Unit-4

UNIT- 4

WHAT IS QUALITY????? Quality is the ability of a product or service to consistently meet or exceed customer Expectations.

“The degree of excellence of a thing” (Webster’s Dictionary)

DIMENSIONS OF QUALITY 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Performance - characteristics of the product or service Aesthetics- appearance, feel, smell, taste Special features - extra characteristics Conformance - customer’s expectations Safety - risk of injury or harm Reliability - consistency of performance Durability - useful life of the product or service Perception - reputation Service after the sale - handling of complaints, customer satisfaction

THE DETERMINANTS OF QUALITY Quality of Design - intention of designers to include or exclude features in a product or service designed to meet a customer/client need/want/requirement.- it represents the inherent value of the product or service in the marketplace  Poor design can result in manufacturing or service problems • Customer disapproval 

CONT…. Quality conformance - the degree to which the goods or services conform to the intent of the designers • Requires customer education/awareness as to the intended use of the product/service (e.g. Electrical requirements, medication instructions, attorney advice)  Ease of use  Service after delivery 

FITNESS FOR CONSUMER USE

BENEFITS OF QUALITY Higher customer satisfaction  Reliable products/services  Better efficiency of operations  More productivity & profit  Better morale of work force  Less wastage costs  Less Inspection costs  Improved process  More market share  Spread of happiness & prosperity  Better quality of life for all. 

COSTS OF QUALITY 

When considering the “costs of quality” we must consider:

Failure costs - costs caused by defective parts, products, or faulty services . Internal - failures discovered during production (e.g. rework, problems, material/product losses, downtime) . External - failures discovered after delivery (e.g. warranty, returned goods, liability claims, penalties)  Appraisal costs - costs of activities designed to ensure quality or uncover defects (e.g. in-line inspection, final inspection, field testing, crash test dummies, crumpled cars)  Prevention costs - costs of preventing defects from occurring (e.g. training, working with vendors, quality control procedures, quality improvement programs, extra attention in design and production) 

DEMING’S 14 POINTS    

  

Create constancy of purpose Adopt philosophy of prevention Cease dependence on inspection Do not award business based on price tag alone Constantly improve system and workers Institute worker training Adopt and institute leadership

CONT…..    

  

Eliminate fear among employees Eliminate barriers between departments Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets Remove numerical quotas Enhance worker pride Institute vigorous training & education programs Take action to accomplish the transformation

THE PDCA CYCLE

Act

Plan

Check

Do

PDCA CYCLE- SEVEN STEPS OR PHASES Identify the opportunity  Analyze the current process  Develop the optimal solution (s)  Implement changes  Study the results  Standardize the solution  Plan for the future. 

CONTINUOUS PROCESS IMPROVEMENT CYCLE Phase I Identify the Opportunity

Phase 7

Phase 2

Plan for the future

Analyze the process

Act

Plan

Check

Phase 6 Standardise the solution

Do Phase 3 Develop the optimal solution(s)

Phae 5 Study the results

Phase 4 Implementation

QUALITY CIRCLE 

Voluntary groups of employees who work on similar tasks or share an area of responsibility



They agree to meet on a regular basis to discuss & solve

problems related to work. 

They operate on the principle that

employee

participation in decision-making and problem-solving improves the quality of work

OBJECTIVES OF QC Change in Attitude  Self development  Development of self spirit  Improved organizational culture 

STRUCTURE OF QUALITY CIRCLE

A steering committee

Co-ordinator Facilitator Circle leader

Circle members

THE OPERATION OF QUALITY CIRCLE 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

Problem identification Problem selection Problem Analysis Generate alternative solutions Select the most appropriate solution Prepare plan of action present solution to management for approval. Implementation of solution

BASIC PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES/ 7QC TOOLS The following techniques are most commonly used to analyse and solve work related problems. o Pareto chart  Histogram  Flow diagram  Check sheet  Scatter diagram  Control chart  Run chart  Cause and effect diagram

HISTOGRAM 

Histograms are graphical frequency tables that visually capture and display the variation in a set of data. 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

1 2

6 13 10 16 19 17 12 16 20 17 13

5 6 2

1

PARETO CHART 30

28

25 20 16

15

12

12

10 6

5

4

3

0 Loose Threads

Stitching flaws

Button problems

Material flaws

FLOWCHART A flowchart diagrams the steps in a process.  Flowcharts help problem solvers better understand the process so they can highlight quality problems. 

