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1. WHAT IS LEARNING? EXPLAIN BRIEFLY THE THEORIES OF LEARNING.

Robbins (2003) defines learning as any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Psychologists formally define learning as a process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of an individual’s experience. Learning of new behaviors often reflects adapting to your surroundings. Learning therefore, occurs in every setting and takes place at every age.

The learning process therefore, enhances the knowledge, skills and attitude of individuals, to increase their willingness to adopt those newly acquired knowledge, skills and attitudes to implement them at the work place.

Learning is characterized by change in behavior, this change must be relatively permanent, there should be acquisition of a behavior and some form of experience is necessary for learning.

The very basic form of learning is called conditioning. This connotes the process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses. Conditioning forms a theoretical background to various theories by various scholars. Important of these theories include the following;

Classical conditioning theory is one of these theories. The theory was proposed by a Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov in 1927.classical conditioning is the basic learning process that involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response – producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response. In an experiment to teach a dog to salivate, Pavlov presented a bell as a neutral stimulusneutral because dogs do not normally salivate to the sound of a ringing bell. He would always ring the bell before presenting the food. After several repetitions the dog began to salivate on hearing the sound of the bell. This means that the dog had learnt a new association between the sound of the bell and the presentation of the food.the sound of the bell is a conditioned stimulus because it was originally neutral but comes to elicit a reflexive response, the dog’s salivation to the sound of the bell is a conditioned response as it is a learned reflexive response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Operant conditioning is yet another theory of learning.coinned by Burrhus Fredrick Skinner in 1954; operant conditioning is based on the law of effect. The theory explains learning as a process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences. One possible consequence of behavior is reinforcement. Reinforcement is said to occur when a stimulus or an event follows an operant and increases the likelihood of the operant being repeated. Operant conditioning is premised on the following principles. That the behavior is learned, behavior that is positively reinforced will re occur, information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced, reinforcement will

generalize across stimuli , producing secondary conditioning, and that rewards are more effective if they immediately follow the desired response. Operant conditioning is most effective in shaping behavior through positive and negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction.

Another theory of learning is social learning this theory was proposed by Albert Mandura in (1927).Bandura contends that most human behavior is acquired through observational learning rather than through trial and error or direct experience of the consequences of our actions.wathcing and processing information about the actions of others, including the consequences that occur, influences the likelihood that behavior will be imitated. Bandura 1986suggests that four cognitive processes interact to determine whether imitation will occur. First you must pay attention to the other person’s behavior. second you must remember the other person’s behavior so that you can perform it at a later time. That is, you must form and store a mental representation of behavior to be limited. Third, you must be able to transform this mental representation into actions that you are capable of reproducing. Fourth, there must be some motivation for you to imitate the behavior. One is more likely to imitate a behavior if there is some expectation that doing so will produce reinforcement or reward.

2. DEFINE PERSONALITY AND EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT DETERMINATES OF PERSONALITY. Personality refers to an individual’s unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving (Pervin, 1997). According to Allport (1937), personality is the dynamic organization with in the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment” Personality is often influenced by a number of factors which many personality theorists stress. From Freud’s psycho analysis theories, traits theories and social cognitive as well as humanistic theories, major factors that influence personality include the following. Heredity is one factor that greatly influence personality basing on heritability estimates viz; the numerical estimate of the degree to which differences within a specific group of people are due to genetics, it has been universally agreed that traits like physique, eye color, hair color, height, temperament, energy level, intelligence and reflexes. Taking the example of twins reared apart investigations it was noticed that; many identical twins share common interests as well as common genres. The evidence for genetic influence is particularly strong for extraversion and neuroticism, two of the Big five personality traits (plomin 1990). Openness to experience and conscientiousness, are also substantially influence by genetics. It is no doubt therefore, that genetic influence takes at least 50 percent of some one’s personality. The environment is another crucial determinant of personality. Environment comprises of culture, family, social and situational factors. Taking agreeableness as an example, this is more strongly affected by shared environmental influences. Research stress the fact that, both identical and fraternal twins raised together were more similar on the trait of

