoint necessary for good planning. It attempt to provide a single comprehensive view of all aspects of living and non-living systems. A system is defined as any set of independent components with relatively high closure, connectivity, and stability. Closure measures external independence, the extent to which system components do not interact with other components outside the system. Connectivity measures internal independence, the degree to which system components interact with each other. Stability refers to the length of time the system lasts without major change or disruption. As system grow and develop, they become more complex. The components become more specialized and the interaction increases among the components within and outside the system. 1.3.2.2 THEORIES OF SYSTEM CHANGE Theories and interpretation of how, when, and for what purpose changes are to be introduction into the system are sometimes called decision theories. They draw heavily upon the traditions and expectations of 18th and 19th century positivism. During this, period, the successes of scientific ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and regional Planning

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MODULE methods in increasing the understanding and control over natural forces led many scholars to believe that similar approaches could be applied to human social system with equal success. The results was a great flourishing of the social sciences and a proliferation of utopian experiments seeking to improve the human condition through the rational planning and control of social institutions. There are four (4) different palnning situation that occurs in reality and categorizes the kinds of theories appropriate to each. These theories are (1) Rationalism, (2) Incrementalism, (3) utopianism, and (4) Methodism. Rationalism is used when both the means and the ends are clearly defined and well understood. This involves the four (4) steps of scientific decision making: (1) analyzing the system and its problems, (3) evaluating the probable consequences of each proposed solution, and (4) recommending the best alternatives based on how well it will help attain the ends being sought. This style of planning places strong emphasis on techniques of data collection, measurements, and analysis. Incrementalism is used when the ends being sought and the means to attain them are highly uncertain. Small steps are taken and their implications are examined in terms of whether they improve or worse the problem at hand. Experimentation, comparisons to other system in similar situations, evaluation and feedback of information on the effectiveness of proposed solutions, and a number of other approaches legitimize incrementalism as a useful form of planning activity. Utopianism has an old and respectable position in planning. It seeks to fire the public’s imagination and to resolve problems by proposing sweeping new approaches to system organization and operation. In this approach, the goals are clearly and powerfully stated, even though the means of accomplishing them may be quite unclear. Methodism describes planning activities for which the method to be employed is clear but the ends to be achieved are largely undefined and unknown. Frequently, the methods employed becomes an end in itself. While ritualistic, this style of planning potentially has considerable merit. The kind of information collected or generated by following certain standardized procedures is likely to be useful in a wide variety of situations, even when the ends for which the information is to used are not known. No one of the four theories describes are superior to the others – they are necessary at one time or another. The planner’s skill lies in knowing something about all these theories and their associated techniques and in knowing when to choose the appropriate combination to match the demands of the situation at hand.

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MODULE 1.3.3

DIFFERENTIATION OF PLANNING

There are seven (7) types of planning: (1) Site Planning, (2) Subdivision Planning, (3) Urban Space Planning, (4) Town and/or City Planning, (5) Urban Planning, (6) Regional Planning, and (7) National Development Planning. Site planning usually involves only a single project at a time. It is also predominantly architecture. Subdivision planning is a medium to large-scale development project that is predominantly residential. Urban design is urban space planning and is typically for in-city sites. It is concerned with the relationship of holding and exterior spaces. Town and/or city planning involves larger areas and covers all aspects of planning. The results are policy-oriented and it is a bit abstract. It usually involves a framework of developments. Urban Planning addresses the growth strategies of towns and cities. It is also policy-oriented and transcends political boundaries. The plan will involve towns and cities and growth strategies. Regional Planning is planning at a macro view. It addresses relationships of towns and cities with the region they are located in. It is policy-oriented and the growth potential of the region as a whole is addressed. National Development Planning will involve the entire country and its development orientation. It is at the national level and will usually entail National Development Plans. It is policy and governance-oriented and has economic, social, and political emphasis. The various factors that are involved are the GDP, GNP, employment, external trade, etc. Site planning, subdivision planning, and urban space planning usually entails physical planning orientations and the financial viability of the project. These projects are usually privately-sponsored and are usually headed by architects. Town/city planning, urban planning, regional planning, and national development planning are usually driven by economic, social, and political needs. These are interdisciplinary and are handled by institutions or government agencies. See Appendix B for the Planning Chart. 1.3.4

THE ARCHITECT IN THE REALM OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING The Housing and Environmental Planning Act was created in 1970, authorizing the creation of a Department of Housing and Environmental Development to be headed by a Secretary and two Undersecretaries, one for Housing and Resettlements, and the other for Environmental Planning and Development, to be appointed by the President of the President of the Philippines. There are five (5) bureaus under this Department: (1) Bureau of Resettlement, (2) Bureau of Housing Standards, (3) Bureau of Rural Development, (4) Bureau of Urban Development, and the (5) Bureau of Special Development Projects.

