Tools Of Communication, Education And Addiction

Tools of Communication 1 Running head: TOOLS OF COMMUNICATION

Tools of Communication, Education and Addiction Max Atwell Northern Arizona University

Tools of Communication 2 Abstract From the beginning of human history, efforts have been made to develop tools for improving communications. Starting with the first use of symbols to create records through the development of sophisticated Internet-based information delivery systems, this paper looks at how technologies developed for communication find their way into the classroom as educational technology. This paper also looks at how these powerful tools of communication can have the potential to become addictive for some users.

Tools of Communication 3 Tools of Communication, Education and Addiction Social, Historical, Educational Foundations Humans communicate. The need to communicate is basic and universal to all peoples. Human communication can be informative, instructive, recreational and even creative. It can be helpful and nurturing or it can be malicious (hurtful gossip). Communication is the underpinning for all human social structures, societies, organizations and interactions. Communication in the form of language is a pivotal component of personal identity. When asked to describe oneself, most people will identify a nationality or cultural heritage. These are often described in terms of the language spoken. Commonly, the name of the cultural heritage and the language are synonymous (i.e. if one is French it is expected that one could speak French). Language, and a common basis of communication, form the mortar that unifies societies, groups and cultures. Always seeking to find better and more effective means of doing things, humans design and create tools to enhance their abilities to perform required tasks. Communication is no exception. Throughout history, humans have sought better ways to communicate. This process has led to an ever improving arsenal of tools to facilitate communication. As a natural progression, tools of communication are readily adapted to education; thus becoming educational technology. As these tools have become ever more powerful, they have also become, for some, a source of addiction. Going beyond simple hand gestures and speech, humans have developed a number of tools and strategies to augment and enhance their ability to communicate. Human communication tools can do a number of things with information. Most human communication tools do one or more of the following with the information; information can be stored, organized, presented and delivered, or transmitted over time and distance. Beginning with images and enigmatic markings, some of the earliest evidence of human existence are artifacts relating to communication. As

Tools of Communication 4 more research is done, Pleistocene cave paintings are being reinterpreted. Rather than being considered mere representations of animals, people and objects in their surroundings, it is becoming apparent that these images are rich in conceptual content that goes way beyond the simple objective (Nowell, 2006, p.43). Going beyond conceptual content of cave paintings, an extremely early example of human record keeping and symbolic representation can be seen in the example of the bone plaque found in Blanchard France (see Figure 1). Dating to 30,000 years BP, this artifact has been interpreted as representing phases of the moon, covering over a two month period (Eccles, 1989, p. 136).

Figure 1. Bone Plaque dating to 30,000 BP found in Blanchard France depicting lunar phases. Note. From ‘Evolution of Brain: Development of the Self’, (Eccles, 1989, p. 135) Though not considered to be a representation of a linguistic system or of mathematic calculation, the Blanchard bone plaque displays a sophisticated understanding of lunar phases as the turns made in the marking coincide with changes in those phases (Eccles, 1989, p. 136). As a communication tool the Blanchard bone plaque represents a means of information storage and retrieval. It may also represent a precursor to written language and numbers.

Tools of Communication 5 By 5000 years BP, complex forms of written communication were beginning to develop. Cuneiform, a form of writing done in wet clay tablets (see Figure 2) with a reed stylus, became prevalent in the in Samaria (About Cuneiform, para. 2). Used not only for basic recordkeeping, Cuneiform was used to record the first known uniform body of law in human history (About Cuneiform, para. 2). A historic milestone, Hammurabi's legal code was written between 1792 and 1750 BC (About Cuneiform, para. 2). As a written system, cuneiform performed all of the functions of contemporary written languages; interestingly these clay tablets can be translated today.

