Teaching Methods

Teaching Methods When asked about teaching methods, most people quickly identify two main types of instruction —discussion and lecture. In fact, many would argue that these are the only two methods—with all others merely being variations on these two basic themes. Debates about which method is preferable seem to be an annual event in academic circles and frequently are divided along disciplinary lines. Teachers in the physical sciences generally lean more heavily toward the lecture format; whereas, those in the humanities, and in some areas of the social sciences, lean more toward the discussion format. The question of lecture versus discussion, however, is actually less a disciplinary issue than one of purpose. Where the primary mission is to supply information, the lecture format is generally more effective. Conversely, when the goals are oriented more toward process and changing behavior, discussion teaching is typically more effective. In the following sections, each format is discussed separately, but you should read both sections as you are preparing to teach. In these addresses, three experienced teachers offer good advice for teaching in general, whether the assigned topic is discussion teaching or lecturing, and all three raise some controversial points that you may want to consider for further discussion with your peers. All methods of instruction are useful to meet some goal. Therefore, even if you now think that you will be exclusively using the lecture method, it may be useful to have some ideas about what can be accomplished via discussion, and visa versa.

Lecturing For many beginning teachers thinking about teaching means thinking about how to execute a captivating lecture. An effective lecture often has a certain dramatic quality, and many of the elements of public performance can be exploited during a lecture. In fact, many people find it useful to draw a comparison between lecturing and acting, but you do not have to be dramatic to lecture effectively. Certainly, if you have dramatic talent and skills, you will probably find that these abilities will serve you well in the classroom. A good lecture should play off the strengths of the lecturer, and a lack of dramatic talent or experience should not dissuade you from lecturing. As you consider each of the next two readings, it will be quite evident that rather different positions are being taken regarding the use of the standard lecture. The first reading by Henry Gleitman is one that was originally presented at CTP's spring 1989 workshop. Here, Gleitman argues persuasively for what appears to be a fairly traditional lecture format and provides some suggestions about when and why you might wish to adopt such an approach. The second reading has been excerpted from the opening presentation given by Tori Haring-Smith at CTP's winter 1988 workshop, at which she was asked to discuss practical issues related to lectures. In her critique of the lecture method, Haring-Smith very nicely exposes both the strengths and the weaknesses of the traditional lecture, while offering some practical alternatives to it. The Center for Teaching and Learning is happy to introduce new material into this electronic edition of Teaching at Chicago, and therefore we have added Isaac Abella's 1992 CTP lecture, "On Effective Lecturing" to this section. "Lecturing: Using a Much Maligned Method of Teaching" "Teaching by Lecture"

"On Effective Lecturing"

Teaching by the Lecture Method Although lecturing is, as Gleitman notes, often dismissed by educators, it has nonetheless proved to be an extremely durable method of instruction. Obviously, lecturing does have its advantages. Lectures are, in fact, an efficient means of conveying a body of information, especially when there is either too much or too little printed information available. They can also be a very effective medium for conveying enthusiasm and excitement about a field, or, as Haring-Smith suggests, lecturing may simply appeal to many because it seems as familiar as a comfortable old shoe and thus is a fairly common first choice of beginning teachers. Although there are many situations in which most of the educational agenda will be better served by the discussion format of teaching, nearly all educators find that they must prepare lectures at least occasionally. Because unplanned lectures are rarely an effective method of instruction, you may find the following information helpful at some point along the way. Most of the information that follows is a response to the more common problems and questions beginning teachers have as they begin trying to assemble and produce lectures. How much material should I prepare for an hour lecture?—There are two important inherent characteristics of the lecture situation that you should keep in mind when you are preparing for class. The first of these concerns is the amount of verbal information that can be effectively squeezed into a specified amount of time. An average out-loud reading rate is about 140—160 words per minute. In other words, even if you are able to read at a steady nonstop pace for nearly an hour, the most you will be able to read is fifteen single-spaced, typewritten pages. Thus, allowing for the necessary variations in pacing, questions, and so forth that accompany a welldelivered lecture, a good rule of thumb is that the information contained in a fifty-minute lecture can be transcribed into no more than ten single-spaced, typewritten pages. It is also important when you are preparing a lecture to remember that people have a limited ability to absorb aural information, tuning in and out of the lecture every fifteen—twenty minutes. Students cannot go back and skim through a lecture when they begin to wonder whether they have missed an important point. And they may well have! Pattern your lectures so that major items appear no more frequently than every fifteen—twenty minutes, and limit yourself to no more that four major items within an hour lecture. The rest of the time should be taken up by the examples, proofs, and anecdotes that support and reinforce the major point. You will obviously want to vary how the points are made—for example, once or twice as an abstract principle, once as a demonstration through a concrete example, and once as the summary and conclusion. Do not count on a really crucial point reaching all your students at the same time. Is it a good idea to read a lecture?—There are some occasions when it is useful to read a lecture, such as at professional conferences and when you are addressing a group of colleagues. Despite appearances to the contrary, however, reading a lecture is not a panacea for the stage fright that inevitably befalls beginning teachers. Actually, reading a lecture effectively requires nearly as much skill as, or possibly more skill than, does a more spontaneous delivery. Lecturing is especially ill suited to you as a beginning teacher because, when you read a lecture, it becomes considerably more difficult to assess your students and their reactions to what you are saying. As a beginning teacher, your ability to assess and gather information on how students think, and the kinds of novel reconstructions of information they make, will be extremely important (See Ferguson and Haring-Smith, for elaborations and examples of this point). If you routinely read lectures, it will be difficult for you to acquire this crucial information. Most people actually do