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MODULE

The Department was directed to formulate and implement a national program on housing and resettlements, a comprehensive program on environmental planning, and a program on environmental development. It was expected to perform the following functions:

(a) Provision of low-cost housing for low-income and resettled families, and carrying out of resettlement programs for dislocated families, (b) Coordination of all government financing and credit institutions and facilities for housing, and provision of incentives for land capability utilization and production of homes of sound standard, (c) Adoption and enforcement of a National Environmental Framework Plan and promulgation of a program of priorities for the preparation of development plans, (d) Laying out of rural and urban town sites, development of well planned neighborhoods, and the redevelopments of slum areas, (e) Coordination and supervision of local planning boards and regional authorities in the preparation and implementation of development plans, and (f) Coordination with land reform agencies in expropriations and disposition of public lands, and the promotion of plans for integrated farm communities. The Department also takes authority over the Department of Social Welfare over the Central Institute for the Training and Rehabilitation of Urban Squatters. The National Planning Commission was abolished and all its land planning orders and regulations were repealed.

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MODULE 1.4

THE PLANNING PROCESS 1.4.1

THE PLANNING PROCESS 1 Action Policy

2 Goals 3 Evaluation 4 Plan Formulation

Design

5 Design Techniques 6 Problem formulation 7 System models

Understanding 8 Techniques

N.B. The diagram is to be read upwards but the constant interaction takes place between all eight levels

The Planning Process from the book by Peter Hall, Urban and Regional Planning.

1.4.1.1

GOALS, OBJECTIVES, AND TARGETS Planning is a general activity, and may have one or many objectives. Most urban and regional planning activities have multiple objectives, the first step in the planning process is to identify the purposes that the planner seeks to achieve, order them in terms of their importance, and consider how far they are reconcilable to each other. Goals are essentially general and highly abstract. They tend to fall into board categories such as social, economic, and aesthetic. They may also include qualities of the planning process itself, such as flexibility.

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MODULE Objectives are more specific. They are defined in terms of actual programmes capable of being carried into action, though they fall short of detailed qualifications. They also required the expenditures of resources so that they imply an element of competition for scarce resources. These “resources” are not only conventional economic resources, but include those such as information. Objectives are turned into targets representing specific programmes in which criteria of performance are set against target dates. These detailed targets are developed from the objectives and these might include the construction of a new underground railways line within 10 years to reduce journey times in a sector of a city by a percentage, or construction of a new motorway link within 5 years to cut traffic delays by a specific amount. Targets are very specific and particular. One problem that emerges from the whole goals-objectives-targets process is that of integrating rather disparate individual programmes into a coherent plan. This first stage in the planning process involves great difficulties of a conceptual and technical nature. 1.4.1.2

FORECASTING, MODELLING, PLAN DESIGN Once objectives have been defined and given some precise form in the shape of targets based on performance criteria, planners turn to description and analysis of the urban or regional system they wish to control. The aim is to find ways of representing the behavior of the system over time – both in the recent past and in the future – in such a way that they can understand the impact of alternatives courses of action that are open to them. To do this, a model of the system is produced. A number of interconnected models may also be done to represent sub-systems. A model is a schematic but precise description of the system, which appears to fit its past behavior and which can, hopefully, be used to predict the future. There are two questions that planners need to resolve about the modeling process: (1) what aspects of the urban system they wish to model and (2) what types of models are available. The answer to the first question will depend on the planner’s precise interests – what are the questions the model is required to answer. The answer to the second question will depend of the object of the planning exercise. Models are simple or complex, and can be classified in a number of different ways. Model design is one of the most complex stages of the modern planning process. Designing a model, or models, to suit a precise problem, will involve logical analysis of a set of interrelated questions. Planners must also consider what behavioral theories about systems are to be embodied in their models, etc.

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MODULE 1.4.1.3

PLAN DESIGN AND PLAN EVALUATION The design process starts as soon as the planner begins to design the models. At that point, the critical questions will finally determine the content of the plan design. These questions are on what elements of the urban system the models should represent and in how much detail. Design consist of two (2) elements. The first will involve the choice of system models to represent the main elements which the design should incorporate, and the running of these models to give a number of coherent and realistic pictures of the future state of the system through time. The second is the process of evaluation of the alternatives to give a preferred or optimum solution. At the stage of evaluation, the goals and objectives which the planner has generated are applied directly to the alternatives simulations of the future system. Evaluation is derived from the goals and objectives set early on in the planning process. 1.4.1.4