Figure 2. Amarna Letters Note Cuneiform Letter of Biridiya, prince of Megiddo, to the king of Egypt. (2007). Retrieved September 20, 2008 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/Image:Urartu_Cuneiform_Argishti_1.jpg Though first invented in China, Johannes Gutenberg is credited with being the first European to print using moveable type (Easton, 2008, p.47). Before printing, the process of producing books was slow, laborious and expensive. Books would have been hand copied and available only to the exceedingly wealthy or to the Church. Until the invention of movable type, written records and documents were limited as to how greatly they could influence the thinking and learning of others. Like the development of today's Internet, the development of movable type enabled a relative explosion in the amount of written material that could be produced. As a result

Tools of Communication 6 of Gutenberg's Bible (see Figure 3), most of the population of Europe could gain access to Bibles and the ability to read proliferated (Easton, 2008, p.47). Gradually books, mostly religious at first, began to fall into the hands of the middle classes. This wide availability of Bibles, combined with a citizenry who could read them, led to the Protestant Reformation (Easton, 2008, p.47).

Figure 3. Gutenberg Bible. Note. Library of Congress Gutenberg Bible (2002). Retrieved September 20, 2008 from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/ b/b0/Gutenberg_Bible.jpg The next major developments in human communication deal with electronic medium. For the most part these technologies, for people in industrialized societies, are ubiquitous. We are surrounded each day by these technologies. For the most part we take them for granted and use them with out giving them a second thought. Each has had some impact on how we interact and how we live our lives. As such, we would be hard pressed to comprehend what life would be like without them. Claude Fisher (1997), in a Sociological Inquiry article, draws upon studies of the impact of the telephone and other technologies of the recent past to predict how computerassisted communication may effect the future. In his article, Fisher (1997) indicates that the relative effect of past electronic communication technologies have been: "(a) modest; (b) different for different devices, so that one cannot make blanket statements about “technology”;

Tools of Communication 7 and (c) complex, indirect, and even contradictory." Sighting the telephone as "... the most profound person-to-person, electronic communication technology in history." (Fisher, 1997, p. 114). Fisher goes on to down play the actual effect of the telephone on society. According to his research, Fisher explains that the telephone has made it easier to maintain social relationships with people over distances and that it may have improved communities slightly (Fisher, 1997, p. 114). Fisher concludes that the telephone has mainly enabled the maintenance of community patterns that were already in place, "...only somewhat more effectively" (Fisher, 1997, p. 114). Pointing out that different technologies will predictably have different effects on social interaction, Fisher goes on to point out that the effect of movies and television are apt to be different based on how and where they are viewed (Fisher, 1997, p. 114). Noting that movie attendance is typically a social activity done with others and that television viewing is more typically done in isolation or in the home with only a small group. Fisher contends that the effect of either technology on society is likely small (Fisher, 1997, p. 115). Fisher also goes on to point out that a given technology can have effects that are self nullifying (Fisher, 1997, p. 116). In Fisher's article, he looks back at the impact of pre-computer communication technologies to frame what the ultimate effect of computer communications will have on the world. It would be interesting to see if his opinions are different today in light of the changes that have been described and that have been predicted by Thomas Friedman ( 2007). In all fairness, Fisher was looking back at the effects of the telecommunications of the early 20th century, from the perspective of 1997. 1997 was right before the time of the bursting of the "dot.com bubble" (Friedman, 2007, p.71). and before a number of other of Friedman's "World Flatteners" (Friedman, 2007). Perhaps he had a similar view point of many people on the cusp of a major world event. Most Americans looking at the world of economics during the days leading up to

