Term Paper Mpob Vishal

TERM Paper OF TOPIC - A review on the role of per ception in wor ld life sati sf action andcommi tment.

Submitted to Mr. Rajan Girdhar Lect of MGT LSB(LPU)

Submitted by Vishal kumar jaiswal Sec – 326 Roll no 38(G2)

Regd no 10812543 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I,Vishal kumar jaiswal student of MBA 1st SEM, roll no.38, Section -326, is very thankful to my Sir, Mr. Rajan Girdhar for giving me term paper on the review on the role of perception in world life satisfaction and commitment . I enjoyed immensely while preparing this term-paper. I have come to know about many things and learn a lot. I would like to thank my parents for their financial support. I would also like to thank my friends for their encouragement and support. I am grateful to the library for providing me with necessary materials. I would like acknowledge everyone who helps me without any hesitation.

PERFACE As MBA degree equal attention practical as well as the theoretical aspect of the business, various problems are to be dealt within these course that is why research programs are there to give deep as well as through knowledge of the subject. I have attempted to live up these requisites while perparing this term paper. It is part of professional course. With the help of term paper we can able to understand the deep knowledge about the specific topic assign to us. During my term paper work I observed some of the aspect of the role of perception in world life satisfaction and commitment and gather information regarded it. My term paper entiteld THE ROLE OF PERCEPTION IN WORLD LIFE SATISFACTION AND COMMITMENT, Critically review with evidence.It is hope that this report meets the given expectation and various requirements of the research.

CONTENTS 1. PERCEPTION 2. The Role of Perception 3. Public perception on social welfare 4. Perception and reality 5. Types of Perception 6. Employee Perception on Commitment Oriented Work Systems 7 . The Importance of Equity Perception and Job Satisfaction in Predicting Employee Intent to Stay at Television Stations 8. Role Perception as Predictor of Editors' Jobs Satisfaction 9. How Does Perception Affect The Organisational Process? 10.Job Satisfaction 11.Models of job Satisfaction 12.Job Satisfaction and emotions 13.Commitment 14.Authentic Commitment 15.How To Practice Commitment 16.Perception as the Bridge Between Nature and Life-World

PERCEPTION Perception is the process by which organisms interpret and organize sensation to produce a meaningful experience of the world. Sensation usually refers to the immediate, relatively unprocessed result of stimulation of sensory receptors in the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, or skin. Perception, on the other hand, better describes one's ultimate experience of the world and typically involves further processing of sensory input. In practice, sensation and perception are virtually impossible to separate, because they are part of one continuous process. Thus, perception in humans describes the process whereby sensory stimulation is translated into organized experience. That experience, or percept, is the joint product of the stimulation and of the process itself. Relations found between various types of stimulation (e.g., light waves and sound waves) and their associated percepts suggest inferences that can be made about the properties of the perceptual process; theories of perceiving then can be developed on the basis of these inferences. Because the perceptual process is not itself public or directly observable (except to the perceiver himself, whose percepts are given directly in experience), the validity of perceptual theories can be checked only indirectly. Historically, systematic thought about perceiving was the province of philosophy. Philosophical interest in perception stems largely from questions about the sources and validity of what is called human knowledge (epistemology). Epistemologists ask whether a real, physical world exists independently of human experience and, if so, how its properties can be learned and how the truth or accuracy of that experience can be determined. They also ask whether there are innate ideas or whether all experience originates through contact with the physical world, mediated by the sense organs. As a scientific enterprise, however, the investigation of perception has especially developed as part of the larger discipline of psychology. For the most part, psychology bypasses the questions about perceiving raised by philosophy in favour of problems that can be handled by its special methods. The remnants of such philosophical questions, however, do remain; researchers are still concerned, for example, with the relative contributions of innate and learned factors to the perceptual process.

Such fundamental philosophical assertions as the existence of a physical world, however, are taken for granted among most scientific students of perceiving. Typically, researchers in perception simply accept the apparent physical world particularly as it is described in those branches of physics concerned with electromagnetic energy, optics, and mechanics.