best by first mastering more spontaneous kinds of delivery and only later trying to master the art of reading from the podium. When you read a lecture, you have a greater tendency to lose students simply because they cannot process the information as quickly. If you must read a lecture, be sure to allow for frequent eye contact, and vary the tone and tempo of your voice. For example, begin the lecture slowly to give students a chance to connect with what you are saying. You can pick up the pace as you move along, but you will want to slow down again as you are reaching major conclusions. Pace of presentation is an effective nonverbal way to achieve emphasis. You can also punctuate key points by using the blackboard. Above all else, remember to be natural! How can I be sure that I reach my students?—Give your students an unambiguous framework for listening to the points you want to make—remember the earlier comments about how students will edit and interpret what is said. Be sure you give them enough information so that they don't edit out the most important parts of your message to them. Many successful teachers will underscore their organization by outlining their main ideas or topics on the blackboard before they begin a lecture. Then, of course, there is the age-old adage that sometimes works in written composition but more often does so in lecturing: "Tell them where you are going, go there, then tell them where you have been." A good lecture, like a good essay, not only makes a point; it demonstrates it. Demonstration can take a far greater range of forms than is possible in writing, and which forms you use will partially depend on your goals and the content of your lecture. One fairly common form for demonstrating a point in a lecture involves audience participation. For example, you can ask a series of questions to retrieve from the students the more important details you have presented thus far, write the points on the board, and then invite the class to draw the appropriate or main point conclusions. Vary your voice and movements to punctuate your lecture, especially your major points. Lean into your audience and lower your voice to share a private point of view on the issue; slam the podium and exclaim when you've lulled them to sleep and a crucial point has appeared; move around the room and use your hands. During the lecture, find ways to make sure that you are not losing the students. The most obvious way is to make eye contact and watch for the tell-tale signs of incomprehension. Another way to check on the students and vary the monotony is either to pose specific questions such as asking students to summarize the key ideas so far and asking for the definition of a previously studied term or to ask for students' questions. Evaluate the lecture at the end of the class by having the students write a response to questions such as, When were you the most confused during the lecture? Haring-Smith offers other ideas on how to create student feedback while lecturing. A recent report from Harvard University suggests a general classroom activity called the two-minute essay, in which students take a few minutes at the end of each class to respond to the following two questions: (1) What was the main point made today? and (2) What is the most significant unanswered question in your mind right now? Which is the best way to begin a lecture?—At the beginning of the lecture, gain the students' attention and remind them of the context of the course. The introduction to a lecture should provide your students with the conceptual framework of the information that will be shared. Emphasize the structure of your lecture by providing an outline of the lecture on the board and make sure the connection between past and future classes is clear. Two possible opening gambits are, first, to raise a question that will be answered by the end of the lecture and, second, to state an historical or current problem that is related to the content of the lecture.

At the close of the lecture, round off the class period by summarizing the main points, by restating the premise, or by returning to the opening question. As was discussed earlier, one example of a truly significant point will not be enough for undergraduates who are just beginning their studies in your subject area. What may seem overly repetitious to you will probably be just right for your students. You should also prepare the way for the next class period. The end of the lecture is a good place to emphasize the relation among the ideas you have just presented, those presented earlier in the course, and those that will be dealt with in a subsequent lecture. How can I improve my lectures?—The most obvious way to improve your lectures is to get objective feedback about what you are presently doing. For example, you might ask a faculty member whom you respect to sit in on your class. You can also benefit greatly by asking a peer or a neutral third party to observe your class and then later talk to you about it. Alternatively, if you are uncomfortable with either of these suggestions, you can simply tape your own class session and then listen to it later. The important thing is to get as much feedback as possible, ideally from a number of different people. Which is the best way to prepare a lecture?—There really are no hard-and-fast rules for producing good lectures. Approaches to crafting a lecture are as varied as are approaches to writing a paper. The following list of questions, however, may help you think through and organize the information you are planning to present.

