Teaching Methods

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TEACHING METHODS

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PREFACE Initial in the one module of the project, which is allotted to me, “TEACHING METHODS” is covered in this project report. The report contains very nice and well arranged topics related to the subject “TEACHING METHODS”. The main contents of this project describes that ‘what are the types of teaching ’ and many other topics which is countable in the “TEACHING METHODS”. The project report also contains a description of ancient age, middle age and modern age education technique. Overall this report may work like a guide for the subject “TEACHING METHODS”.

Name of the student

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Perseverance, inspiration and motivation have always played a key role in the success of any venture. Working on this project was a challenge and made us a bit filtery in the beginning. At this level of understanding, it is often difficult to understand a wide spectrum of knowledge without proper guidance and advice .hence, we take this opportunity to express our heart felt gratitude to MR. XXXXXXXXX, for his round o’clock enthusiastic support and commentaries which made this project successful, we are thankful to him for making impossible look easy for us. We also extend our sincere gratitude to MR. XXXXXXXXXXX, for his inspiration, encouragement and for the impetus obtained throughout the course of our project. Finally, we would to like to thanks XXXXXXXXXXX and all of XXXXXXXXXXXXX department, for their motivation and encouragement throughout our endeavor.

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TABLE OF INDEX 1. Introduction

2.Diversity In Teaching In The Classroom a. Questioning b. Explaining c. Demonstrating d. Collaborating e. Learning By Teaching (German:Ldl)

3. Teaching Methods a. Pedagogy And Andragogy b. Simple And Complex Skills c. Whole Practice d. Part Instruction e. Whole - Part - Whole Instruction f. Shaping g. Chaining h. An Eastern European Approach i. Types Of Practice 4. Common Teaching Methods a. Lecture

b. Lecture With Discussion c. Panel Of Experts d. Brainstorming e. Videotapes

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f. Class Discussion g. Small Group Discussion h. Case Studies

i. Role Playing j. Report-Back Sessions k. Worksheets/Surveys l. Index Card Exercise m. Guest Speaker n. Values Clarification Exercise 5. Ancient Education

6. Medieval Education 7. 20th Century 8. Bibliography

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INTRODUCTION Teaching methods are best articulated by answering the questions, "What is the purpose of education?" and "What are the best ways of achieving these purposes?". For much of prehistory, educational methods were largely informal, and consisted of children imitating or modelling their behavior on that of their elders, learning through observation and play. In this sense the children are the students, and the elder is the teacher. A teacher creates the course materials to be taught and then enforces it. Pedagogy is usually the different way a teacher can teach. It is the art or science of being a teacher, generally referring to strategies of instruction or style of instruction. Resources that help teachers teach better are typically a lesson plan, or practical skill involving learning and thinking skills. A curriculum is often set by the Government with precise standards. These standards can change frequently, depending on what the Government states.

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Diversity in Teaching in the Classroom For effective teaching to take place a good method must be adopted by a teacher. A teacher has many options when choosing a style to teach by. The teacher may write lesson plans of their own, borrow plans from other teachers, or search online or within books for lesson plans. When deciding what teaching method to use, a teacher will need to consider students' background knowledge, environment, and learning goals. Teachers know that students learn in different ways but almost all children will respond well to praise. Students have different ways of absorbing information and of demonstrating their knowledge. Teachers often use techniques which cater to multiple learning styles to help students retain information and strengthen understanding. A variety of strategies and methods are used to ensure that all students have equal opportunities to learn. A lesson plan may be carried out in

several

ways:

Questioning,

explaining, modeling,

collaborating,

and demonstrating.

Questioning A teaching method that includes questioning is similar to testing. A teacher may ask a series of questions to collect information of what students have learned and what needs to be taught. Testing is another method of questioning. A teacher tests the student on what was previously taught in order to identify if a student has learned the material. Standardized testing is in about every Middle School and High School. (i.e. Ohio Graduation Test

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(OGT), Proficiency Test, College entrance Tests (ACT and SAT)).Before that we have to teach how to make questioner. If the question perfect then this method will effective.