IMPLEMENTATION Through the systematic evaluation of alternatives, the planner can select a preferred course of action for the implementation of the plan. The whole process of modeling, evaluation, and selection is continuously repeated. The objectives is to have a monitoring system that checks the response of the urban and regional system to the various planning measurements which are taken to control its progress. The control system itself will respond flexibly and sensitivity to the information controlled by the monitoring system. Even while the monitoring system is in place and a very tidy planning process is used, things may still go wrong. This may be because knowledge about the external environmental of the planning decision may increase rapidly with unpredictable results. Another may be because of the complex interrelationship between different levels of the planning situation. Over time, human values (or those that are actively concerned) tend to change. Fashions on planning tend to change almost as fashion trends do. Finally, it is very difficult to reconcile different sets of values. Most planning controversies involve a conflict of right against right. 1.4.2

PLANNING PARADIGMS 1.4.2.1 CONVENTIONAL PARADIGM The city functions through the circulation of goods and services. The strength of the urban pattern is measured by the adequacy and convenience of the circulation system and the stability of the investments by the level at which the community maintains itself. Public services must be made available to all property and the cost of these services is paid for by taxes and public utility rates. These costs are measured to a large degree by the quality of the improvements that comprise the city.

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MODULE The physical form of the city emerges from the initiative and enterprise of many people acting individually or in groups. These people are guided by a set of standards and not from some preconceived model of the city. Laws from an integral part of the planning process and it is appropriate to the democratic process that the people who design and invest in urban building find free expression and action within the limits prescribed by law. Urban development implies a continuing responsibility. The laws applying to the physical development of the city set the standards for that development. It is important to examine the effect of these regulations and prospects for further improvements. With the development of civilization, the building of cities and the growth of population, land has taken on other values than that attached to agricultural use. The fixed marketplace became a land use of great value. The public open space, the forum, and the commons became the important centers of the towns. Each community has the right and the responsibility to determine their own character, as long as that determination did not disturb the orderly growth of the region or the nation. Planning is accomplished through the activities of many agencies and authorities. The number of person involved and the process may vary with different levels of government with different enabling legislations but the responsibilities are largely similar in most parts of the country. The role of the legislative body is that of decision-making on the character the city shall aspire to achieve. A planning commission is usually formed to serve in an advisory capacity to the legislative body. A General Plan is prepared and other plans for civic developments are specific in the enabling legislation which creates the commission. A Planning Consultant gives the advantage of particular experience, judgment, and technical knowledge. It is important for the consultant to work intimately with the leaders of the community as well as government agencies and their staff. Citizen organizations serve as links between the professional planners, the legislators, and the general public in the development of plans. They assist in shaping planning objectives and through their vigilance, ensure the effectuation of the plans. They perform an important function in support of bond issues and other financial programs to secure the amenities of the plans. These citizen organizations also serve as the conscience of the community.

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MODULE 1.4.2.2

ACTION PLANNING The concept of action planning was created by Otto Koenigsberger in 1964 as a reaction to conventional planning, which he saw as unresponsive to the needs of a dynamically changing society. Action planning consisted of a series of action plans controlled by a set of performance standards and forming part of a guiding concept for the whole urban region. The methods used in the application of action planning is not traditional and the procedures are less standardized and less dependent on comprehensiveness, which makes it a very flexible planning framework. It is guided by informed improvisation, is adaptive in its processes, and is based on action instead of lengthy and tiresome surveys and studies. 1.4.2.2.1 OBJECTIVES OF ACTION PLANNING The objective of action planning is to (1) equip planners with an improved means with which to guide rather than control city development, and (2) to try to match the needs of the people more closely to the goals of planning. It is also meant (3) to propose improvements to the efficiency of planning by speeding up the planning operations and (4) to be able to measure success in tangible results, on the ground, accepting limited resources, working closely with communities and other local groups whenever possible. The new purpose of action planning in the community is (1) to remove barriers to learning opportunities, (2) improve access to public sources, and to (3) create a climate of opportunity for people to help themselves. 1.4.2.2.2 NEW REALISM IN CITY PLANNING In 1987, Koenigsberger revised some of his ideas: slums and squatter settlements were considered a sin of a healthy city. He concluded that most development in Third World cities followed the lines of least resistance and not according to plans draw up by architects or planners. These gave principles that gave way to a new realism in city planning, and were summarized by Devas in 1993: (1) Urban population growth is inevitable (2) The form of cities would continue to be determined largely by the decisions of individuals and organizations rather than by the governments (3) There are limitations on the abilities of governments to influence effectively in the urban system (4) Governments, particularly those that are debt-laden and undergoing structural adjustment, would continue to face resources constraints (5) The poor have the limited capacity to pay for services currently provided are therefore rarely afforded by the urban majority.