Questions to Have in Mind: Preparing a Lecture 1. Who are my students? What can I assume with absolute certainty that they know? What evidence do I have for these assumptions? How can I discover their assumptions and misconceptions? What kind of misconceptions might they have about the subject? How can I correct for those misconceptions? What do I want them to know? 2. What are the major points that I wanted to get across in this lecture? If my students walk out of the lecture knowing only one new idea, skill, or concept, what would it be? What concrete examples can I use to emphasize these points? Can I think of any examples that draw on my students' own experiences? 3. Do these points fall into any kind of a natural order? Can I use temporal structure? Can I use some kind of logical structure? How can I convey that structure to my students? 4. What kinds of connections will my students have to make to previously covered material? Should I plan to supply those connections, or can I justify why I want my students to make them independently? When and how can I help the students connect the information I am providing with knowledge and skills they already possess? 5. How does this lecture fit into my overall plan for the course and how does it relate to the other material we have covered? 6. In what ways will my presentation be different as a lecture from what it would have been as an essay on the topic? http://teaching.uchicago.edu/handbook/tac05.html

Whole Group Discussion as a Teaching Method: Whole Group Discussion is a modified form of classroom lecture where the focus is shared between the instructor and the students for information transfer. Typically, an instructor will

stand before a class and present information for the students to learn but the students will also participate by answering questions and providing examples.

Pros of Whole Group Discussion as a Teaching Method: •

Whole group discussions provide for greater interaction between teacher and students.

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Instructors maintain a greater control over what is being taught because they are able to steer the discussion.

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Auditory learners find them appealing to their learning style.

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Teachers can check on what students are retaining through questions posed.

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Whole group discussion is comfortable for many teachers because it is a modified form of lecture.

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Students have a tendency to stay focused on the lesson because they might be called on to answer questions.

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Students may feel more comfortable asking questions during whole group discussions.

Cons of Whole Group Discussion as a Teaching Method: •

Whole group discussions require setting up and enforcing ground rules for students. If these rules are not enforced then there is a possibility that the discussion could quickly go off-topic.

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Students who are weak in note-taking skills will have trouble understanding what they should remember from group discussions. This is even more so than in lectures in many cases because not only the teacher but fellow students are talking about the lesson.

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Some students may not feel comfortable being put on the spot during a whole group discussion.

Final Thoughts : Whole group discussions are an excellent teaching method when used in conjunction with other methods. Instruction should be varied from day to day to help reach the most students possible. Teachers need to provide their students with note taking skills before starting discussions. It is important that teachers be good at managing and facilitating discussions. Questioning techniques are effective for this. Two questioning techniques that teachers employ is to increase their wait time after questions are asked and to only ask one question at a time. http://712educators.about.com/od/lessonplans/p/discussions.htm

Teaching Methods in UofC UME What: Teaching Methods in Clinical Presentation Curriculum The most important feature of the Clinical Presentation XE "Clinical Presentation" Curriculum is the structuring of the content around a clinical presentation. As teachers present new content, it

is vital they constantly refer to the relevant clinical presentations and demonstrate the usefulness of the new material (basic science, clinical) in solving these cases. In the pre-clerkship years, three main teaching methods are utilized:

Lectures

Lectures are used primarily to 1) introduce and provide an overview of topics to cover; and 2) explain important and complex content areas. The purpose of a lecture at the beginning of a section or clinical presentation is to stimulate interest and provide a structure for the content material that will follow. In the Clinical Presentation XE "Clinical Presentation" Curriculum, this structure is the clinical problem-solving scheme. The lecturer may present cases at the beginning and demonstrate the use of the clinical-problem solving scheme. Also, the lecture is an efficient way to present concepts to a whole group of students and ensure some uniformity in their level of understanding. Completely new domains of knowledge can be introduced with the use of a lecture to provide rapid understanding of the basic concepts and their inherent structure. In recent years, most lectures have been available as a podcast, to allow for student review, reflection, and elaboration of the important concepts.