The Role Of Perception As we grow, and mature into what some would consider adults, we are told to make sure we know about our environment and make sure to “do unto others as you would have done to you”. In order to do this, you have to have a level of perception in which you are able to see things in ways that others may or may not. How do you see perception? On top of that, what is perception? According to Kendra Van Wagner (UNK), “Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we gain information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival. Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our environment.” That being said, how does that apply to everyday life and how does that affect the views of those around you on you? The best way to approach this is to find the most effective ways to view perception. Three aspects can alter or influence how things are viewed. One of them is the world as a whole. What is meant by “the world” is to say how the world is viewed, no matter what it is that you look at. Everything has a view and opinion from everyone who sees it, from the poor and homeless to the rich and eloquent. Every person has an opinion on why the homeless are homeless and why the rich are rich. What part of the scale do you fall on? Are you the type that says that the homeless are homeless because of bad luck and hard times? Do you lean the other way and think that the homeless are homeless because they are lazy and deserve nothing more than what they have? “Of the estimated 1.3 billion people living in poverty around the world, 70 percent are women and girls. Women and girls are also the fastest increasing group of impoverished, a process called "the global feminization...

PUBLIC PERCEPTION ON SOCIAL WELFARE Social welfare is an important element in determining society harmonious life. Social welfare is the core to the concept of development of social, community and nation. According to Midgley (1995) social development is: “A process of planned social change designed to promote the well-being of the population as a whole in conjunction with a dynamic process of economic development”. (Midgley, 1995).” Social development is the promotion of social welfare or social living. However, social development does not guarantee economic growth. Theoretically, social welfare provides the people with a safe surrounding, satisfaction of basic needs and maximizes opportunity for mobility. Therefore, the community is free to develop its potential, participate actively in social activities and contribute to their community. (Adriaansens, 1994; Fraser and Gordon, 1994; Midgley, 1995). Hence, social welfare care will contribute towards realizing the advancement of the community. Traditionally, social welfare efforts were to eradicate and control social problems. Social welfare was also implemented as part of the efforts to develop individual’s potential to increase the level of social development. Social welfare efforts must be supported by other services in order to achieve a more effective social development. This achievement is meaningful to human life. Social welfare also refers to government activities to provide assistance or social program for the poor. Generally, the standard of living in Malaysia has improved at a healthy rate, a product of strong economic growth rate. This is shown by the improvement in several socio economy indicators like per capita income, health, education, social well-being and housing (Rahimah and Mohamed Yusof, 2002). However, at the same time the social welfare situation in Malaysia attract the attention of local academicians and social welfare professionals as the development is skewed towards economic aspects but fail to take into consideration social quality. This study seeks to find the true meaning of the concept of social welfare and its relationship with social development. Specific attention is given to

aspects of social welfare such as poverty, unemployment, education, public housing, health care and quality of life. The study will also attempt to connect the concept of social welfare with social development with the assumption that in Malaysia, social development is a process to improve the social welfare of the community.

Perception and reality In the case of visual perception, some people can actually see the precept shift in their mind's. The 'esemplastic' nature has been shown by experiment: an ambiguous image has multiple interpretations on the perceptual level. Just as one object can give rise to multiple percepts, so an object may fail to give rise to any percept at all: if the percept has no grounding in a person's experience, the person may literally not perceive it. The processes of perception routinely alter what humans see. When people view something with a preconceived idea about it, they tend to take those preconceived ideas and see them whether or not they are there. This problem stems from the fact that humans are unable to understand new information, without the inherent bias of their previous knowledge. The extent of a person’s knowledge creates their reality as much as the truth, because the human mind can only contemplate that which it has been exposed to. When objects are viewed without understanding, the mind will try to reach for something that it already recognizes, in order to process what it is viewing. That which most closely relates to the unfamiliar from our past experiences, makes up what we see when we look at things that we don’t comprehend. This confusing ambiguity of perception is exploited in human technologies such as camouflage, and also in biological mimicry, for example by Peacock butterflies, whose wings bear eye markings that birds respond to as though they were the eyes of a dangerous predator. Perceptual ambiguity is not restricted to vision. For example, recent touch perception research RoblesDe-La-Torre & Hayward 2001 found that kinesthesia based haptic perception strongly relies on the forces experienced during touch.

Cognitive theories of perception assume there is a poverty of stimulus. This (with reference to perception) is the claim that sensation are, by themselves, unable to provide a unique description of the world. Sensations require 'enriching', which is the role of the mental model. A different type of theory is the perceptual ecology approach of James J. Gibson.