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MODULE 1.4.2.2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTION PLANNING The origins of action planning are derived from physical, social, and economic planning, and not from applied anthology or forming systems researches. The preoccupations are traditionally and intrinsically urban rather than rural. Action planning serves both local-level problems solving and city-level strategic planning. It is applied to four (4) areas of activity: (1) urban improvement, (2) capacity building, (3) new development planning, and (4) planning under crisis. It is problem-driven, and exploits opportunities that are present as the project starts and work proceeds. It avoids the maximization of information, coordination, integration, and participation. The core of action planning is stakeholder participation. This refers to the discovery of common interests and the convergence of these interests as a prelude to planning. This makes action planning heavily biased toward building coalitions and fostering cooperation between government and non-government groups, community groups, etc. 1.4.2.2.4 1

2

THE PROCESS

Direct observation - information on visible structure of settlement - gives the planning team first hand views of the condition of the urban setting under consideration - enables them to check/verify maps &/or plans - enables them to form preliminary opinions based on a variety of indications Semi-structure interviews -

3

listening to the needs, problems, & aspirations of local inhabitants, children, women, respected elders, & other key informants - useful techniques: individuals interviews, community/group interviews, focus group discussion, field diaries - shows hidden social, economic structure of the community - may be formal or informal Measuring, learning from precedents -

4

supplements interviews more quantitative than qualitative process size of roads, walkways, percentage of land use, relative percentage of public and private land, where the highest commercial activity is, the nearest school/clinic, # of manholes, services connectors, etc. Resources surveys

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MODULE -

5

6

7

conducted by the community gives overview of local resources that may be used in any important programming proposal - establishes who can do what (amount of skill in the community) - establishes whether there is enough resources (labor, financial, land, etc) available for the proposed development Prioritizing or Ranking - stakeholders decide their priorities on the basis of needs and feasibility - continuous process, starts with problems and ends with possible projects Brainstorming - done in mixed groups or focus groups in either open discussion or through maps and models - concentrates on ideas, whether they be feasible or not, discovering alternatives and soliciting responses Diagraming -

8

done in the early stages of the planning process seasonal calendars, time lines, daily routines, pie charts which tells about the population structures, effect of seasonal climatic variations on the inhabitants, distances to work, etc - may be generated by community groups - may be useful for representing organizational structure and work schedules - may aid in the analysis and act as a basis for space allocation and sizing decisions Mapping and modeling -

9

participatory activities for documenting information and of expressing views and opinions about a neighborhood in a non-confrontational setting - may give informational on other physical problems and needs, who has influence, who owns what, what are the territorial claims, etc. - builds a sense of cooperation between the participants Gaming and role-playing -

-

employed to build awareness and sensitize planners to the key issues some are design to simulate potential outcomes others are used to teach skills or build awareness of planning procedures and potential hurdles in the planning process or to familiarized people with the technical side of planning role playing may be used to build awareness of the needs and desired of groups of people who may not be well-represented during the planning process

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MODULE 10 Group work and intermixing - intermixing of disciplines, gender, age groups, expert with community people, managers, and technical staff - builds cooperation among the participants and exposes them to the widest possible range of interest and demands Other phases of action planning may be involved with the final objectives of implementation. These are the (1) identification of problems and opportunities, (2) prioritization and determination of goals to see what is needed, then prioritized according to urgency, acceptability, and feasibility, (3) finding out the options and trade-offs, (4) determining the resources and constraints, (5) formation of projects teams, and (6) the implementation and monitoring. Monitoring plays a key role in action planning and indicators of achievements may be developed at project level. There are a number of indicators for monitoring: (1) Technical indicators - assessed both quantitatively and qualitatively - quantitatively: how road improvements have reduced flooding, and improved vehicular access, new housing increased the stock of houses, etc. - qualitatively: houses may be too small or of the wrong kind, access for pedestrians is poor, supply of water is still inadequate, etc. (2) Economic indicators - judges the cost-effectiveness of programmes, increased level of earnings due to the employment programmes, effect of starter loans for small businesses, etc. (3) Operating or organizational indicators - involves the functioning and effectiveness of organizations during the project delivery, management or maintenance (4) Social indicators - inform about difficulties for one group or another (women, minority, ethnic groups, etc.) to be involves in the programmes, etc. - may show discrimination of social groups in the project (5) Environmental indicators - judge the impact of intervention on the environment - assessment of environmental impact of the project

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MODULE

ORTHODOX PARADIGM “Providing”

THE ALTERNATIVE PARADIGM “Enabling”



increased productivity growth in GNP as a goal



encourage resourcefulness/wellbeing as a goal



people as objects of development



people are subjects of development



professional as benevolent pragmatists promote dependency



professional as populist idealists



promotes self-sufficiency/empowers



professionals/governments as prime actors





promotes technology transfer (products)