Small Group Sessions Student attendance at small group sessions is mandatory. Small group sessions should be used for students attempting to solve a clinical problem. The clinical problem should illustrate the use of a clinical-problem solving scheme. It is also used as an opportunity for students to learn additional content material not covered in other learning activities but considered part of the course objectives. A case should provide an opportunity for students to study independently and report to the group on their learning activities at a future session. The major indications for small group learning include in depth analysis of content, and reinforcement of the clinical-problem solving scheme. Clinical problems studied in small group sessions provide a context for exploring new knowledge and reinforcing acquired knowledge. Once the clinical problem solving approach has been presented, small group teaching sessions allow students to acquire finer conceptual details in a more self directed manner. The group, the preceptor, the material provided and the structure of the activity will guide the students in the desired direction. Learning requires repeated practice and opportunities to receive feedback. When adequately structured and lead by an effective facilitator, small groups are an ideal format for this activity. In recent years, two students, on a rotating basis, have been nominated for each session as a student facilitator. The roles of the student facilitators include a more in-depth preparation of the case and its relevant questions/material, initiating the small group process by reading the case, as well as facilitating the early small group discussion with their peers.

Clinical Correlation Sessions Clinical correlation (bedside) sessions will continue in each course with the primary goal of reinforcing the features of a clinical presentation with real examples. Knowledge learned in the context of a lecture or a small group session needs to be transposed to the clinical situation. The clinical correlation sessions allow students to review their knowledge with a real patient. Clinical correlations preceptors should receive the relevant clinical-problem solving schemes and learning objectives so they can identify appropriate patients for the sessions. They should also be aware of which presentations have been studied at the time of the session. In addition to these sessions, students are taught the art and science of physical examination, communication, procedural skills, global health, ethics and life as a physician by way of a longitudinal pre-clerkship course entitled “Medical Skills”. Two other longitudinal pre-clerkship courses, Healthy Populations and Applied Evidence-Based Medicine, cover such topics as evidence-based medicine, critical appraisal, biostatistics, global health and community medicine.

Student Evaluation The Student Evaluation Committee is responsible for overseeing the evaluation of undergraduate medical students’ performance in the Undergraduate Medical Education (UME) curriculum. Student evaluations aim to to be consistent with the goals, objectives and philosophy of the UME program and meet or exceed Liason Committee on Medical Education accreditation standards. All policies and procedures are designed to ensure high quality examinations, including efforts to maximize reliability and validity. Student evaluations serve several purposes, including: •

Assessment of student performance and achievement of curricular objectives.

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Feedback to students and faculty regarding student learning needs

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Program evaluation including identification of strengths and weaknesses in the education program.

In order to achieve these purposes, several formats of student evaluation are used including multiple-choice examinations, Objective Structured Clinical Examinations (OSCE), student projects, and preceptor rating scales to name a few . Formal policies have been developed that outline the necessary preparation and review steps for each evaluation method. The process of student evaluation is constantly under review. Specific criteria are in place to identify unusually difficult or easy examinations, and to identify atypical trends in student performance. Student performance on internal examinations is periodically compared to external examinations as a quality assurance strategy. Students are included as participants on the Student Evaluation Committee. With the exception of pre-examination planning meetings where content is discussed, the students are included in the policy setting and examination review processes. 2009 faculty of calgary http://www.medicine.ucalgary.ca/mdprogram/prospective/teachingmethods

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Increased competition has made it imperative for students to obtain a good quality education. The educational process has evolved and developed over a long period of time. New and contemporary teaching methods are being designed to provide good quality education to students. There are numerous teaching strategies, which are generally followed in the US. These include the lecture method, case method, discussion method, active learning, cooperative learning, integrating technology and distance learning.

The lecture case method is the most commonly used method in classrooms all around the world. The lecture approach provides a means to convey a large amount of information to a number of students at the same time. It maximizes the lecturer's control and is generally non-threatening to students. The case method is an instructional strategy that engages students in lively debates about issues and problems inherent in practical relevance. In the discussion method, the instructor starts the tutorial with a whole group discussion to refresh students' memories about the assigned reading. Learning is enhanced when students become actively involved in the learning process, as such active learning proves to be an appropriate method for teaching. Various studies have shown that learning is enhanced when students become actively involved in the learning process. Cooperative learning is an organized academic approach that encourages small groups of students to work together for the execution of a common goal. Computer literacy today forms a significant part of a student's education. Integrating technology into a syllabus when appropriate has proved to be important for improving and developing the learning experience of the faculty and students. Distance learning refers to any form of teaching and learning in which the teacher and student are not in the same place at the same time. Improved information technology has played an important role in facilitating the process of distance learning. The concept of teaching has undergone a vast sea of change. Over the years, new and improved methods have been introduced to impart good quality education to students. Teaching provides detailed information on Teaching, Teaching Jobs, Teaching Degrees, Teaching Resources and more. Teaching is affiliated with Teacher Resources. http://ezinearticles.com/?Teaching-Methods&id=429107 january 24,2007