Perception-in-action The ecological understanding of perception advanced from Gibson's early work is perception-in-action, the notion that perception is a requisite property of animate action, without perception action would not be guided and without action perception would be pointless. Animate actions require perceiving and moving together. In a sense, "perception and movement are two sides of the same coin, the coin is action." A mathematical theory of perception-in-action has been devised and investigated in many forms of controlled movement by many different species of organism, General Tau Theory. According to this theory, tau information, or time-to-goal information is the fundamental 'percept' in perception.-

Types of perception a.) Amodal perception b.) Color perception c.) Depth perception d.) Visual perception e.) Form perception f.) Haptic perceptinon g.) Speech percepion h.) Perception as Interpretation i.) Numeric Value of Perception j.) Pitch perception k.) Harmonic perception l.) Rhythmic perception

Employee Perception on Commitment Oriented Work Systems Human resource management (HRM) does matter! Prior empirical research, summarized and classified in the work of Delery and Doty (1996), Guest (1997) and Boselie et al. (2000), suggests significant impact of HRM on the competitive advantage of organizations. The mainstream research on this topic reveals encouraging results on organizational level. Further research on the perception of the individual employee may reveal new insights in the effectiveness of HRM in organizations. Now we have the opportunity to study recent empirical data of a Dutch employment agency. These data on individual employee level provide us new insights in the perception of commitment oriented HR systems and their relationship with perceived job security and employee trust. High scores on employee participation, payment system, training and development, information sharing, and support of the direct supervisor result in employee trust and high scores on perceived job security.

The Importance of Equity Perception and Job Satisfaction in Predicting Employee Intent to Stay at Television Stations The purpose of this study was to determine what predicts employee intent to stay at commercial television stations. Above-the-line employees of five commercial television stations completed a survey questionnaire, which focused on employee turnover in three departments: news, production, and sales. Data analysis indicated that a category of system outcomes predicted perception of equity; that a category of interpersonal outcomes, in conjunction with opportunity and perception of equity, predicted job satisfaction; and that job satisfaction, in conjunction with perception of equity and education, predicted intent to stay

Role Perception as Predictor of Editors' Job Satisfaction One of the main attractions of the profession to aspiring journalists has been the glamour associated with the ability to influence the course of events in their community through informing the public debate on vital matters of social and economic policy, keeping a check on the government, exposing political corruption and helping to advance a progressive social agenda. Despite the primacy of the profit motive to many owners of the press, the individual editors and journalists who engage in this less-than-lucrative profession tend to still be driven, in many cases, by the grand vision of journalism's influential role in shaping public life.

How Does Perception Affect The Organisational Process? Perception affects things we experience in our daily lives too so of course it has an impact on the organizational process too. Perception is basically what we think of something, someone, a situation etc. Our thinking might be our own or it might be the result of what someone else thinks of a particular situation. The reason perception affects the organizational process is because if the employees cant perceive the goal or the aim of the organization properly then thy might not be working towards it either and if they are not working towards it then that organization faces a gap between what is required of the people and what is actually being done. I hope you have heard of the "change process" that happens frequently in organizations. If suppose that process is being implemented then its very important for the employees to know what the organization is going to go through and what is going to happen after the process. If their perception isn't clear about it then they might resist the change a lot which isn't good for

the company. The employees' perception can help the company's organizational process run smoother or become difficult.

JOB SATISFACTION Definitions Job satisfaction has been defined as a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job;an affective reaction to one’s job; and an attitude towards one’s job. Weiss (2002) has argued that job satisfaction is an attitude but points out that researchers should clearly distinguish the objects of cognitive evaluation which are affect (emotion), beliefs and behaviours. This definition suggests that we form attitudes towards our jobs by taking into account our feelings, our beliefs, and our behaviors.