FLOWCHART

CHECK SHEET 

A check sheet is a fact-finding tool used to collect data about quality problems. A typical check sheet tallies the number of defects by previously identified categories. The next step is to graph the defects per category in a histogram.

CHECK SHEET

Defect Type

Shifts











 



 

CHECK SHEET COMPONENTS REPLACED BY LAB TIME PERIOD: 22 Feb to 27 Feb 1998 REPAIR TECHNICIAN: Bob TV SET MODEL 1013

Integrated Circuits |||| Capacitors |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| Resistors || Transformers |||| Commands CRT |

CAUSE-AND-EFFECT DIAGRAMS 

Show the relationships between a problem and its possible causes.

CAUSE AND EFFECT “SKELETON” Materials

Procedures

Quality Problem

People

Equipment

SCATTER DIAGRAM 

Scatter diagrams and tightness of points plotted on the graph gives an indication of the strength of the relationship. A cluster of points resembling a straight line indicates the strongest correlation between the variables. In this graph, there is a strong positive correlation between x and y.

SCATTER DIAGRAM

.

NEW SEVEN Q.C. TOOLS  Affinity

Diagrams

 Relations

 Tree

Diagrams

Diagrams

 Matrix

 Arrow

Diagrams

Diagrams  Process Decision Program Charts  Matrix Data Analysis

AFFINITY DIAGRAMS  Affinity

diagram is a tool that gather large amount of language data( ideas, opinions, issues) and organises them into grouping based on their natural relationships.

CONSTRUCTING AN AFFINITY DIAGRAM GROUP METHOD APPROACH  Select

a topic  Collect verbal data by brainstorming  Discuss info collected until everyone understands it thoroughly  Write each item on separate data card  Spread out all cards on table  Move data cards into groups of similar themes

CONT…  Combine

statements on data cards to new Affinity statement  Make new card with Affinity statement  Continue to combine until less than 5 groups

RELATIONS DIAGRAMS  For

Finding Solutions Strategies by Clarifying Relationships with Complex Interrelated Causes  Resolves tangled issues by unraveling the logical connection 

Allows for “Multi-directional” thinking rather than linear



Also known as Interrelationship diagrams

CONSTRUCTING A RELATIONS DIAGRAM  Express

the problem in form of “Why isn’t something happening?”  Each member lists 5 causes affecting problem  Write each item on a card  Discuss info collected until everyone understands it thoroughly  Move cards into similar groups

CONT…. 

Asking

why,

explore

the

cause-effect

relationships, and divide the cards into primary, secondary and tertiary causes 

Connect all cards by these relationships



Further discuss until all possible causes have been identified



Review whole diagram looking for relationships among causes



Connect all related groups

COMPLETING A RELATIONS DIAGRAM Tertiary Cause

Secondary Cause

Primary Cause

Primary Cause Secondary Cause

Why doesn’t X happen?

Primary Cause

Tertiary Cause 4th level Cause

Tertiary Cause

Secondary Cause

Primary Cause Secondary Cause

Secondary Cause

Tertiary Slide 7 0f 7 Cause

6th level Cause

Tertiary Cause 4th level Cause

5th level Cause

Source: Nayatani, Y., The Seven New QC Tools (Tokyo, Japan, 3A Corporation, 1984)

TREE DIAGRAMS For Systematically Pursuing the Best Strategies for Attaining an Objective

The tree diagram is an analysis tool for breaking down a broad or top level goal of a team into many levels of increasingly detailed and specific actions that need to be done in order to achieve the stated goal.