Explaining Another teaching method is explanation. This form is similar to lecturing. Lecturing is teaching, giving a speech, by giving a discourse on a specific subject that is open to the public, usually given in the classroom. This can also be associated with demonstrating and modeling. A teacher may use experimentation to demonstrate in a science class. A demonstration is the circumstance of proving conclusively, as by reasoning or showing evidence. Modeling is used as a visual aid to learning. Students can visualize an object or problem, then use reasoning and hypothesizing to determine an answer.

Demonstrating Demonstrations are done to provide an opportunity in learning new exploration and visual learning tasks from a different perspective. Demonstrations can be exercised in several ways.

Collaborating

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Students' working in groups is another way a teacher can enforce a lesson plan. Collaborating allows students to talk among each other and listen to all view points of discussion or assignment. It helps students think in an unbiased way. When this lesson plan is carried out, the teacher may be trying to assess the lesson of working as a team, leadership skills, or presenting with roles.

Learning by teaching (German:LdL) Learning by teaching is a widespread method in Germany, developed by Jean-Pol Martin. The students take the teacher's role and teach their peers.

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Teaching Methods As a coach, you will be required to facilitate the learning of new technical skills by your athletes. To achieve this you will need to develop your knowledge of the learning process and the various teaching methods.

Pedagogy and Andragogy Pedagogy and Andragogy are used to describe the art and science of teaching. Teachers who take on a facilitating role by directing the students in the leaning process (e.g. adult and further education) are considered to be andragogy (student centred) and teachers who lecture to their students (e.g. child education in schools) are considered to be pedagogy (teacher centred).

Simple and Complex Skills Simple and complex are terms used to describe a skill. Simple skills are ones that an athlete finds easy to perform whereas complex skills are ones that the athlete finds more difficult. Remember, what is a simple skill to one athlete may be complex to another so as a coach you need to determine how each athlete perceives the skill.

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Whole Practice Ideally, a skill should be taught as a whole as the athlete can appreciate the complete movement and execution of a skill. The whole method of instruction can sometimes mean the athlete having to handle complex movements e.g. the whole high jump technique.

Part Instruction When a skill is complex or there is considered an element of danger for the athlete then it is more appropriate to breakdown the complex movement into its constituent parts. The parts can then be taught and then linked together to develop the final skill. When part instruction is used it is important that the athlete is demonstrated the whole skill so that they can appreciate the product and understand how the set of parts will develop the skill.

Whole - Part - Whole Instruction Initially the athlete attempts the whole skill and the coach monitors to identify those parts of the skill that the athlete is not executing correctly. Part instruction can then be used to address the limitations and then the athlete can repeat the whole skill with the coach monitoring for any further limitations. No one method is suitable to all occasions, but studies have shown that: 12

•

simple skills (and perhaps simple is relative to each individual) benefit from the whole method

•

skills of intermediate difficulty benefit from the part method

•

closed skills are often taught with part instruction

•

difficult skills are best dealt with by oscillating between part and whole

Shaping Shaping is suitable for complex actions with simultaneous elements e.g. hurdling. Hurdling is frequently seen as a complex skill by beginners because of the event rules and their concern about hitting the hurdles. A possible sequence to shape the hurdling skill over a number of training sessions is as follows: •

athlete to run over 5 to 10 cones adjusted to allow the athlete to take 3 rhymatic strides between each cone - develop running rhythm between the hurdles

•

replace the cones with low obstacles, e.g. six inch high hurdles or lower, that offer no resistance if hit

•

use hurdles set at the lowest height with no toppling weight

•

gradually adjust the hurdle height and spacing to competition requirements for the athlete's age group

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Chaining Breaking an action down into parts is refereed to as chaining and is only suitable for complex actions with sequential parts e.g. triple jump. A possible sequence to chain the hop, step and jump phases of triple jump is as follows: •

demonstrate the whole action

•

demonstrate the hop phase and let them practice

•

demonstrate the hop and step phases and let them practice

•

demonstrate the hop, step and jump phases and let them practice

An Eastern European Approach Consideration must be given to the approach adopted by the former Eastern Bloc countries to technique training. The aim is to identify the most fundamental version of a technique, one that is basic and essential to more advanced techniques. Example for the shot - basic model would be the stand and throw, more advanced would be the step and throw and finally followed by the rotation method. This fundamental component is taught first and established as the basis for all further progressions. Deriving from the fundamental component are exercises that directly reinforce the required movement patterns.

