VePi Newsletters The Electrical Power Systems Division
The Underground distribution systems section Number: 2
Distribution transformers: Methods of mounting (installing) distribution transformers on poles: These transformers can be fastened directly to the poles, hung from cross arms, mounted on racks or platforms or mounted on brackets attached to the poles. The KVA ratings for such transformers are low i.e. 167 or 250. The pole mounted transformers can be installed in clusters of 3 transformers attached to the supporting brackets of which the latter are attached to the poles. Main attachments (accessories) used to complete the installation of the overhead (pole mounted) distribution transformer: The high voltage bushing with the clamp type connector is connected to the primary (medium voltage circuit) and the low voltage cables are connected to spade type connectors. The pole mounted transformers use oil as the insulating material. They are installed in many configurations. In general, these transformers are connected to the primary circuit through a current limiting fuse and a fuse cutout. To protect the transformers against lightning or voltage surges, the primary of the transformer will have a lightning arrester connected across it and the ground. There is another type of pole mounted transformers which is the completely self protected one (CSP). Primary fuses and lightning arresters are included with the transformer, thus there is no need to any external protective device except for a current limiting fuse.
Main components (accessories) that are mounted or included with the padmounted or vault type distribution transformers to complete its installation: The distribution transformers rating for single phase varies from 10 KVA to 1MVA, for three phase 30 KVA to 2.5 MVA. The power transformers come in sizes from 3MVA to 150MVA for 3 phase constructions. In distribution systems, three phase transformers and three phase banks (i.e. 3 single phase connected to provide a delta or wye 3 phase configuration ) are quite common. In general, the protection of the power transformers is through the use of protective relay (o/c or differential & over current ground) and gas relays. The distribution transformers are protected by fuses (current limiting and expulsion types). Pad mounts can be classified into radial feed and loop feed. The pad mounted transformers will have load or fault sensing (expulsion) type fuse. In series with this fuse a current limiting backup fuse under the oil. For vault mounted transformers, a series of current limiting and expulsion type with power fuse or fuse link mounted on the pole or the wall of the vault are most probably used as primary protection. For a typical general layout of a vault, refer to fig. 1.4. For vault mounted and pad mounted, the primary connection is made through the use of elbows (where the cables are connected) and inserts in the transformers connected to the deep well (cavity) bushings; the
secondary windings of the transformers are brought out through L.V. bushings and spade terminals. Other accessories that are found in distribution transformers are: pressure relief devices, filler plugs, drain plugs and/or sampling valves, parking stands for elbows, tap changers (offload), load break switches for radial feed pad mounts and sectionalizing switch for loop feed. Basic parts of a transformer: The general arrangement of any transformer will have the following basic parts: an iron core consisting of laminated sheets, the primary and the secondary windings. The reason of having the cores laminated with insulation between the lamination is to reduce the eddy currents induced by the alternating magnetic flux. The vertical parts of the core are usually termed the limbs and the horizontal are the yokes. The two designs for the core are the core type where the iron core forming the limbs are surrounded by the windings and the shell type where the windings more completely surrounded by the iron (fig. 1.5). The material of the core is either the grain oriented silicon steel or the amorphous alloys. The silicon steel (iron) contains silicon in the 3 1/2% level. The thickness of the laminates is in the range of .014 inches (29 guage). For
high efficiency transformers or motors the steel used would have silicon in the 45% range. The steel used in these apparatus is designated for example as M2 (.007"), M3 (.009") or M6 (.016").