TREE DIAGRAMS Constructing a Tree Diagram Group Method Approach

 Write Relations (Objective card)

Diagram topic

 Identify

constraints on how objective can be achieved  Discuss means of achieving objective (primary means, first level strategy)

 Take

each primary mean, write objective for achieving it (secondary means)

CONT…  Continue

to expand to the fourth level

 Review

each system of means in both directions (from objective to means and means to objective)

 Connect

all levels

Completing a Tree Diagram 4th means

Secondary means

3rd means

4th means

3rd means

4th means

Primary means 3rd means

4th means 4th means

Secondary means

3rd means 4th means

To Accomplish

4th means

Secondary means

3rd means

4th means

3rd means

4th means 4th means

Primary means Constraints Secondary means

3rd means

4th means

3rd means

4th means

MATRIX DIAGRAM 

The purpose of a matrix diagram is to explore the existence and the extent of relations between individual items in two sets of factors or features or characteristics and express them in a symbolic form that is easy to understand.

PROCEDURE Decide the two sets of factors for which relations are required to be clarified.  Call the set of the main factors ‘features’  The set of factors dependent on it counterpart ‘characteristics’.  Divide the features into primary, secondary and tertiary features.  Divide the characteristics into primary, secondary and tertiary characteristics 



CONT… Place the features vertically on the left hand side of the matrix and characteristics horizontally on top of the matrix.  Enter the importance of the features on the column after that for the tertiary features.  In the main body of the matrix, place symbols at the squares denoting the relationship between the feature and the characteristic meeting at the intersection.  The symbols to be used are : 

CONT… Strong relationship  Medium relationship  Weak relationship 



In case there is no relation between the concerned feature and characteristic, leave the square blank to indicate ‘no relation’.

MATRIX DATA ANALYSIS DIAGRAM 

The purpose of matrix data analysis diagram is to present numerical data about two sets of factors in a matrix form and analyse it to get numerical output.

PROCEDURE Decide the two factors whose relations are to be analysed.  Check the number of individual items in the two factors.  Prepare a matrix to accommodate all the items of the two factors.  Enter numerical data in the matrix.  Give the diagram a suitable title. 

PROCESS DECISION PROGRAMME CHART 

The Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC) is a very useful and powerful method to overcome a problem or a goal to be achieved which are not familiar. With the help of PDPC we can map out all the conceivable events or contingencies that can occur in the implementation stage and also find out feasible counter measures to overcome these problems.

PROCEDURE Prepare a ‘normal’ flowchart of the process with all expected events as steps in the chart.  Consider the possibility of the process not going as per the plan due to any abnormal, though less probable, occurrences.  Show these occurrences on the flowchart through branching at appropriate locations. 

CONT… Consider how the abnormal occurrence will affect the process and search for ways and means to counter the effect.  Show these countermeasures in rectangles connecting the corresponding abnormal occurrence on one side and the process objective or the goal on the other.  Give a suitable title to the diagram. 

ARROW DIAGRAM 

The diagram provides a clear understanding of the schedule of various steps in the process which helps one to monitor the process for ensuring its completion on time.

PROCEDURE

 From

strategies on Tree diagram, select one (Objective of Arrow Diagram)  Identify constraints to Objective  List all activities necessary to achieving Objective  Write all essential activities on separate cards

CONT…  Organize

cards in sequential order of

activities  Remove any duplicate activities  Review order of activities, find sequence with greatest amount of activities  Arrange parallel activities

CONT…

 Examine

path, number nodes in sequence from left to right  Record names and other necessary information

Next, complete the diagram

TPM DEFINITION A company-wide team-based effort to build quality into equipment and to improve overall equipment effectiveness  Total 







accidents,

defects

Productive  



all employees are involved it aims to eliminate all breakdowns

actions are performed while production goes on troubles for production are minimized

Maintenance  

keep in good condition repair, clean, lubricate

and

1. TPM DEFINITION (2) 

TPM combines the traditionally American practice of preventive maintenance with Total Quality Control and Total Employee Involvement, to create a culture where operators develop ownership of their equipment, and become full partners with Maintenance, Engineering and Management to assure equipment operates properly everyday.

3. TPM PRINCIPLES Increase Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)  Improve existing planned maintenance systems  The operator is the best condition monitor  Provide training to upgrade operations and maintenance skills  Involve everyone and utilize cross-functional teamwork 



WHAT IS SIX SIGMA? •

Sigma is a letter • in the Greek Alphabet

•

• • • •

•

Degree of variation; Level of performance in terms of defects; Statistical measurement of process capability; Benchmark for comparison; Process improvement methodology; It is a Goal; Strategy for change; A commitment to customers to achieve an acceptable level of performance

64

SIX SIGMA DEFINITIONS •

Business Definition A break through strategy to significantly improve customer satisfaction and shareholder value by reducing variability in every aspect of business.