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Types of Practice There are four types of practice: •

Variable - the skill is practiced in the range of situations that could be experienced -Open skills are best practiced in this way

•

Fixed - a specific movement is practiced repeatedly, known as a drill - Closed skills are best practiced in this way

•

Massed - a skill is practiced without a break until the skill is developed. Suitable when the skill is simple, motivation is high, purpose is to practice a skill, the athletes are experienced

•

Distributed - breaks are taken whilst developing the skill. Suitable when the skill is new or complex, fatigue could result in injury, motivation is low, poor environmental conditions

Distributed practice is considered the most effective.

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COMMON TEACHING METHODS Lecture A lecture is an oral presentation intended to present information or teach people

about

a

particular

subject,

for

example

by

a university or college teacher. Lectures are used to convey critical information, history, background, theories and equations. A politician's speech, a minister's sermon, or even a businessman's sales presentation may be similar in form to a lecture. Usually the lecturer will stand at the front of the room and recite information relevant to the lecture's content. Though lectures are much criticized as a pedagogical method, universities have not yet found practical alternative teaching methods for the large majority of their courses. Critics point out that lecturing is mainly a one-way method of communication that does not involve significant audience participation. Therefore, lecturing is often contrasted to active learning. But lectures delivered by talented speakers can be highly stimulating; at the very least, lectures have survived in academia as a quick, cheap and efficient way of introducing large numbers of students to a particular field of study. Lectures have a significant role outside the classroom, as well. Academic and scientific awards routinely include a lecture as part of the honor, and academic conferences often center around "keynote addresses", i.e., lectures. The public lecture has a long history in the sciences and insocial movements. Union halls, for instance, historically have hosted numerous free

and

public

lectures

on

a

wide

variety

of

matters.

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Similarly,churches, community

centers, libraries, museums,

and

other

organizations have hosted lectures in furtherance of their missions or their constituents' interests. STRENGTHS: - presents factual material in direct, logical manner - contains experience which inspires - stimulates thinking to open discussion - useful for large groups LIMITATIONS: - experts are not always good teachers - audience is passive - learning is difficult to gauge - communication in one way PREPARATION: - needs clear introduction and summary - needs time and content limit to be effective - should include examples, anecdotes

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Lecture With Discussion DISCUSSION or Debate (American English) or debating (British English) is a formal method of interactive and position representational argument. Debate is a broader form of argument than logical argument, which only examine the consistency from axiom, and factual argument, which only examine what is or isn't the case or rhetoric which is technique of persuasion. Though logical consistency, factual accuracy as well as some emotional appeal to audience are important elements of the art of persuasion, in debating, one side often prevails over the other side by presenting superior "context" and/or framework of the issue, which is far more subtle and strategic. STRENGTHS: - involves audience at least after the lecture - audience can question, clarify & challenge LIMITATIONS: - time may limit discussion period - quality is limited to quality of questions and discussion PREPARATION:- requires that questions be prepared prior to discussion

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Panel of Experts An "expert" is someone widely recognized as a reliable source

of

technique or skill whose faculty for judging or deciding rightly, justly, or wisely is accorded authority and status by their peers or the public in a specific well distinguished domain. An expert, more generally, is a person with extensive knowledge or ability in a particular area of study. Experts are called in for advice on their respective subject, but they do not always agree on the particulars of a field of study. An expert can be, by virtue of training, education, profession, publication or experience, believed to have special knowledge of a subject beyond that of the average person, sufficient

that

others

may officially(and legally)

rely

upon

the

individual's opinion. Historically, an expert was referred to as a sage. The individual was usually a profound philosopher distinguished for wisdom and sound judgment. STRENGTHS: - allows experts to present different opinions - can provoke better discussion than a one person discussion - frequent change of speaker keeps attention from lagging LIMITATIONS: - experts may not be good speakers - personalities may overshadow content

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- subject may not be in logical order PREPARATION: - facilitator coordinates focus of panel, introduces and summarizes - briefs panel