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Curves that define the electric steel properties of a transformers: There are a few curves that define the important properties of the electric steel as used in transformers, they are: BH loop: the magnetic induction (in weber /m2, for example) vs. the magnetic field strength, also termed magnetizing force (in ampere turns/cm or per m) it is known as the hysteresis loop. the d c magnetization curve: which is the magnetic induction (B) vs. the magnetizing force(H). Core loss: the magnetic inductions (eg. in weber/sq.m) vs. the core loss in watts/LB. the VA loss curve: the exciting volt ampere rms/LB vs. exciting losses in VA/LB (Pa). the angle from rolling direction: it is the angle from the rolling direction in deg. vs. Pa. Properties of the electric steel, structure sensitive & nonstructure sensitive: The properties of the magnetic materials depend on: the chemical composition, fabrication process and heat treatment. Saturation (magnetization) changes slowly by variation in chemical composition but is unaffected by fabrication (including impurities) or heat treatment. Permeability (µ) which equals B/H, coerceive force (it is the dc magnetizing force at which the magnetic induction is zero when the mayerial is in a symmetrically cyclically magnetized condition) and hysteresis loss are structure sensitive i.e. affected by composition, impurities, strain, temperature, crystal structure and orientation. At constant magnetic field, the core loss increases with increased sheet thickness. It is the eddy current component in the core losses that increases with the increase in the thickness. Amorphous metals: Amorphous metals are alloys with noncrystalline atomic structure. The atoms are arranged randomly in relation to each other. It is easier to magnetize this type of alloys than crystalline
ones. If this type of material is used to build distribution transformers, lower core losses will produced. The cooling rate of the liquid alloy to obtain the amorphous metal structure is in the order of 1 million degrees per second. There are a few methods of quenching to produce this material. The process that is used in practice is the planar flow casting. This technique, in a simplified manner produces the solidified metal through the following steps: liquid alloy is melted and delivered to a holding reservoir. the alloy is delivered through a tap in the bottom of the reservoir to the casting nozzle and then the quenching belt. the quenching belt has the cooling box and leads the quenched ribbon to the measuring stand and winding machinery. Cores of distribution transformers: The core construction can be any of the following, function of the rating and the design: wound, butt, or mittered (fig. 1.5a). The wound (spiral) core may have the steel sheets cut to pre determined lengths (commonly used) or sheets with no cuts, this is a common design with oil filled distribution transformers. The butt (and lap) design will have two different sizes of sheets, the first make up the legs and the other to make the yokes. In this design, the gaps between the different steel parts (in the flux path) may be the reason for the noise and the increase in the required ampereturns to achieve the desired (rated) flux density. The mittered core will have the sheets for the legs and yokes cut at 45° in order to have the flux path always in the direction the steel was rolled (grain oriented). Hot rolled or cold rolled steels are used in transformers with regular grain or high permeability grain oriented properties.
Arrangements of coils of distribution transformers:? The major winding types are the concentric (the l.v. is closer to the core and the h.v. is wound on top of the l.v.) and the sandwiched (where the secondary winding sandwich is on top and bottom of the primary one), fig. 1.6. The wires used in forming the coils are insulated copper or aluminum. The coils are of the prewound (formed) construction and can be of the cylindrical or disc type. Cylindrical coils are wound in helical layers, with layers insulated from each other. Insulating cylinders are placed between the core and the first coil. They are,also, placed between the cylindrical windings. Disc coils may be one or multi turns per layer. Multilayers have an insulating material between them. A complete winding consists of stacked discs of coils with inter coil insulation. The winding configuration will have an effect on the transient response of the transformer. In dry type transformers, there are three major types of windings/windings insulation combination. They are: open coil, cast coil and coated coil. The wires can have any of the following forms: circular, rectangular (strip) or oval.
Exciting current components: A reminder, the exciting current can be broken down into a fundamental and a family of odd harmonics (using Fourier analysis). The fundamental component can further be resolved into two components, one in phase with the counter e.m.f. and another out of phase by 90°. The core loss absorbed by the hystersis and eddy current losses in the core, account for that component in phase with the e.m.f. The magnetizing current equals the exciting current minus the core loss component which means it is equal to all the harmonics plus the out of phase fundamental component. At constant magnetic induction and magnetic strength field, the total losses decrease with the increase in the permeability. For the same permeability, the losses increase with the increase in the sheet thickness. The increase of the grain size number reduces the losses, as well as the increase in percent silicon (increase in the resistivity) reduces the losses. The increase in the tensile strength will reduce the losses.
Methods of insulation of coils of transformers: The open coil uses a method whereby the transformer coils after being wound are immersed in an insulating varnish like silicone. The varnish fills the air voids and coats the coil surface with about 2 mils(.002") protective coating. The different types of wound coils used in this method can be any of the following: barrel (cylindrical) or disc or sectional. The cast coil is used with the barrel or sectional windings. The coils are placed in a casting mould. The mould and coils are then placed in a vacuum chamber and evacuated. An epoxy resin (of low viscosity) is put (injected) inside the mould (under vacuum). The mould with its contents is then placed in an oven to solidify (ovenbake) the resin. The resulting insulation coating is 250 mils, approximately. The coated coil is used with similar windings as used with the cast coil insulating type. After the windings were prepared, the coils are placed in a vacuum chamber and evacuated, then flooded under vacuum with a low viscosity epoxy resin. The coils are drained