agreeableness that were twins raised apart. Another additional evidence that under scores this point is that identical twins are most alike is early life. As twins grow up, leave home and encounter different experiences and environments, their personalities become more different (McCartney & others, 1990) it is there for 1:1 ratio for both genetics and environmental factors. Culture is another determinant of personality. Culture sets standard norms, altitudes and values that are passed on from generation to generation and this endures time every culture trains its members to behave certain acceptable ways and expects every member of the group to follow suit. People from similar cultural background have similar attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition, cooperation and artistic talent etc, compared to people from other cultures. However, within similar cultures, people develop different personalities depending on the environmental circumstances under which they grow. Culture is more relevant in forming people’s belief systems towards society in line with their cultural norms. The family background also determines some one’s personality. This is most common with the person’s immediate family. Family influences the behavior of a person especially in the early stages of life. The nature of such influence will depend upon the socioeconomic level of the family. Family influences the behavior of a person especially in the early stages of life. The nature of such influence will depend upon the socio-economic level of the family, family size, race, religion, parent’s educational level and geographic location. This however forms the entire environment under which a person grows. Children born to families where domestic violence is common, where seen to be more violent in their later years compared to children form respectable families. Care extended

to children also formed their traits on attachment. Children raised in poor quality day cares were seen to develop insecure attachment and also this affected their academic performance. The family is an important determinant of personality since it forms a child’s immediate environment. Situational factors also form individual personality. For every individual goes through different types of experience and events in his/her life. Some of the events and experience, which and individual goes through can determine his/her personality. Children who grew up in war ravaged areas and internally displaced camps tend to espouse similar personality go on for most of their lives unless proper rehabilitation is established.

3.

DISCUSS DIFFERENT THEORIES OF EMOTION.

An emotion is a distinct psychological state that involves subjective experience physical arousal and a behavioral or expressive response. Emotions are closely tied to motivational processes. We are motivated to seek out experiences that produce pleasurable emotions such as happiness and pride. And we are motivated to avoid experiences that produce unpleasant emotions such as anger or fear (Ekman & Davidson, 1994) Theories to explain the cause and nature of emotions have been debated throughout. These theories tend to differ in terms of which component of emotion receives the most emphasis-physical responses, expressive behavior, or subjective experience. Te most influential of these theories includes the following.

The James –Lange theory of emotion. The theory was developed by William James and Carl Lange in disagreement with the common sense view. According to this theory, feed back from physiological aroused and from the muscles involved in your behavior cause a subjective feeling of emotion. Thus the theories believe that emotion follows a sequence, i.e. one perceives a stimulus, - behavioral and physiological changes occur; and we interpret our physiological and behavioral reaction as a particular emotion. According to the theory, we don’t tremble and run because we are afraid, we are afraid because we tremble and run. This theory has been criticized by research on several grounds. Walter Cannon (18711945), pointed out that bodily reactions are similar for many emotions, yet our subjective experience of various emotions is very different. For example, both fear and rage are

accompanied by increased heart rate, but we have no difficulty distinguishing between the two emotions. Cannon (1927) also noted the fact that our emotional reaction to a stimulus is often faster than our physiological reaction

The other theory is the Cannon- Bard theory of Emotion. The theory was proposed by Walter Cannon (1927) and later joined by Philip Bard. According to the theory, when an emotion –arousing stimulus is perceived information is relayed simultaneously to the cortex in the brain and to the sympathetic nervous system. The activation of the cortex causes the subjective experience of emotion and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system causes the physical response, which takes a few seconds longer. Thus, according to Cannon and Bard, subjective experience and physiological arousal are triggered at the same time: neither causes the other.

Another theory of emotion is the two factor theory of emotion. The theory was proposed by Stanley Schechter and Jerome singer in (1962) According to this theory, emotion is a result of the interaction of physiological arousal and the cognitive label we attach to explain the stirred –up state. If one of these factors is absent, emotion will not be experienced under normal circumstances, the two factors, cognitive labeling and physiological arousal are interrelated. For example, the cognition (strange man is following me) triggers a state of physiological arousal. The arousal is interpreted in terms of the situation or condition that triggered it (knowledge about dangers of strange men). At that point, according to Schachter and Singer, the state of arousal is labeled a an emotion-fear.