Tools of Communication 8 "Black Thursday" or October 24th 1929, felt that nothing was out of the ordinary. Likewise, Americans were not as a whole too focused on world affairs on December 6th, 1941 or the eve of Pearl Harbor, and September 10, 2001 was just another day for air travel. There is often little foreshadowing of major events, yet lives are often profoundly changed in their aftermath. Further influencing Fisher's outlook on the future effects of computer based communications would have been the way he was likely to have been able to connect to the Internet. For most people 1997 Internet connection was made through a dial up modem over phone lines. This would have placed Fisher in the position of viewing the communication potential of a computer through the functionality of the telephone. Listening to your modem dial up the Internet and then waiting while information was slowly passed back and forth would have made the whole experience seem like just another way to use the telephone and it literally was. Today using the Internet simply feels different with the high speeds that are now fairly common place. Symbols, writing, printing, telecommunications and the computer communications technologies have all been developed by humans to enhance their ability to communicate. Each has played an important role in how humans communicate. Arguably each has also in their own ways shaped the way humans think about communication and by extension how they think. Technology in Schools Education goes on all around us. It has gone on as long as there have been ideas to share. Perhaps most education occurs outside of formal setting in the form of ideas and information we share with others. Anytime a parent shows a child how to do something new, the child is being educated. A mother teaching her child how to tie their shoe or blow a bubble contributes to the education of that child. Likewise, when a grandparent teaches a child to fly a kite, the child is being educated. Any of the educational tools that are available can be put to use to educate one

Tools of Communication 9 another. More formal education, or education that is delivered in a structured setting, is referred to as schooling (Pai, Adler & Shadiow, 2006, p. 39). Characteristics of schooling deal with the structure and formal delivery of content. Students, are expected to attend a specified place for a specified period of time to be instructed in a specified body of information or a curriculum (Pai et al., 2006, p. 39). Arguably, when a communication tool is brought into this formal setting, whether it be instruments of writing, books, chalkboards, videos, computers or the Internet, they become educational technology. Some educational technologies have long and venerable associations with the process of teaching and learning. Paper, pencils and books are so ubiquitous to the school environment as to become nearly invisible. Yet one should never overlook the educational potential of these because they are old. Nor should one assume that digital technologies are always the best tool. In any given situation, the most effective approach may be a blend. It is the responsibility of the teacher to select from among the various educational technologies those that will be most effective. It should not be overlooked, that the only way that teachers can choose from amongst all of the educational technologies that are available, is to be proficient with those technologies. Cambre and Hawkes (2004) identify "Characteristics of Good Teaching Tools" as being accessible, flexible, user-friendly, and chosen by the teacher to meet a real or perceived need (p. 26). This framework offers an excellent tool for evaluating educational technologies for any given application. This framework is both simple and insightful with regards to evaluating educational technology. Using this framework will enable educators to make sound selections of educational technology. There needs to be one caveat to go along with Cambre and Hawkes' "Characteristics of Good Teaching Tools", that is that all educators need to be versed in the use and integration of the newer digital technologies into the curriculum. Not being technologically fluent will skew how an educator might interpret

Tools of Communication 10 Cambre and Hawkes' "Characteristics of Good Teaching Tools." Not exposing students to the newer digital educational technologies due to discomfort or lack of competence does the students a disservice. As professionals, educators need to take the initiative to become proficient with the educational technologies at hand. To date many educators need help in becoming more technologically fluent to meet the current need for technological integration into the curriculum. In order to facilitate technological proficiency amongst educators some considerations need to be addressed. Bitner and Bitner (2002) suggest the following considerations be taken into account when supporting educators in adapting to technology: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

FEAR of change TRAINING in basics PERSONAL use TEACHING models LEARNING based CLIMATE MOTIVATION SUPPORT

Like students, educators will perform better at learning new skills if they feel safe, supported and comfortable. Perhaps the area of greatest importance in integrating technology into education rest with improving the skills of working teachers. Bitner and Bitner provide some excellent ideas on how to promote that. Technology and Society What are the possibilities when there is so much access to powerful computer based communication tools? As with any technology where there are tremendous benefits, there can also lie tremendous dangers. Having so much of our lives centered around interaction with the computer for social, professional, personal and recreational purposes may hold inherent risks for some. Access comes with dangers. When most people think about the dangers posed by technology, thoughts usually run toward things like identity theft, hacking or pedophiles posing

