Distribution transformers Introduction & theoretical background: Transformers as found in the electrical distribution systems can be classified according to their application into: instrument, power and distribution. Instrument transformers are either potential (voltage) or current transformers. Power are either dry or liquid filled. Distribution can be classified also into dry or liquid filled and liquid filled can further be classified into pole mounted or pad mounted. The standards that govern the components manufacturing, the assembly and testing of transformers are either of CSA, ANSI or IEC and may be CEA. For the dry type transformers the CSA standards are : CSA C9 & C9.1 that cover "The Dry type transformers" design, testing and loading. The CSAC2 & C88 cover the single phase & three phase distribution transformers (ONAN & LNAN) and power transformers & reactors. The ANSI C57 (a series of standards) covers dry & liquid filled transformers design, testing and loading. The principles of operation of any electric machine including transformers, d.c. rotating machines, induction and synchronous machines are governed by, basically, five fundamental laws. These laws are: Faraday's law of induction, Kirchoff's law of the electric circuit Ampere's law of the magnetic field, Biot Sevart's law of force on a conductor in a magnetic field and the law that governs the force exerted between two current carrying conductors placed in the same vicity. Faraday's law of induction states that if a closed conducting coil is inserted in a magnetic field (with changing magnetic flux) an electromotive force (emf) is induced in the coil. The direction of the induced e.m.f. is governed by Lenz's law which states that the direction of an induced e.m.f. is always such that it tends to set up a current opposing, the motion or the change of flux responsible for inducing that e.m.f. Fareday's law of induction can be written: e = N (dØ/dt)108 volt where e is the induced e.m.f., N is the number of turns per coil crossing the flux, Ø is the flux in maxwells, t in seconds, or e = N (dØ/dt); where Ø is in weber. There are 2 types of induction, self & mutual. The e.m.f. will be induced in a circuit if its own flux is changed by changing its current (self). If the flux of an adjacent circuit is changed by changing the current in the latter circuit, e.m.f. will be induced in the first (mutual). es = L di/dt; where L in henries (self inductance of coil), em1 = M di2/dt; where M is the mutual inductance in henries, em1 is the e.m.f. induced in coil 1 due to current in adjacent coil 2. The second law, Kirchoff's mesh which states that in each mesh of a network the sum of all impressed and induced e.m.f. is equal to the sum of all resistive voltage drop (V+E) = IR; where V is the impressed voltage, E is the induced voltage, I is the current in the mesh and R is the resistance of the circuit. Applying Kirchoff's law to an RL circuit, the equation for the voltage drops is v = ir + L di/dt; where v is the instantaneous value of the impressed voltage, i is the current. When the same law is applied to a circuit with a mutual inductance the following expresses the voltages relation v1 = L1(di1/dt) + M(di2/dt) + i1R1. The third is Ampere's (circuital law of the magnetic field. It states that the line integral of the magnetic field strength along a closed path is equal to the sum of the ampere turns with which the path linked. It can be written as
H1 dl = NI; where H1 is the magnetic field
intensity , dl is the element of the magnetic circuit, N is the number of turns which are linked by the magnetic flux and I is the current flowing in the coil. The ohm law for the magnetic circuits is obtained
from the above equation and it states that Ø = .4(Є)(
)(NIA/l); Rm = Σl/(A
); where Ø is the flux
which is analogous to the current in an electric circuit, NI is the magnetomotive force which is analogous to the e.m.f (or voltage), Rm is the magnetic reluctance of the magnetic circuit, analogous to the resistance. The fourth is Biot Savert's law of force in a conductor in a magnetic field. When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force will be exerted on the conductor. The force can be expressed by the following equation:f = 8.85 (108)BIl sin a; where B is the density of the flux (lines/ sq.inch) l is the length of the conductor in inches, I is the current in the conductor in amperes and a is the angle between the direction of the lines of induction and the current carrying conductor. The last is regarding the force exerted on a conductor as a result of having another current
carrying conductor in its vicinity. The equation that expresses such a law is f1 = 2(107)(l/d)(I1I2; where f1 or f2 is the force exerted on one or the other conductor in newton, l is the length of the conductors, d is the distance in between the conductors, I1 I2 are the currents in the conductors. The general arrangement of any transformer will have the following basic parts: an iron core consisting of laminated sheets, the primary and the secondary windings. The reason of having the cores laminated with insulation between the lamination is to reduce the eddy currents induced by the alternating magnetic flux. The vertical parts of the core are usually termed the limbs and the horizontal are the yokes. The relation that governs the primary to secondary voltages is V1/V2=N1/N2, V1 & V2 are the applied and induced voltages on the primary and secondary windings respectively, N1 & N2 are the primary and secondary coils number of turns. The two designs for the core are the core type (The iron core forming the limbs are surrounded by the windings) and the shell type (the windings more completely surrounded by iron). The major windings types are the concentric (the L. V. closer to the core and the l.v. is wound on top of the l.v.) and the sandwiched (where the secondary winding sandwich is on top and bottom of the primary one). The transformers are classified into single phase or three phase construction. The core is either of the butt (butt & lap), wound or mitered type. The material is either the grain oriented silicon steel or the amorphous alloys. The silicon iron steel contains silicon in the 3 1/2% level. The thickness of the laminates is in the range of .014 inches (29 guage). For high efficiency motors the steeel used would have silicon in the 45% range. The steel used in these apparatus is designated as M3, M6 or M19. There are a few curves that define the important