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Brainstorming Brainstorming is a group creativity technique designed to generate a large number of ideas for the solution to a problem. The method was first popularized in the late 1930s by Alex Faickney Osborn, an advertising executive and one of the founders of BBDO, in a book called Applied Imagination. Osborn proposed that groups could double their creative output by using the method of brainstorming. Although brainstorming has become a popular group technique, researchers have generally failed to find evidence of its effectiveness for enhancing either quantity or quality of ideas generated. Because of such problems as distraction, social loafing, evaluation apprehension, andproduction blocking, brainstorming groups are little more effective than other types of groups, and they are actually less effective than individuals working independently. In the Encyclopedia of creativity, Tudor Rickards provides the article on brainstorming, summarizing the controversies. He also indicates the dangers of conflating productivity in group work with quantity of ideas. There have been numerous attempts to improve brainstorming or replace it with more effective variations of the basic technique. Although traditional brainstorming may not increase the productivity of groups, it may still provide benefits, such as enhancing the enjoyment of group work and improving morale. It may also serve as a useful exercise for team building. Use of the term "brainstorming" has been criticized on the grounds that it is politically incorrect and offensive to people with epilepsy. However, there appears

to

be

little

truth

to

this

claim. A 2005

survey

by 21

the UK charity National Society for Epilepsy found that 93 per cent of people with the condition surveyed do not find the word offensive STRENGTHS: - listening exercise that allows creative thinking for new ideas - encourages full participation because all ideas equally recorded - draws on group's knowledge and experience - spirit of congeniality is created - one idea can spark off other other ideas LIMITATIONS: - can be unfocused - needs to be limited to 5 - 7 minutes - people may have difficulty getting away from known reality - if not facilitated well, criticism and evaluation may occur PREPARATION: - facilitator selects issue - must have some ideas if group needs to be stimulated

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Videotapes Videotape is a means of recording images and sound onto magnetic tape as opposed to movie film. In most cases, a helical scan video head rotates against the moving tape to record the data in two dimensions, because video signals have a very high bandwidth, and static heads would require extremely high tape speeds. Video tape is used in both video tape recorders (VTRs or, more common, video cassette recorders (VCRs)) and video cameras. Tape is a linear method of storing information, and since nearly all video recordings made nowadays are digital, it is expected to gradually lose importance as non-linear/random access methods of storing digital video data are becoming more common. This stuff is also used in the education for its very wide usability and entertaining ability by which the teaching becomes very interesting for teachers as well as the students STRENGTHS: - entertaining way of teaching content and raising issues - keep group's attention - looks professional - stimulates discussion LIMITATIONS: - can raise too many issues to have a focused discussion 23

- discussion may not have full participation - only as effective as following discussion PREPARATION: - need to set up equipment - effective only if facilitator prepares questions to discuss after the show

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Class Discussion If you ask most instructors what their primary goal during a classroom discussion is, the answer seems obvious: Get students talking and keep them talking. For any instructor who has struggled to break through the stubborn silence of tired, timid, or unprepared students, success may be measured by the minutes of sustained student speaking. However, while student participation is necessary for successful classroom discussions, it is hardly sufficient. Students can talk for hours without learning anything of substance. Truly successful classroom discussions are guided by specific teaching goals such as increasing students’ comfort with the specialized language and methods of a field or developing critical thinking. Each teaching goal will suggest different strategies for guiding a classroom discussion. This newsletter reviews several teaching goals that are wellserved by discussion: 1. Increase students’ comfort with the specialized language and methods of a field. 2. Develop critical thinking. 3. Develop problem-solving skills. STRENGTHS: - pools ideas and experiences from group - effective after a presentation, film or experience that needs to be analyzed 25

- allows everyone to participate in an active process LIMITATIONS: - not practical with more that 20 people - few people can dominate - others may not participate - is time consuming - can get off the track PREPARATION: - requires careful planning by facilitator to guide discussion - requires question outline