CBOs/NGOs as prime actors – professionals as catalysts, governments as enablers promotes appropriate techniques (processes)



information as data (things/surveys)





centralized production and decision making



 

prefers standardization instant projects, prescriptive plans

 



consolidated (formal) industry, preferring large organizations





managements of resources/concerned with outcomes decentralizes production/devolves decision making promotes variety/flexibility incremental projects/progressive programmes, adaptive planning fragmented (informal) industry based or small enterprises

Taken from “Action Planning for Cities: A Guide to Community Practice” By Nabeel Hamdi & Reinhard Goethert, 1997

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MODULE MODULE 2.0

URBAN PLANNING TODAY

2.1

URBAN PLANNING IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES 2.1.1 BRITAIN The predominant image of Britain consists of small villages and sleepy country towns. It has been a highly urbanized country for more than a century. The urban centers are characterized by a slow and steady growth of local agricultural markets and places of trade. The cities in the center and north of the region grew explosively and medium sized towns, especially those in the south, stagnated. This was due to mounting industrialization which attracted streams of migrants from the countryside. A significant feature of contemporary urban Britain is the subsequent decline of the industrial cities. The industrial Revolution changed Britain from an agrarian society to an urban society. In the late 18th century, industrial growth created bustling towns where green fields and quiet market towns were. By 1851, over 40% of the population lived in towns and cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants. The rapid growth was untrammeled by planning controls, which resulted in heavy social and environmental costs. Cities became polluted, overcrowded, and blackened with soot and grime. Tenement buildings that were far from sanitary served as housing for the workers. The congested, polluted conditions of the British Isles prompted the trend toward suburbanization. Those who could afford to moved to healthier and more spacious housing on the city outskirts. Planning to control industrial and urban growth became widely accepted at the end of the 19th century when the poor conditions of the inner cities became a matter of public concern and served as a breeding ground for radical protest. The latter half of the 20th century was marked by a sharp decline in the manufacturing industry and welcomed the new growth centers: service-related industries. These economic growth sectors include research and development, computer software, media, and other brainpowered industries as opposed to mechanical-powered industries. The most striking feature of the urban settlement pattern of Britain is the dominating role of London. It is the seat of government, contains the headquarters for most major British companies and multinational corporations. It is the center of the English legal system, fashion, advertising, banking, insurance, publishing, etc. Growth is concentrated in the outer margins of the greater London area, creating a vast megalopolis in the southeast of Britain. A major factor in this growth is improved transportation and telecommunications. The Greenbelt Policies were developed before World War II and enforced through a series of planning acts. It controlled urban sprawl by creating a band of protected open land around the city. Urban growth is forced to take place beyond this band of open land.

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MODULE The 20th century also saw the steady movement of population away from the old urban core to the suburbs. Some were voluntary, others were compelled to move as a result of the government’s rehousing schemes. After WWII, crowded substandard housing of the Victorian era was demolished, and until the 1970’s local governments pursued urban renewal policies that included the mass demolition of whole streets and neighborhoods. Former inhabitants were rehoused in large new estates of high-rise blocks on peripheral urban sites. These estates became the new slums replacing the old. Residents felt alienated and shut-off from their old community and many residents suffered high rates of vandalism and violence. After two to three decades of their construction, high-density housing schemes in many parts of the country were being demolished because they had fallen into disrepair. Residential district were sharply defined by economic and social status. The poor were concentrated in rundown areas of the inner cities or in high-rise estates. Middle-income groups lived in the older suburban area, and the higher-income households that chose to move out of the elderly inner city terraced houses moved to private housing estates in the suburbs or neighboring small towns and villages that offered more space, more educational opportunities, and access to shopping. The large influx of immigrants from the Caribbean and Asia to Britain cities from the 1950’s to the 1970’s settled in the industrial areas of the older cities, closer to factories and to places of work. The combination of low employment opportunities, poor housing, and ethnic division has made the inner cities a seedbed for social tension. Inner city decline has long since been a problem of British governments. The first scheme to direct money into factory units in inner city areas established in the 1970’s used public funds in a partnership between central and local governments, later the emphasis shifted to ways of attracting private funding into inner-city redevelopment schemes. Enterprise Zones were established in major cities after 1980 to stimulate economic activity by tax concession and minimal planning restrictions. This was followed by the creation of Urban Development Corporations (UDCs). Which were central government agencies charged with attracting private capital into decaying inner-city areas. The most successful of the scheme’s initiatives is the scheme for the redevelopment of London’s disused docklands areas. Unfortunately, the UDCs created better conditions for business and industry and did not do much to solve the social problems of the inner city. 2.1.2

FRANCE The Romans established the basis of a well-developed urban system in the region. During their 500-year occupation of the area, they were able to found many towns. These sites were linked by a network of roads and the locations were chosen with such care that they remain important administrative centers until now. The rectangular gridiron street plan of the Romans can still be identified in many modern cities. Rapid population growth and expansion of trade stimulated a new phase of