The theory has been criticized for, research has identified little evidence to support the claim that arousal is a necessary condition for an emotional state and the idea that emotional states can result from labeling unexplained arousal.

Cognition appraisal theory of Richard Lazarus (1980) is yet another theory of emotion. This theory emphasizes that the most important aspect of an emotional experience is out cognitive interpretation, or appraisal of the emotion-causing stimulus. All other components of emotion including physiological arousal follow from the initial cognitive appraisal. For Lazarus, all emotions are the result of cognitive appraisals of the personal meaning of events and experiences. If we think that we have something to gain or lose, we experience emotion. Thus, such appraisals are closely tied to motivation. The more personally important the out come, the more intense the emotion. Critics of this theory object that emotional reactions to a stimulus or event are virtually instantaneous – too rapid to allow for the process of cognitive appraisal. Instead, they suggest that we feel first and think later (Zajone, 1984). Weiner’s attribution theory certain attributions produce specific emotions. Once the initial evaluation has been made, the individual looks at what caused the event. These attributions of causality can modify the emotion felt. It is the interaction of the perceived internal and external causes, controllability and out come that will determine the emotional responses.

4. DEFINE POWER AND EXPLAIN THE FORMAL BASE OF POWER Power is the ability to influence others. Power involves making others d things in a manner best appreciated by the person exercising the power. Managers derive power form both organizational and individual sources. These sources are called position power and personal power respectively. Power is witnessed when particular people depend their actions on the directive of others. Therefore, power is a function of dependency (Robbins, 2003) There are several bases of power and for this discussion we shall dwell our attention on the formal base of power. This is power based on the position of an individual in an organization. Formal power is derived from either one’s ability to coerce or reward others or is derived from the formal authority rested in the individual due to his/her strategic position in the organizational hierarchy. Formal power is categorized into various types which include the following;

Coercive power is one type of a formal base of power. This is power dependent on fear. It is based on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. In an organization one can exercise power over another if they have the power to dismiss, suspend, demote another assuming that the job is valuable to the person on whom power is being unleashed.

Another formal base of power is reward power. Reward power is the extent to which a manager can use extrinsic and intrinsic reward to control other people. Examples of such rewards include money, promotions, compliments, or enriched jobs. Although all managers have some access to rewards, success in accessing and utilizing rewards to achieve influence varies according to the skills of the manager.

There is also legitimate power among the formal bases of power. This stems from the extent to which a manager can use subordinates’ internalized values that the boss has a right of command to control their behavior. Legitimate power represents a special kind of power a manager has because subordinates believe it is legitimate for a person occupying the managerial position to have the right to command. This type of power is premised on the various elements like positions of authority, and the acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.

Information power is another base of formal power. This is derived form access to and control over information. When people have needed information, others become dependant on them. For example, managers may have access to specific information which subordinates may not access. The higher the level of a manager in this power base, the more access to vital data pertaining the organization.

5. WHAT IS STRESS AND WHAT ARE THE POTENTIAL SOURCES OF STRESS.

Stress is defined as a negative emotional state occurring in response to events that are perceived as taxing or exceeding a person’s resources or ability to cope (Lazarus, 1993). The definition emphasizes the important role played by a person’s perception or appraisal of events in the experience of stress. Stress comes as a result of our cognitive appraisal of an event and the resources we have to deal with the event. If we have adequate resources to deal with a situation it will probably create little or no stress in our lives. But if we perceive our resources as being inadequate to deal with a situation we see as threatening, challenging, or even harmful, we will experience the effects of stress. Life is filled with potential stressors- events or situations that produce stress. Virtually any event or situation can be a source of stress if you question your ability or resources to deal effectively with it. Below, we look at the most important and common sources of stress.