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Small Group Discussion Group Discussion session is an important part of the admission procedure followed by the B-Schools worldwide. This session is conducted to analyze the ability of the candidates to think on a subject and present their views on the respective subject. This examination also helps the examiners judge the ability of the applicants to perform in groups. Students are always advised to practice group discussion sessions from time ahead so that they can come out with their best foot forward on the day of the examination. Group discussion topics are carefully selected from various fields to judge the qualities of the candidates. Topics that are selected for group discussion are chosen from various fields like sports, politics, social issues, environmental issues and current events. It is always difficult to guess the group discussion topics as it can be chosen from any field of work. However, students are always advised to read a lot of newspapers and business magazines to stay aware of the current events and happenings. Students might not possess thorough information about the GD topics, but common sense and familiarity with the issue can be of great help during the time of group discussion. This always helps you to present your ideas in a proper manner. In order to contribute meaningfully in the verbal test, it is essential for you to go through newspapers and other articles available online on a regular basis. Most of the GD topics are selected from current events, so profound knowledge on the recent issues is a must. You can also collect various group discussion topics online and start preparing yourself. This would help you

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build your confidence for the upcoming session. The examiners are there to see your psychological poise and temperament during the examination. You need to be confident about yourself and be smart and clear while presenting your ideas on the subject. STRENGTHS: - allows participation of everyone - people often more comfortable in small groups - can reach group consensus LIMITATIONS: - needs careful thought as to purpose of group - groups may get side tracked PREPARATION: - needs to prepare specific tasks or questions for group to answer

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Case Studies A case study is one of several ways of doing social science research. Other ways include experiments, surveys, multiple histories, and analysis of archival information . Rather than using samples and following a rigid protocol to examine limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what might become important to look at more extensively in future research. Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses . Another suggestion is that case study should be defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. Case study research means single and multiple case studies, can include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions. Case studies should not be confused with qualitative research and they can be based on any

mix

of

quantitative

and

qualitative

evidence. Single-subject

research provides the statistical framework for making inferences from quantitative case-study data.[1][3] This is also supported and well-formulated in (Lamnek, 2005): "The case study is a research approach, situated between concrete data taking techniques and methodologic paradigms.

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STRENGTHS: - develops analytic and problem solving skills - allows for exploration of solutions for complex issues - allows student to apply new knowledge and skills LIMITATIONS: - people may not see relevance to own situation - insufficient information can lead to inappropriate results PREPARATION: - case must be clearly defined in some cases - case study must be prepared

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Role Playing In roleplaying, participants adopt and act out the role of characters, or parts, that may have personalities, motivations, and backgrounds different from their own. Roleplaying, also known as RP to some, is like being in an improvisational drama or free-form theater, in which the participants are the actors who are playing parts, and the audience. People use the phrase "role-playing" in at least three distinct ways: 

To refer to the playing of roles generally such as in a theater, or educational setting;



To refer to a wide range of games including computer role-playing games, play-by-mail games and more;



To refer specifically to role-playing games

STRENGTHS: - introduces problem situation dramatically - provides opportunity for people to assume roles of others and thus appreciate another point of view - allows for exploration of solutions - provides opportunity to practice skills LIMITATIONS: - people may be too self-conscious

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- not appropriate for large groups - people may feel threatened PREPARATION: - trainer has to define problem situation and roles clearly - trainer must give very clear instructions

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Report-Back Sessions In writing, a report is a document characterized by information or other content reflective of inquiry or investigation, which is tailored to the context of a given situation and audience. The purpose of reports is usually to inform. However, reports may include persuasive elements, such as recommendations, suggestions, or other motivating conclusions that indicate possible future actions the report reader might take. Reports can be public or private, and often address questions posed by individuals in government, business, education, and science. Reports often take the structure of scientific

investigation: Introduction,

Methods,

Results

and

Discussion (IMRAD). They may sometimes follow a problem-solution structure based on the audience's questions or concerns. As for format, reports range from a simpler format with headings to indicate topics, to more complex

formats

including charts, tables, figures, pictures, tables

of

contents, abstracts, summaries, appendices, footnotes, hyperlinks, and references. The purpose of a report is to show information collected to the reader about certain topics, usually to set targets or to show a general view on the subject in hand. Another purpose is to discuss and analyze ideas and thoughts on any problems or improvements to be made and to inform the audience. They can either persuade, suggest or to motivate conclusions A report is an extended formal document with lots of pages that shows different types of information with details of the findings like e.g. Methodology, findings and added Appendices. The document structure is easily navigated by using a table of contents, so the audience can easily find specific information by clear headings and a set structure of text and images.