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MODULE town building between the 11th and 14th centuries. Some towns were created and grew at the gates of castles or great abbeys. Others were founded as planned towns or bastides to assist in the colonization of land for farming. These bastides were characterized by parallel streets and arcaded market squares. France experienced a much slower rate of urbanization than its immediate neighbors, Britain and Germany. This was due to a limited scale of 19th century industrialization. The capital of Paris was already the most dominant city in the settlement pattern and expanded quickly in the 19 th century. Railroads made the rise of fashionable coastal resorts possible. Examples of these are Nice, Biarritz, Deauville, and Vichy. There are two distinct characteristics of the French urban system. There is a close relationship between the town and the country, and the country, and the stability of the urban system. The leading towns of two centuries ago or more are France’s most prominent cities today (with one or two exceptions). The small market town called bourg still acts as a link between the rural and urban world. There is usually a secondary school, the bourg’s banks, doctors, and lawyers. These will serve the inhabitants of the immediate neighborhood. Medium-sized towns are larger than the bourgs and can have from 20,000 to 200,000 inhabitants. These include manufacturing towns and others with specialized roles such as ports. Provincial cities in France are generally smaller than those in other European countries. 2.1.3

ITALY AND GREECE Italy and Greece have been noted for their cities since classical times. Traditionally, they have acted as both trading and local administrative centers. The countryside is characterized by a dense network of compact rural settlements. The rules of both countries attempted to colonized neighboring countries to extend their powers. In the 13th – 16th centuries, Florence and Venice were the most successful of the Renaissance cities, with established political influence overseas. Florence dominated the European banking system, and Venice dominated the maritime empire. These two countries are typically Mediterranean in character. Historic centers remain the hub of most social and economic activity and are crowded with commercial and administrative offices, boutiques, stores, theaters, cafes, restaurants, residential apartment buildings, etc. On the fringes thaee is spontaneous, largely unplanned growth where new factories and housing have sprung up. There is a great mixing of social groups within the city’s residential areas than in the United States. The more affluent classes have not deserted the inner city to the extend as in other countries. In some apartment buildings, wealthy tenants occupy the more spacious and airier upper floors while those who are less well-off

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MODULE occupy the lower floors. Single-family dwellings are rare within the city and can generally be afforded only by the very wealthy. With the high density of the their populations, Italian and Greek cities have remained compact. The cities are becoming increasingly jammed with traffic and are under-serviced as the public provision of roads, schools, parks, and the like has failed to keep up with the rate of population growth. In the 1980s, many new medium-sized towns were crated as new industries were sited in places that could provide space to expand but were close enough to the large centers to take advantage of their financial, marketing, and other producer services. The central areas of the large cities have consequently remained places of importance and have not been eroded by the movement to decentralized service activities as in other countries. Italy. Rome is not much bigger than Milan, the industrial-commercial center of the North. The country’s political unification in 1870 and urban traditions of the north resulted in a decentralized pattern of city growth. Before, unification, each of the individual Italian states had been dominated by its own capital. Italy’s population growth rate became twice the national average between 1951 and 1971 due to internal migration of workers from stagnating agriculture in the south and the industrial towns of the northwest. Movement from southern Italy has slowed to a trickle since the 1970s. Main flows are from small towns to the metropolises of Naples, Bari (capital of Aplulia in the southeast), and Palermo. Northem and central Italy experienced movement from old urban cores to new centers of economic development on the fringe of established urban areas. A striking feature of its urban centers, from one end of the peninsula to the other, is the inform architectural style of the public buildings, facades, official statues, and street signs that have been erected since the political unification in 1870. This is in marked contrast to the variety of styles found in buildings surviving from before that date. Greece. Large parts of Greece became depopulated as great numbers of people moved to Athens and to Salonike. Athens is located within the territory of the modern Greek state. It has dominance over the rest of the country due to the result of 150 years of political centralization after Greek independence was won in 1830 and not because of its geographical position. Centralization was initially necessary to consolidate the fragmented territory of the country of rocky peninsula divided by high mountain ranges and scattered islands. Nearly all the production of goods and services is based in the greater Athens urban area and distribution flows out from the center to the small towns and rural areas of the mainland and to the islands. The landmark in Athens are in danger of being swamped by the uncontrolled urban development. The city faces massive problems of air pollution caused by ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning

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MODULE vehicle exhaust and industry. This causes damage to the ancient stonework and endangers the health of the citizens.