History One of the biggest preludes to the study of job satisfaction was the Hawthorne studies. These studies (1924-1933), primarily credited to Elton Mayo of the Harvard Business School, sought to find the effects of various conditions (most notably illumination) on workers’ productivity. These studies ultimately showed that novel changes in work conditions temporarily increase productivity (called the Hawthorne Effect. It was later found that this increase resulted, not from the new conditions, but from the knowledge of being observed. This finding provided strong evidence that people work for purposes other than pay, which paved the way for researchers to investigate other factors in job satisfaction. Scientific management (aka Taylorism) also had a significant impact on the study of job satisfaction. Frederick Winslow Taylor’s 1911 book, Principles of Scientific Management, argued that there was a single best way to perform any given work task. This book contributed to a change in industrial production philosophies, causing a shift from skilled labor and piecework towards the more modern approach of assembly lines and hourly wages. The initial use of scientific management by industries greatly increased productivity because workers were forced to work at a faster pace. However, workers became exhausted and dissatisfied, thus leaving researchers with

new questions to answer regarding job satisfaction. It should also be noted that the work of W.L. Bryan, Walter Dill Scoft, and Hugo Munsterberg set the tone for Taylor’s work. Some argue that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, a motivation theory, laid the foundation for job satisfaction theory. This theory explains that people seek to satisfy five specific needs in life – physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, self-esteem needs, and self-actualization. This model served as a good basis from which early researchers could develop job satisfaction theories.

Models of job satisfaction Affect Theory Edwin A. Locke’s Range of Affect Theory (1976) is arguably the most famous job satisfaction model. The main premise of this theory is that satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between what one wants in a job and what one has in a job. Further, the theory states that how much one values a given facet of work (e.g. the degree of autonomy in a position) moderates how satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations are/aren’t met. When a person values a particular facet of a job, his satisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively (when expectations are met) and negatively (when expectations are not met), compared to one who doesn’t value that facet. To illustrate, if Employee A values autonomy in the workplace and Employee B is indifferent about autonomy, then Employee A would be more satisfied in a position that offers a high degree of autonomy and less satisfied in a position with little or no autonomy compared to Employee B. This theory also states that too much of a particular facet will produce stronger feelings of dissatisfaction the more a worker values that facet.

Dispositional Theory Another well-known job satisfaction theory is the Dispositional Theory. It is a very general theory that suggests that people have innate dispositions that cause them to have tendencies toward a certain level of satisfaction,

regardless of one’s job. This approach became a notable explanation of job satisfaction in light of evidence that job satisfaction tends to be stable over time and across careers and jobs. Research also indicates that identical twins have similar levels of job satisfaction. A significant model that narrowed the scope of the Dispositional Theory was the Core Self-evaluations Model, proposed by Timothy A. Judge in 1998. Judge argued that there are four Core Self-evaluations that determine one’s disposition towards job satisfaction: self-esteem, general self-efficacy, locus of control, and neuroticism. This model states that higher levels of selfesteem (the value one places on his/her self) and general self-efficacy (the belief in one’s own competence) lead to higher work satisfaction. Having an internal locus of control (believing one has control over her\his own life, as opposed to outside forces having control) leads to higher job satisfaction. Finally, lower levels of neuroticism lead to higher job satisfaction

Measuring job satisfaction There are many methods for measuring job satisfaction. By far, the most common method for collecting data regarding job satisfaction is the Like scale (named after Rensis Likert). Other less common methods of for gauging job satisfaction include: Yes/No questions, True/False questions, point systems, checklists, and forced choice answers. This data is typically collected using an Enterprise Feedback Management (EFM) system. The Job Descriptive Index (JDI), created by Smith, Kendall, & Hulin (1969), is a specific questionnaire of job satisfaction that has been widely used. It measures one’s satisfaction in five facets: pay, promotions and promotion opportunities, coworkers, supervision, and the work itself. The scale is simple, participants answer either yes, no, or can’t decide (indicated by ‘?’) in response to whether given statements accurately describe one’s job. The Job in General Index is an overall measurement of job satisfaction. It is an improvement to the Job Descriptive Index because the JDI focuses too much on individual facets and not enough on work satisfaction in general. Other job satisfaction questionnaires include: the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ), the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), and the Faces

Scale. The MSQ measures job satisfaction in 20 facets and has a long form with 100 questions (five items from each facet) and a short form with 20 questions (one item from each facet). The JSS is a 36 item questionnaire that measures nine facets of job satisfaction. Finally, the Faces Scale of job satisfaction, one of the first scales used widely, measured overall job satisfaction with just one item which participants respond to by choosing a face.