Tools of Communication 11 as friends in chat rooms. Though not formally recognized as a psychological condition, more and more people are beginning to display signs of addiction to the Internet (Lopez, 2006). The current opinion in the medical community is mixed, more study needs to be done to determine if Internet addiction is a real disorder (Lopez, 2006). For some, all of this connectivity is overpowering. Never before has so much power to be continuously connected existed, for some this can lead to addictive behavior. Unlike communication tools of the past, Internet has no limitation. Older communication technologies inherently had some limits. Print communications needed to be written, transported and read. That being the case, one would be able to keep up with their mailbox once a day after the mail is delivered. By contrast email can arrive anytime day or night and the Internet is always there with the constant possibility that there will be new email when it is checked. In addition, email is cheep as there is no need for a stamp. Telephonic communication has less potential for addiction than does Internet. The limiting factors to telephone addiction are primarily social. Telephone use is limited by the availability of someone to talk to in real time. Most people will limit their accessibility on the telephone. Most people don't appreciate calls when they are trying to sleep for example. In addition, caller I.D. makes screening calls very easy. Though Internet addiction is not formally recognized as a disorder, there are those who do spend more time with the Internet than they want for non-work related reasons, or those who wish to quit or cut back their use but can't. It may be prudent to take stock (Lopez, 2006). Conclusion Humans have long sought to use tools for communication and information processing. In this effort improvements have been on going. Each improvement has in someway altered both society and the individual. In aggregate, these technological innovations reshaped how humans

Tools of Communication 12 view themselves, their societies and the world. It is quite natural that as education shifted from an informal endeavor to a more formal practice or schooling. It stands to reason that tools or technologies of communication would be adapted to serve that purpose. In the formal school setting, educational technology has dramatically impacted the process. Without the benefits delivered by the many educational technologies used in schooling, schooling would likely not be possible. It is impossible to predict the future, but one would be safe in believing that technology will continue to advance. What forms this may take would be anyone's guess. The one certainty in the equation is the fact that whatever is developed will be tested as an educational tool. If it is successful it will join the kit that comprises educational technology. Regarding the potential hazards of Internet addiction, anything that can be used is also subject to abuse. We shouldn't shy away from potentially useful technologies out of fear. Rather we should seek to recognize the potential risk, and understand it. That is the best way to coexist with it.

Tools of Communication 13 References About cuneiform writing... Retrieved September 20, 2008, from http://www.upenn.edu/museum/Games/cuneiform.html Bitner, N., & Bitner, J. (2002). Integrating technology into the classroom: Eight keys to success. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 10(1), 95. Retrieved from http://libproxy.nau.edu:3774/hww/results/results_single_fulltext.jhtml;hwwilsonid=0PP WWHYWVDFDLQA3DILSFF4ADUNGIIV0 Cambre, M., & Hawkes, M. (2004). Toys, tools & teachers the challenge of technology (4th ed.). United States: Rowman & Littlefield Education. Easton, B. (2008). Gutenberg and globalization. (cover story). World Literature Today, 82(2), 4750. Eccles, J. C. (1989). Evolution of the brain: Creation of the self. Independence, Kentucky, U.S.A: Routledge. Fischer, C. S. (1997). Technology and community: Historical complexities. Sociological Inquiry, 67(1), 113-118. Friedman, T. L. (2007). The world is flat A brief history of the twenty-first century (3rd ed.). New York: Picador / Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Lopez, J. (Host). (2006, October 28,). Internet addiction [Podcast]. Center for addiction recovery. PodTech network Retrieved September 20, 2008, from http://www.netaddiction.com/PodCasts/podcasts.html# Nowell, A. (2006). From A Paleolithic art to Pleistocene visual cultures (introduction to two special issues on ‘Advances in the study of Pleistocene imagery and symbol use’). Journal of Archaeological Method & Theory, 13(4), 239-249.

Tools of Communication 14 Pai, Y., Adler, S. A., & Shadiow, L. K. (2006). Cultural foundations of education (4th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.