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MODULE 2.2

URBAN PLANNING IN DEVELOPMENT COUNTRIES 2.2.1 INDIAN SUBCONTINENT A complex urban civilization flourished in the Indus Valley, consisting of a network of over 100 settlements. Further excavations revealed that two of the largest settlements, Harappa and MohenjoDaro had populations of over 50,000 as well as a formally planned city structure with complex sanitation arrangements and an advanced system of local government. Urbanization has its ancient roots in the Indian subcontinent. The settlement patterns are highly diverse, reflective of the rich combination of geographical, climatic, social, religious, and ethnic forces that have shaped the region. Most of the people living in the Indian subcontinent are still ruralbased – they live in small farming villages and communities. The most significant influence on contemporary urban patterns in the regions is due to the two centuries of British colonial rule. An extensive railroad system was created to link new urban centers and to serve Britain’s colonial interests. Calcutta, the northeastern port, was the chief city of British rule until New Delhi, in the center of the Ganges plain, was built as the new national capital at the start of the 20th century. There is great diversity in the pattern of settlement around the region due to the differences of geography and climate, and social, religious, and ethnic variety. Independence from British rule had a major impact on urban development in the subcontinent. In 1947, British India was partitioned to form two new states of Pakistan and India. This partition was largely due to religion. One immediate consequences of this was vast migration to these new states. Hindus and Sikhs moved to India, Muslims moved to West and East Pakistan. The influx of refugees also exacerbated social divisions within urban communities and the economic prosperity of these refugees and their contrasting religious practices and traditions led to conflicts with the indigenous urban populations. These differences still form an important part of national politics at present. The greatest transforming influence on the subcontinent’s major cities has been the scale of migration from the countryside, fueled by a combination of population growth, landlessness, and rural unemployment. Migrants are attracted to the cities by the perceived advantages they offer- employment opportunities, higher wages, better schools, and medical treatment. Urban industrial development has not expanded to meet these demands and many cannot find jobs, and are forced to live in shanty towns or makeshift shelters on the streets. While the urban population is concentrated in the largest cities, the region also has several smaller towns and villages which are also part of the urban network. These places play an important role as local markets, administrative centers, and sites for processing and distribution agricultural produce.

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MODULE The British, during their colonizing years, introduced European architectural styles and built spacious new settlements, formally planned with symmetrical street patterns, with strict separation of residential, commercial, and retail areas. These are in contrast to the bazaar, where temple sites dominated the center, no distinction marks the residential and commercial areas, and a city wall built for security encloses a dense pattern of narrow streets, passageways, and courtyards. The British community was segregated from the indigenous population in the hopes of avoiding disease and for protection against rebellion and civil commotion. The city’s growth has been rapid and chaotic. A lack of financial resources has restricted investment in housing in a modern urban infrastructure. There is also a lack of growth in the services sector, which leads to shortage in employment opportunities. 2.2.2

CHINA

Various areas of suitability for settlements in China is due to geographical diversity. China is the third largest country on earth and has one of the world’s oldest urban civilizations. Despite the grow of early cities and high culture, the population has remained tremendously rural and poor into the late 20th century. Overpopulation is China’s worst problem since the mid-19th century. The population declined briefly due to a famine in 1958-1960 that wiped out millions of people. The population soared once again until the 1970s, when the one-child family planning campaign began to be effective. Urban populations seesawed throughout 1950 to 1982 due to conflict large-scale migration patterns. People would flock to the cities in the 1950s during industrialization, to the communes during the “Great Leap Forward” in the early 1960s, and back to the countryside during the Cultural Revolution, and back to the cities in the 1970s Walls set early Chinese cities distinct from the countryside. It reflected the role of the city not only as a barrier against attack but also as a controlled, administered and ordered place. Virtually all ancient imperial centers in China were designed as walled compounds with outer and inner walls. Inside the city walls were more walls encircling courtyards palaces, offices, and common homes. Often, markets were located outside the main gates of the city and incorporate as the city grew. Many cities have special internal market district. Increased urban density and overcrowding is the characteristic of great modern cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Taipei, and Hong Kong. Tightly-packed buses share the roads with millions of bicycles. Private- owned cars were rare until the early 1990s. Public transport can barely cope with the demand from the commuters. Beyond the cities, the gap between rural and urban China remains obvious. There is no sharp distinction between rural and urban areas in the poorer provinces. City dwellers, though they have to live in crowded conditions, have better access to facilities. Many rural dwellers live without electricity or plumbing and have less access to educational and healthy facilities.