Environmental factors are major sources of stress. The environment both internal and external keeps on changing the conditions within the organization. Researchers Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe (1967) believed that any change that required you to adjust your behavior and lifestyle would cause stress. The uncertainly in the organization influences stress levels among employees in an organization. Other changes may be external within the business cycle, political

uncertainty and technology uncertainty all these form the environment under which employees in he organization perform their duties. Such factors are cognitively appraised differently by different employees and threaten people hence causing stress. Organization factors also influence stress. The organization creates an environment with a lot of work load pressures. The targets that are supposed to be achieved within a specific time while minimizing errors are all potential causes of stress. Role demands create conflicts; work over load, ambiguity, interpersonal demands all of which may not do well with people’s expectations and the time limit within which they should be achieved.

Organizational structure is also a potential cause of stress. This defines the power structure in the organization. It also stipulates the degree of rules and regulations and where decisions are made. The structure also clarifies the leadership and managerial style of the organization’s senior executives. Senior executives, by virtue of their managerial styles create an organizational cultural which reflects tension, fear and anxiety. They over emphasize tight control, hire and fire policies which keep organizational member on hot seat and create stress among them.

Other factors that cause stress are individual factors. These include factors in the employee’s personal life. These range from family issues, personal economic problems and inherent personality characteristics. Individual stressors manifest them selves in daily hassles. Stress researcher Richard Lazarus and his colleagues suspect that such ordinary

irritations in daily life might be an important source of stress. These daily hassles. A significant individual factor influencing stress is a person’s basic dispositional nature. Over suspicious anger and hostility increases a person’s stress and risk of heart disease. These individuals with high level of mistrust for other also cause stress for them selves. Conflict is also a common source of stress. Conflict in terms of feeling pulled between two opposing desires, motives or goals. These conflicts are described in terms of approach and avoidance. An individual is motivated to approach desirable or pleasant outcomes and to avoid undesirable or unpleasant out comes The most stressful are approach-avoidance conflicts. Here a goal has both desire able and undesirable aspects. When faced with an approach – avoidance conflict, people often vacillate, unable to decide whether to approach or avid the goal. Such people often find them selves stuck unable to resolve the conflict. The result is a significant increase in feelings of stress and anxiety

6. EXPLAIN THE HUMAN PROCESS INTERVENTIONS OF OD. OD intervention refers to an activity that is carried on in an organization with the help of an internal or external OD consultant to achieving a given goal or objective. The human process interventions aim at the social processes occurring within organizations. Most important or these interventions include the following:

T-groups are some of the Human process interventions. These are designed to provide members with experiential learning about group dynamics, leadership and interpersonal relationships. The basic T-group training or sensitivity training is to change the standards, attitudes and behavior of individuals by using psychological techniques and programs. In such training there is group confession where the individual’s problems become the problems of the group, which in turn tries to find a solution. The main objectives of such training is to increase understanding, in sight and self awareness about one’s own and other’s behavior and its impact on self and others, it gives a better understanding of the group, improves diagnostic skills and also increase the ability to transfer learning into action. Another human process intervention is process consultation. This involves a set of activities on the part of the consultant that helped the client to perceive, understand and act upon the process of events that occur in the client’s environment in order to improve the situation as defined by the client. It deals the most important group processes like communication, he functional roles of group members, ways through which the group solves problem and make decisions, development and growth of group norms and the use of leadership as authority.

Third party interventions, this focuses on interpersonal or inter group conflicts. Conflict can arise from various sources. From substantive issues like work methods, pay rates and conditions of employment, and form interpersonal issues such as differences in personality, task orientations, perceptions among group members and competition over scarce resources.

Team building is another human process intervention. This is a very effective approach useful to develop and nature a team culture in an organization, which helps the group members to enhance their interpersonal and problem solving skill. It also helps group members to enhance their interpersonal and problem solving skills. It also helps group members to develop a higher level of motivation to carry out the group decision by over coming specific problems like apathy, general lack of interest among members, loss of productivity, increasing complaints within the group, confusion about assignments, low participation in meetings lack of innovation and initiation, increasing complaints from those out side the group about the quality timeliness, effectiveness of services and products. Such an intervention is useful for groups reporting to the same supervisor, groups with common organizational goals, temporary groups formed to form a specific, one-time task, among others, the success of team building depends on the length of time allocated to the activity, the team’s willingness to look at the way I which it operates, length of time the team has spent together and the permanencies of the teams