properties of electric steel, they are: the magnetic induction (in weber/m2, for example) vs. the magnetic field strength also termed magnetizing force (in ampere turns/cm) it is known as the hysteresis loop; the d c magnetization curve which is the magnetic induction vs. the magnetizing force; the magnetic induction vs. the core loss in watts/LB and the exciting volt ampere rms/LB and finally the voltampere rms/LB excitation vs. the angle in degree from the rolling direction. Amorphous metals are alloys with noncrystaline atomic structure. The atoms are arranged randomly in relation to each other. It is easier to magnetize this type of alloys than crystalline ones. If this type of material is used to build distribution transformers, lower core losses will be yielded. The cooling rate of the liquid alloy to obtain amorphous metal structure is in the order 1 million degrees per second. There are a few methods of quenching to produce this material. The process that is used in practice is the planar flow casting. This technique, in a simplified manner produces the solidified metal through the following steps:
Liquid alloy is melted and delivered to a holding reservoir. The alloy is delivered through a tap in the bottom of the reservoir to the casting nozzle and then the quenching belt. The quenching belt has the cooling box and leads the quenched ribbon to the measuring stand and winding machinery. The distribution transformers rating for single phase varies from 10 KVA to 1 MVA, for three phase 30 KVA to 2.5 MVA. The power transformers come in sizes from 3MVA to 150MVA for 3 phase constructions. In distribution systems, three phase transformers and three phase banks (i.e. 3 single phase transformers connected to provide delta or Y 3 phase configuration ) are common. In general, the protection of the power transformers is through the use of protective relay (o/c or differential and over current ground) and gas relays. The distribution transformers are protected by fuses (current limiting and expulsion types). Types of distribution transformers: These transformers are found hanging on a pole, installed in above or below grade vaults or pad mounted. The connection and protection to each type differ significantly. Pad mounts can be classified into radial feed and loop feed. The pole mounted transformers have ahead of them the current limiting fuses and distribution cutouts with fuse links with speed T or K as defined in ANSI C37.100 (other speeds are also available). The pad mounted transformers will have load or fault sensing (expulsion) type fuse that is accessible from outside the transformer to remove and replace and in series with these fuses current limiting backup fuses under the oil and is inaccessible without deenergizing the transformers and removing the transformer from the site and probably breaking the welds of the cover. The partial range current limiting fuse operates without discharging flame, gases or other by products of expulsive action. This series of fuses provides the current time characteristics of a coordinated full range. C.L. fuse is selected to operate only on internal failure of the transformer (permanent short). For vault mounted transformers, a series of current limiting and expulsion type with power fuses or fuse link, mounted on the pole or the wall of the vault, are most probably used as primary protection. The connections to the transformers, on the primary side are through the use of H.V. bushings plus clamp type terminals and the secondary through L.V. bushings and spade terminals, for pole mounted. For vault mounted and pad mounted the primary connection is made through the use of elbows (where the cables are connected) and inserts in the transformers connected to deep well (cavity) bushings, the secondary windings of the transformers are brought out through L.V. bushings and spade terminals. Other accessories that are found in distribution transformers are: pressure relief devices, filler plugs, drain plugs and/or sampling valves, parking stands for elbows, tap changers (offload), load break switches for radial feed pad mounts and sectionalizing switch for loop feed. The construction of C.L. fuses will include fiber glass housing, it serves to hold the fuse components intact and isolate the fuse internals from oil; silica filler, it absorbs the heat of the arc and helps extinguishing the arc; the silver element (current limiting portion) it serves to clear the high fault current, the spider to mount the silver element made of mica or a ceramic material; end caps made up of copper and the tin element (only for full range clearing general purpose fuse) which supposedly clears low current to provide the extended range over the C.L. and as a charactenstics similar to the T speed expulsion link. Losses in transformers: :
Losses in distribution transformers can be classified into load and noload losses. The load losses equal I2R and as can be seen vary with the square of the load current. It is also referred to it as winding losses. The noload losses are the result of the electric currents and magnetic fields necessary to magnetize the transformer core. The no load losses are present as long as the transformer is kept energized (it is independent of the transfomer loading). Auxilliary losses are not available with distribution transformers but are present in substation transformers like 5MVA ratings. The total owning cost of a transformer constitute of the initial cost (purchasing price), cost of noload losses over the expected life of the transformer and load losses over the expected life of the transformer. The losses cost are presented as first cost (present value) in order to make it possible to evaluate the total owning cost of the different available transformers for each size or rating of transformer. The noload loss cost/year can be given by the following: (N/1000)(12)d + (N/1000)(8760)(E/100); where: N is the no load loss of transformer in watts, d is the demand charge paid to the supplier of power in dollars/KW, E is the energy cost in cents/KWH.
The load loss cost/year is given by (P.U.)2(L/1000)(12)(d)RF + (P.U.)2(L/1000)(8760)(E/100)LF; where: L is the load loss in watts, P.U. is the utilization factor of transformer, D is the demand charge in dollars/KW, E is the energy cost in cents/KWH, RF is the peak loss responsibility factor, L.F. is the loss factor = .2 (load factor) + .8 (load factor)2 The total cost of losses/year = N.L.L. + L.L. If we assume a life time for the transformer of 20 years, the present value factor (PVF) = Σ[(1 + G)/(1 + I)]n; where G is the annual increase in cost of power, I is the expected annual return on investment. The present value of losses = PVF (L.L. + N.L.L.). The utilization factor is equivalent to the average level by which the transformer will be loaded over its entire life. This long term equivalent loading factor is usually estimated from intended use of transformer regarding power utilized by the connected loads and the duration. The peak loss responsibility factor is used to allow for the difference in the occurance of the system peak and the peak transformer losses.