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MODULE 2.2.3

SOUTHEAST ASIA A rich and complex mix of people, culture, languages, and economies characterizes the cities of Southeast Asia. This mix is due to the pivotal position of Southeast Asia, between the Pacific and Indian oceans and of the region’s long history of international trade and urban culture. Southeast Asia has a relatively low level of urbanization as compared to the other parts of the world. Most people in this region are still farmers. While urban populations are increasing rapidly, they are concentrated in a relatively small number of major centers. Agricultural produced is collected and delivered directly to the major markets. Goods and services are sent out from the cities to the rural areas without a network of distribution centers in between. Migration from the rural areas gravitates towards the large cities due to a number of reasons. First is that services are generally much more widely available. Even squatter settlements on the edge of major centers are better provided than small towns. Second, migration creates much needed income for impoverished rural communities. Even the lowest levels of urban employment are likely to produce a higher income than could be earned in rural areas. Thirdly, the presence of a migration chain result in migrants from one particular area being settled in a certain part of the city and following similar occupations. Migration chains are set up through the presence of a group of friends, relatives, or fellow villagers in the city. The presence of these people act as a magnet, persuading others from the same family or community to try their luck in the urban environment. Once established, they in turn attract yet another group of migrants. Urban growth in Southeast Asia does not appear to be as closely related to industrial development as it was in western countries when they changed from being predominant agricultural to predominant urban societies. Employment opportunities are only capable of absorbing only a small proportion of the available labor force of migrants to the cities, so part of the urban populations obtains its income and necessities for hiring from the “informal” sector and is supported by systems of “shared poverty”. This is why there is a proliferation of street vendors, automobile window cleaners, collectors of waste materials, producers of goods on an often tiny scale, and the large number of middlemen handing minute quantities of goods and taking miniscule “cuts” on each transaction. The informal sector supplies much of the basic needs of the urban population and helps to hold wage levels down across the whole workforce. The layout of most major towns and cities in Southeast Asia reflects their evolution as trading centers during the colonial period. Western administrative and commercial district were developed around the central port zone. The city landscape is often varied. In many cities, the needs of growing, comparatively wealthy urban middle class are met by the development of major shopping and leisure complexes outside the centers. Squatters settlements have sprung up on the edges of all the cities, and uncontrolled urban growth has sprung up on the edges of all the cities, and uncontrolled urban growth has engulfed villages that have barely been integrated in the urban fabric.

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MODULE

Rapid urban growth, combined with the lack of regulations and insufficient funding for urban programs is already resulting in major problems of congestion and pollution throughout the region. Provision for freshwater supplies, sewerage and drained, electricity, surfaced roads and transportation are all inadequate to meet present needs, needless to say, with future expansion. Government attempts to limit migration and develop secondary centers and outlying rural areas have so far proved ineffective.

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MODULE 2.3

THE PHILIPPINE PLANNING SYSTEM See Appendix C: Future Directions of Urban Planning in the Philippines by Nathaniel Von Einsiedel. In the 1920s, the Revised Administrative Code was amended to provide for the preparation by the director of public works of general plans for adoption by municipal and provincial governments. The function of the plan was to lay out and locate public buildings, parks, major land use areas for further action in the form of zoning ordinances, etc. At the conclusion of World War II, President Segio Osmena created the National Urban Planning Commission (NUPC) through Executive Order 98 in 1946. It was meant to prepared plans for the rebuilding of the cities which had been destroyed during the war. It was authorized to adopt general plans, zoning ordinances, and building and subdivision regulations for any urban area of the Philippines. It was empowered to delegate to the local planning commission powers and duties that it deemed proper, imposing the procedural restrictions laid down by the Executive Order. It also determined the organization of these local planning bodies and limit the scope of the exercise of their particular planning powers or duties. In 1962, President Macapagal issued Administrative Order 31, directing municipal boards and city councils to form planning boards to prepare physical development plans, subdivision, zoning, and building regulations, and enjoining them to harmonize all public improvements with the duly approved town or city development plan. In the 1970s, Republic Act 5223 authorized any provincial, municipal, or city government to enter into any contract with private persons for the construction of self-liquidating projects. Upon the implementation of Republic Act 3931, also known as the Pollution Control Law, the city of district engineers shall decide on applications on the issuance or renewal of permits for the construction and operation of any commercial or industrial establishment that may cause an increase in the discharge of wastes, and the construction or use of any new outlet for the discharge of any waste directly into the waters or atmospheric air of the Philippines. The Philippines has a predominantly agricultural economy, with increasing urbanization. The concept of human settlements was introduced to the Philippines by the national delegation that attended the 1969 United Nations conference in Stockholm. The Task Force of Human Settlements was created in 1973, by President Ferdinand Marcos, to look into three (3) major aspects of national development – the locational/geographic dimension of the national economic development plan, the national housing policy and implementation program, and the planning and management of the Metro Manila Area. The Metro Manila Commission was created in 1975 and it consolidated the delivery of services common to the cities and towns comprising the metropolis. These services include: (1) solidwaste management, (2) traffic and transportation, (3) flood control and drainage, (4) health and sanitation, and (5) land use planning and zoning. It propagated the first metropolitan – wide land use and planning ordinance. ARCH 62: Introduction to Urban and Regional Planning

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