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STRENGTHS: - allows for large group discussion of role plays, case studies, and small group exercise - gives people a chance to reflect on experience - each group takes responsibility for its operation LIMITATIONS: - can be repetitive if each small group says the same thing PREPARATION: - trainer has to prepare questions for groups to discuss

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Worksheets/Surveys A worksheet is a piece of paper, often preprinted in a way designed to help organize material for learning or clear understanding. Students in a school may have "fill-in-the-blank" sheets of questions, diagrams or maps to help them with their exercises. Students will often use worksheets to review what has been taught in class. K-12 Educators often create worksheets for students on a daily basis. In accounting a

worksheet

often

refers

to

a loose

leaf piece

of stationery from a columnar pad, as opposed to one that has been bound into a physical ledger book. From this the term was extended to designate a single two-dimensional array of data within a computerized spreadsheet program. In the Microsoft spreadsheet program Excel, a single document is known as a "workbook" and by default each workbook contains three arrays or "worksheets." One advantage of such programs is that they can contain formulas so that if one cell value is changed, the entire document is automatically updated, based on those formulas. Analysts, investors, and accountants track a company's financial statements, balance sheets, and other data on worksheets. Worksheets can be made with Microsoft Office Excel and other formula based software. More sophisticated database programs may display data from many tables as a "view." In academia, a survey article is a paper that is a work of synthesis, published through the usual channels (a learned journal or collective volume, such as conference proceedings or collection of essays). It stands outside the 35

usual run of research papers, for two reasons: it is not presented as the author's original research, but as a survey or summary of a field; and it is not necessarily subject to the same degree of peer review. Sometimes short survey articles appear in the guise of book reviews, where the context of the book is summarised first, often at greater length than is devoted to the book. The treatment in a survey article is often more sketchy than would be accepable in a textbook, and the topic or sub-field chosen one in which recent work seems to require summary. In its objectivity, a survey article may lie somewhere between a personal essay, and an encyclopedia article. The intention is to give rapid access to material scattered over many papers. Some fields, such as theoretical physics, depend quite highly on such surveys to bring recent progress into focus, on a time scale of around 18 months to two years. STRENGTHS: - allows people to thing for themselves without being influences by others - individual thoughts can then be shared in large group LIMITATIONS: - can be used only for short period of time PREPARATION: - facilitator has to prepare handouts

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Index Card Exercise An index card is heavy paper stock cut to a standard size. Index cards are often used for recording individual items of information that can then be easily rearranged and filed. The most common size in the United States and Russia is 3 in by 5 in (76 by 127 mm), hence the common name 3-by-5 card. Other sizes widely available include 4 in by 6 in (102 by 152 mm), 5 in by 8 in (127 by 203 mm) andISO-size A7 (74 mm by 105 mm). Cards are available in blank, ruled and grid styles in a variety of colors. Special divider cards with protruding tabs and a variety of cases and trays to hold the cards are also sold by stationers. As

the

name

implies,

index

cards

were

widely

used

in

the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to create an index to large collections of documents. A major law firm, for example, might have a room full of metal cabinets with drawers designed to hold index cards. Clerks might fill out several cards for an individual document or legal case, allowing them to be filed alphabetically under a number of terms. STRENGTHS: - opportunity to explore difficult and complex issues LIMITATIONS: - people may not do exercise PREPARATION:

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- facilitator must prepare questions

Guest Speaker Incorporating a guest speaker into a distance education course can be a great way to bring up-to-the-minute expertise to a cohort-based course. A "listserv," threaded discussion environment (such as a course bulletin board), or even a course chat room can be used to enable a guest speaker to interact with students. The guest speaker will, of course, want to know what s/he is getting into! To aid the speaker, the following set of guidelines was put together for an Adult Education course that might be useful to "borrow" for other courses! STRENGTHS: - personalizes topic - breaks down audience's stereotypes LIMITATIONS: - may not be a good speaker PREPARATION: - contact speakers and coordinate - introduce speaker appropriately