65

SIX SIGMA PROJECT METHODOLOGY Project Phases Define

 Identify, evaluate and select projects for improvement  Set goals  Form teams.

Measure

Analyze

 Collect data  Analyze data, on size of the establish and selected confirm the “ problem, vital few “  identify key determinants customer of the requirements, performance.  Determine  Validate key product hypothesis and process characteristic.

Improve

Control

 Improvement  Establish strategy standards to  Develop ideas maintain to remove root process; causes  Design the  Design and controls, carry out implement experiments, and monitor.  Optimize the  Evaluate process. financial  Final impact of the solutions project

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WHAT IS ISO?

ISO is the acronym for International Organization for Standardization located in Geneva, Switzerland.  It is the specialized international agency for standardization of system and its certification.  It is an attempt to bring in uniformity in the quality standard of different countries. At present , It comprises the national standard bodies of 91 countries. 

OBJECTIVES OF ISO 9000 



To facilitate international trade of goods and services. To obtain competitiveness by obtaining required quality in a cost effective way.

ISO 9000 CLAUSES 

Clause 1- Scope (1.1:General,1.2 :Application)



Clause 2- Normative Reference



Clause 3- Terms and definition



Clause 4- Quality Management System

(4.1: General Requirements, 4.2: Documentation Requirements)

Clause-5 Management Responsibly (5.1: Management Commitment, 5.2: Customer Focus, 5.3: Quality Policy, 5.4: Planning objectives & system, 5.5: Responsibility, Authority and Communication, 5.6: Management Review) 

Clause -6 Resource Management (6.1: Provision for Resources, 6.2: Human Resources, 6.3: Infrastructure, 6.4: Work environment) 

Clause-8 Measurement , Analysis and Improvement (8.1: General, 8.2: Monitoring and measurement, 8.3: Control of Non-conformity, 8.4: Analysis of Data, 8.5: Improvement)  Clause- 7 Product Realizations (7.1: Planning of Product, 7.2: Customer Related Process e.g. Determination of requirement, Review of requirement & Customer Communication 7.3: Design & Development e.g. Design planning , inputs , output. Review, verification, and validation, 7.4: Purchasing, 7.5: Product and service Provision,7.6: Control of monitoring and measuring devices ), 

ISO 9001:2000

OBJECTIVE Introduce the concept of new ISO 9001 Standard

Highlight important areas and changes of the new standard

Briefly introduce the system requirements of the new standard

WHAT IS ISO 9001: 2000 2nd revision of Quality Management System Requirement Standard from International Organization for Standards

Replacement for previous ISO 9001 / 9002 and 9003 standards of 1994

Introduced considerable conceptual changes

NEW ISO 9001 Management Responsibility

General requirements

Measurement, analysis & improvements

Resource QMS management

Product Realization

Continual Improvement cycle

General requirements

PROS AND CONS More business oriented. Less procedure oriented Company wide involvement Mutual benefit to all interested parties Customer focus than product focus Continual improvements Less emphasis on documentation

Demanding more resources ??

CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTING NEW STANDARD Management Support

Encouragement

New ISO

Communication

Other employee Support

ISO 9001:2000 TRANSITION PROCESS 1st visit

2nd visit

Review of QMS & Product realization

Review of Measureme nt, analysis & improveme nts

3rd visit

Review of Management responsibility

4th visit

Review of Resource management

2 years

NUMERICAL ABC company produces 2000 TV sets in a year, for which it needs an equal number of pictured tube. Each tube cost RS. 10 and the cost to hold a tube in stock for a year is rupees 2.40 besides the cost of placing an order is RS 150 which is not related to its size.  Now, if an order of 2000 tubes is placed only one order per annum is required. When 1000 units are ordered, two orders in a year are need, while if 500 units are ordered to be supplied, then total of 4 orders per annum are required.  Find out the order size that minimizes the cost function TQ.  Number of working days in a year are 250  Lead time 15 days 