and baked (to set the resin). This process is repeated, but this time with a high viscosity resin. the coating over the windings will be about 100 mils. Transformer losses under load & noload conditions: Losses in distribution transformers can be classified into load and noload losses. The load
losses equal I2R and as can be seen varies with the square of the load current. It is, also, referred to as winding losses. The noload losses are the result of the electric currents and magnetic fields necessary to magnetize the transformers core. The no load losses are present as long as the transformer is kept energized (it is independent of the transformer loading). Auxiliary losses (like fans energy consumption that is charged to the demand) are not available with the distribution transformers but are present in the substation transformers above 5MVA ratings. The total owning cost of a transformer constitute of the initial cost (purchasing price), cost of noload losses (over the expected life of the transformer) and load losses (over the expected life of the transformer) and may be the maintenance cost (over the expected life of the transformer). The losses cost and maintenance (if included) are presented as first cost (present value) in order to make the evaluation of the total owning cost of the different available transformers for each size or rating (of transformer) possible. Causes of generated gases in oil filled transformer: The properties of the new oil to be used in transformers, the tests performed on the oil, the acceptable values from the different tests, the interpretation of the used oil test results and the instruments used to detect gases in oil are covered fully in ASTM and IEEE related standards. Gases due to composition of oil and solid insulation result from conductor temperature (due to load losses) and exposure to arc temperature. Gases under low energy discharges and partial discharge (corona) conditions are formed, mainly by ionic bombardment. The products that result from thermal decomposition of oil impregnated cellulose material are carbon oxides (CO & CO2) and hydrogen (H2) or methane (CH4). Factors affecting the generation of gas in oil immersed transformers: The volume of the generated gas and its rate depend on the temperature and the volume of the heated material. The breaking of carbonhydrogen and carboncarbon bonds result from the thermal or electrical faults under oil. The arc under oil will have a high pressure gas bubble with the following fluids, from the outside toward the arc, inwardly (of the bubble): oil, wet oil vapour, superheated oil vapour, hydrocarbons (C2H2 acetylene) and hydrogen. The arc runs in a mixture of hydrogen ions, metal vapour, electrons. Thus, to use the presence of the gas in the transformer oil as an indication of the presence of a fault, three distinctive types of faults have to be defined. The three types are: thermal, electrical (low intensity discharges) and high intensity electrical arcs. The gases that may be found in transformer oil either under normal or faulty conditions are: methane (CH4), ethylene (C2H4), ethane (C2H6), acetylene (C2H2), hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). The thermal faults that will cause the oil temperature to rise to up to 500 deg.C will produce H2, CH4 and trace quantities of C2H4 & C2H6. Temperatures in the middle zone will generate significant quantities of C2H6 & C2H4. At the upper end of the thermal faults and high intensity arcing (electrical) faults, the
temperature range will be 700 to 1800 deg.C and the gases yielded are: H2, C2H4 and traces to significant amounts of C2H2. Thermal decomposition of cellulose and other solid insulating materials will produce CO, CO2 and water vapour. The ratio of CO2/CO or the ppm (quantity) may be used as an indication of the insulation disintegration. For electrical low intensity discharges under oil, H2, CH4 and traces of C2H2 will be produced. Different types of transformers: The different types of transformers found in distribution systems are: Power (up to 10MVA) liquid filled (oil), power (over 10 up to 100 MVA) oil filled with radiators/fans (one or 2 sets), single phase distribution transformers/oil filled (with or without radiators/fans) up to 500 KVA, three phase distribution transformers/oil filled (with or without radiators/fans) up to 1.5MVA, dry type power transformers/3 phase 300 KVA to 2MVA or silicone filled or epoxy resin insulated for indoor installations. All oil filled transformers are installed outdoor unless a special layout with fire proof (resisting) material and appropriate barriers are used, then indoor installation is possible. Distribution transformers can be of the pole mounted, vault or padmounted type. The primary voltage of power transformers can be as high as 750 KV, though the most common are 345KV, 220KV, 115KV, for distribution transformers as high as 72KV though the most common are 34.5, 25KV (27.6KV), 15KV. Standards: The standards that govern distribution transformers are: CSA "Single phase & three phase distribution transformers" Std. C2, CSA "Dry type transformers" C9, CSA "Guide for loading Drytype distribution and power transformers" C9.1 and CSA "Insulating oil" C50. The distribution transformers are defined as follows: the voltage ratings (insulation class level of primary h.v. winding, the primary and secondary windings rated voltage), short circuit capability for a fault on the bushings of the transformer (current value and its corresponding duration), dielectric test values (applied voltage for 1 minute, full wave and chopped BIL and time to flash over for the chopped), outdoor transformer bushings ratings (defined by their insulation class, 60HZ 1 minute/dry, 10 second/wet dielectric withstandability, the full wave and chopped BIL), audible sound levels and induced voltage tests. Lightning arresters parameters: The important parameters by which L.A. are defined are: duty cycle voltage, impulse test crest voltage, power frequency voltage (dry and wet for outdoor installations), impulse current rating, maximum continuous operating voltage, switching surges capability, high current/short time and low current/long duration rating, material of housing, design of internals ie. gapped or gapless elements (nonlinear resistance material). Home of VePi