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Values Clarification Exercise Values change over time in response to changing life experiences. Recognizing these changes and understanding how they affect one's actions and behaviors is the goal of the values clarification process. Values clarification will not tell you what your values should be, it simply provides the means to discover what your values are. For the purpose of values clarification, Raths, Harmin and Simon identified seven criteria that must be met if a value is to be considered a full value. These criteria can be divided into three categories: choosing, prizing and acting. To be a full value, the value must be chosen freely from a list of alternatives, only after thoughtful consideration has been given to the consequences of each alternative. The value must be cherished and made known to other people. The value must also be translated into behaviors that are consistent with the chosen value and integrated into the life style. STRENGTHS: - opportunity to explore values and beliefs - allows people to discuss values in a safe environment - gives structure to discussion LIMITATION: - people may not be honest - people may be too self-conscious 39

PREPARATION: - facilitator must carefully prepare exercise - must give clear instructions - facilitator must prepare discussion questions

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Ancient education About 3000 BC, with the advent of writing, education became more conscious

or self-reflective,

with

specialized

occupations

requiring

particularskills and knowledge on how to be a scribe, an astronomer, etc. Philosophy in ancient Greece led to questions of educational method entering national discourse. In his Republic, Plato describes a system of instruction that he felt would lead to an ideal state. In his Dialogues, Plato describes the Socratic method. It has been the intent of many educators since then, such as the Roman educator Quintilian, to find specific, interesting ways to encourage students to use their intelligence and to help them to learn.

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Medieval education Comenius, in Bohemia, wanted all boys and girls to learn. In his The World in Pictures, he gave the first vivid, illustrated textbook which contained much that children would be familiar with in everyday life, and use it to teach the academic subjects they needed to know. Rabelaisdescribed how the student Gargantua learned about the world, and what is in it. Much

later, Jean-Jacques

Rousseau in

his Emile,

presented methodology to teach children the elements of science and much more. In it, he famously eschewed books, saying the world is one's book. And so Emile was brought out into the woods without breakfast to learn the cardinal directions and the positions of the sun as he found his way home for something to eat. There was also Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi of Switzerland, whose methodology during Napoleonic warfare enabled refugee children, of a class believed to be unteachable, to learn - and love to learn. He describes this in his account of the educational experiment at Stanz. He felt the key to have children learn is for them to be loved, but his method, though transmitted later in the school for educators he founded, has been thought "too unclear to be taught today". One result was, when he would ask, "Children, do you want to learn more or go to sleep?" they would reply, "Learn more!"

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20th century In the 20th century, the philosopher and cult founder, Eli Siegel, who believed that all children are equally capable of learning regardless ofethnic background or social class, stated: "The purpose of all education is to like the world through knowing it." This is a goal which is implicit in previous educators, but in this principle, it is made conscious. With this principle at basis, teachers, predominantly in New York, have found that students learn the curriculum with the kind of eagerness that Pestalozzi describes for his students at Stanz centuries earlier. Many current teaching philosophies are aimed at fulfilling the precepts of a curriculum based on Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE). Arguably the qualities of a SDAIE curriculum are as effective if not more so for all 'regular' classrooms. Some critical ideas in today's education environment include: 

Instructional scaffolding



Graphic organizers



Standardized testing

According to Dr. Shaikh Imran, the teaching methodology in education is a new concept in the teaching learning process. New methods involved in the teaching learning process are television, radio, computer, etc. Other educators believe that the use of technology, while facilitating learning to some degree, is not a substitute for educational method that

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brings out critical thinking and a desire to learn. Another modern teaching method is inquiry learning and the related inquiry-based science. Elvis H. Bostwick recently concluded Dr. Cherry's quantitative study "The Interdisciplinary Effect of Hands On Science", a three-year study of 3920 middle school students and their Tennessee State Achievement scores in Math, Science, Reading and Social Studies. MetropolitanNashville Public School is considered urban demographically and can be compared to many of urban schools nationally and internationally. This study divided students on the basis of whether they had hands on trained teachers over the threeyear period addressed by the study. Students who had a hands-on trained science teacher for one or more years had statistically higher standardized test scores in science, math and social studies. For each additional year of being taught by a hands-on trained teacher, the student's grades increased.

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Bibliography BOOKS 1. Gilbert Highet, The Art of Teaching, Knopf, 1950 2. Palmer, Parker. Teaching Practice: Teaching Methods

WEB 1. www.wekipedia.com 2. www.google.com

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