Job satisfaction and emotions Mood and emotions while working are the raw materials which cumulate to form the affective element of job satisfaction. (Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996). Moods tend to be longer lasting but often weaker states of uncertain origin, while emotions are often more intense, short-lived and have a clear object or cause. There is some evidence in the literature that state moods are related to overall job satisfaction. Positive and negative emotions were also found to be significantly related to overall job satisfaction. Frequency of experiencing net positive emotion will be a better predictor of overall job satisfaction than will intensity of positive emotion when it is experienced. Emotion regulation and emotion labor are also related to job satisfaction. Emotion work (or emotion management) refers to various efforts to manage emotional states and displays. Emotion regulation includes all of the conscious and unconscious efforts to increase, maintain, or decrease one or more components of an emotion. Although early studies of the consequences of emotional labor emphasized its harmful effects on workers, studies of workers in a variety of occupations suggest that the consequences of emotional labor are not uniformly negative. It was found that suppression of unpleasant emotions decreases job satisfaction and the amplification of pleasant emotions increases job satisfaction. The understanding of how emotion regulation relates to job satisfaction concerns two models:

• Emotional dissonance Emotional dissonance is a state of discrepancy between public displays of emotions and internal experiences of emotions,that often follows the process of emotion regulation.Emotional dissonance is associated with high emotional exhaustion, low organizational commitment, and low job satisfaction. • Social interaction model. Taking the social interaction perspective, workers’ emotion regulation might beget responses from others during interpersonal encounters that subsequently impact their own job satisfaction. For example: The accumulation of favorable responses to displays of pleasant emotions might positively affect job satisfaction .performance of emotional labor that produces desired outcomes could increase job satisfaction.

COMMITMENT A great business leader once said: "...the basic philosophy, spirit, and drive of an organization have far more to do with its relative achievements than do technological or economic resources, organizational structure, innovation, and timing. All these things weigh heavily in success. But they are, I think, transcended by how strongly the people in the organization believe in its basic precepts and how faithfully they carry them out." (from Thomas J. Watson, Jr., A Business and its Beliefs - The ideas that helped build IBM). As true as this is for the success of a corporation, it is even more so for the individual. The most important single factor in individual success is COMMITMENT. Commitment ignites action. To commit is to pledge yourself to a certain purpose or line of conduct. It also means practicing your beliefs consistently. There are, therefore, two fundamental conditions for commitment. The first is having a sound set of beliefs. There is an old saying that goes, "Stand for something or you'll fall for anything." The second is faithful adherence to those beliefs with your behavior. Possibly the best description of commitment is "persistence with a purpose".

Many successful business people are hailed as visionary leaders. On careful inspection they are found to be individuals who hold firmly to a simple set of commitments, usually grounded in beliefs such as "the best product money can buy", or the highest possible customer service". It is the strength of these commitments, religiously followed, that led to their business success.

Authentic Commitment We live and work in a culture that takes its identity from its efficiency, speed, and practicality. We pay a price, though, for being a society of implementers and executors, and that price is the loss of our idealism and sense of purpose. We need to find a way to balance our concern with what works with what matters. The leadership challenge is to create organizations that combine a larger purpose with the day-to-day doing. Idealism is the pursuit of the way we think things should be. Idealists follow their ideals, even to the point of impracticality. Once we were all more idealistic. A young child asks for the moon and expects it to be delivered. As we grow older and enter the “real world,” our idealism is assaulted and is considered a weakness—a flaw in perception, an incapacity to see the world as it is. To be told you are unrealistic is a painful accusation. In the absence of idealism, materialism flourishes. The pressure for realism is introduced now at an increasingly early age. As soon as our children begin school, we start worrying about their SAT scores to get into college. We fill their afternoons and weekends with developmental activities. We are happy when they win, for we think this is an indicator of their future. In this way, we ask the child to shift from experiencing life to preparing for success in the world of commerce. The push toward early adulthood short circuits idealism. Idealism dissolves in a world where measurement and instant results are the most acceptable answer. The result is a socially acceptable cynicism. The cynic is a fallen idealist. Cynicism becomes the safe ground—the ultimate defense against disappointment—and a breeding ground for entitlement. When the idealist is considered a fool—a dreamer, out of touch with reality—people in

organizations adopt the cynic’s stance: Since the dream is gone, the world owes me something in return.

HOW TO PRACTICE COMMITMENT Effectively demonstrating commitment to others, to the organization's basic principles, and to oneself is never easy. The truth is, demonstrating commitment is hard work. Wavering commitment is usually seen as no commitment at all. The only way to achieve a reputation for commitment is through determination and persistence. Genuine commitment stands the test of time. Day to day, commitment is demonstrated by a combination of two actions. The first action is called supporting. Genuine support develops a commitment in the minds and hearts of others. This is accomplished by focusing on what is important and leading by example. It is not uncommon for people to be either confused as to what is important, or lose sight of it over time. Supporting means concentrating on what adds value, spotlighting what's working, and rewarding others who are focusing on what is important and leading by example. A crucial aspect of true support is standing up to those who would undermine commitment, those whose words or actions show disrespect. The second action underlying commitment is called improving. Improving stretches our commitment to an even higher level. Commitment means a willingness to look for a better way and learn from the process. It focuses on eliminating complacency, confronting what is not working, and providing incentives for improvement. The spirit of improving is rooted in challenging current expectation and ultimately taking the risk to make changes. It is the combination of both supporting and improving behaviors that makes up the practice of commitment. Separately neither action is capable of sustaining commitment. Promoting alone can come across as a shallow and pollyannish. Continuous improvement can be seen as "good is never good enough". Together they provide a needed balance. Both are essential to commitment.

ARTICLE The Role of Organizational Justice in Pay and Employee Benefit Satisfaction, and its Effects on Work Attitudes REVIEW The objective of our study is to provide a complementary approach with regard to organizational justice in the domain of compensation. It presents research undertaken on a sample of 285 employees in three different Canadian organizations. The results reveal that employees distinguish clearly between pay satisfaction and benefit satisfaction, and that distributive justice perceptions are better predictors of pay satisfaction than procedural justice perceptions. This result is reversed for employee benefit satisfaction: Procedural justice perceptions are better predictors than distributive justice perceptions. Lastly, the results show that distributive justice perceptions with regard to pay play a more important role than procedural justice in job satisfaction and satisfaction with the organization.

ARTICLE Perception of organisational commitment, job satisfaction and turnover intentions in a postmerger South African tertiary institution REVIEW A merger can be considered both a phenomenological and significant life event for an organisation and its employees, and how people cope with and respond to a merger has a direct impact on the institutional performance in the short to medium term. It is within this context that post-merger perceptions of a tertiary institution were investigated. A predictive model (determined the “best” of 15 predefined models) of turnover intentions was developed for employees of a South African tertiary institution (having undergone its own recent merging process). A systematic model-building process was carried out incorporating various techniques, among others structural equation modelling and step-wise linear regression. The final predictive model explained 47% of the variance in turnover intentions. Contrary to expectations, commitment does not correlate more strongly than satisfaction does with turnover intentions.

Perception as the Bridge Between Nature and Life-World REVIEW The main claim in "Perception as the Bridge Between Nature and LifeWorld" is that philosophy once again has to discuss the old problem of direct realism. According to modern philosophy of perception we are never in our perceptions in direct contact with the external world, but in our everyday lives we take direct veridical perception for granted most of the time. Our culture contains an epistemological contradiction. Therefore, phenomenological philosophers should allow themselves to drop the method of epoché, and analytic philosophers should not confine themselves to language analysis. In the paper, some peculiar consequences of direct realism are highlighted. Modern direct realists have to accept that veridical perception (a) is x-ray perception (i.e. we perceive through material things), (b) is backward perception (i.e. we perceive backwards in time), and (c) that such perception contains a connection at a distance; they also have to accept (d) that our ego has no determinate spatial and temporal limits. The main alternative to direct realism seems to be some kind of monadology. It is claimed, however, that a monadology is even worse off than direct realism is. Therefore, the philosophical problems of direct realism have to be discussed.

SUPERVISORS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS Power is a complex social phenomenon which has a pervasive influence on the functioning of an organization. Though power relationships are universally observed in organizational settings, they manifest themselves in various forms in different organizations. The most distinctive aspect of power structure in an organization is the way power is distributed over the different hierarchical levels. The problem of distribution of power is usually focused upon the twin guest ions of participation and power equalization in the organization and their relative influence in determining organizational effectiveness. The distribution or power, that is, how much influence in the decision making is exerted by the different hierarchical levels, is closely associated with the expected distribution of power, that is, how much influence members expect different hierarchical levels to exert in the decision making process. In addition to the expectations of the members, the subordinates’ perceptions of the source from which the superiors’ influence is derived, further adds to the complexity of understanding organizational power

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