"silk" In India From Antiquity.

'Silk' in Indian tradition. The break-through evidence from the Harappan excavations that silk had been known in India as early as 2000 BCE was posted in my blog http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2009/01/was-india-home-for-silkproduction.html This was no surprise to us because the use of silk-cloths had been mentioned in many places in Valimiki Ramayana. What silk was used in Ramayana times? The 'kausheyam' or 'kausheya vaasam' was worn by Rama and Sita. Kusheyam means made of 'cocoon' or 'pupa' This gives an impression that reeling silk from the cocoon as it is done nowadays – (a method borrowed from China) could have been known to people even as early as Ramayana times. At the same time a question arises whether 'himsic' method was used in making that silk – as it is done now. It is also difficult to think that the avatara purusha used cloths made of himsic ways. "Ahimsa paramO dharma" is the injunction. Ahimasa is the supreme dharma. So 'Himsa' is a highly adharmic Vedic society did not allow himsa, except for the purpose of vedik purpose. The injunction on where to allow 'himsa' is found only at one place – in the last verse of Chandoghya upanishad where it is said that one desirous of moksham is allowed to do 'himsa' only as approved by scriptures. This is interpreted by scholars and elders as approval for animal sacrifice in yajnas only. Shastras say, "vaidee himsa, na himsa" If the Himsa is done for vaideeka (vedic) purpose, it is not himsa. That silk is meant for vaideeka purpose is not to be found in scriptures. The only type of himsa found is animal sacrifice, which is invalid in kali yuga. Pramana exits for this too. In the light of this injunction on ahimsa, it must be deduced that the silk mentioned in Ramayana must have been the 'ahimsic' silk, drawn from the cocoon after the moth-fly had left. There is a probability that both the ways of himsic and ahimsic silk making had existed. But those persons who were inclined on moksha dharma and those who were following Vedic way of life would not have used himsic silk. Silk from plants? Silk could have been made by another method too. This is like making cotton from cotton tree. There exists in Sanskrit names of silk- trees, giving rise to the notion that silk was made from silk trees. As far as I know, Sanskrit lexicon contains names of two trees,

'ahikA' and 'apUraNI' for silk making. ahikA= the silk-cotton tree (Salmalia Malabarica); apUraNI = the silk cotton tree (Bombax Heptaphyllum). The silk found in Harappan sites must be analysed in the light of himsic, ahimsic and plantation sources. There is another plant source for silk. It is the fiber of plants. Until a couple of generations ago, 'naar-pattu' was in vogue in Tamilnadu. This is said to have been made from the plantain tree. Naar pattu was used while doing pooja. Silk in auspicious functions. As far as I have enquired with the Vedik scholars whom I have come across, I have been told that specifications have been given in sastras regarding every detail of different ceremonies and this also includes the type of vasthram to be used. It is mentioned at many places that the cotton vasthram has to be used. But the custom of using or gifting silk vEshti in upanayanam has come into vogue, perhaps to flaunt affordability. If one digs up what the satras say ceremonies, it will be shocking know that most of being bought or gifted have not been mentioned by no sastric sanction.

marriage and the affluence and about most of the what is satras and silk has

For instance, in the upanayanam ceremony, where it is customary for the maternal grand father / maternal uncle to bring / buy 2 silk vasthrams, there is no scope to wear them during the ceremony. That is, nowhere it is mentioned that the silk vasthram is to be used. The boy does not wear the silk veshti during any time in the ceremony. But in a wish to somehow use it, people started using it to cover the boy and the couple at the time of Brhamopadesam The usage of the silk vEshti during Brhamopadesam is a later development, but it is not without a flaw. If the rules were to be strictly followed, the 4-muzham silk Veshti is not sufficient to cover the agni, the Brahma, the couple and the boy. But people desirous of using these silk vEshti cover only the couple, at times the father and son only with the Purohit peeping inside. This is not as per sastras. Silk for Gods. Looking for textual evidence, wherever there is a mention of vasthram for God, there it is about yellow vasthram or golden vasthram. Shastras say about using 'noothana vasthu' for Gods, but nowhere it has been said that 'rEshme' vasthram (silk vasthram) is a noothana vasthram or to be used for adorning Gods. We can see in a number of places, the term pIthambharam as the vasthram of God. PIthambharam means, a vasthram of "peetha sahitham" - with yellow

colour. The yellow dye is made from turmeric powder which will stick to cotton vasthram effectively and not to silk vasthram. Therefore the cloth mentioned in slokas and scriptures is cotton cloth soaked in turmeric. Yellow is symbolic of Gold Gold is also yellow in colour and this again is symbolic Lakshmi. (refer Sri sookhtham) The sapeetha vasthram mentioned in slokas is therefore defined as golden vasthram. Sapeetham is 'samyatha peetham'. It is yellow in colour, and the yellow is indicative of gold. Even the silk offered in Purna ahuthi in a homa is not silk, but 'pon-aadai', golden vasthram in those days. By adorning the Lord in peetha vasthram and sapeetha vasthram, we are seeing Him with the inseparable Lakshmi! We do find a mention of "kausheya vaasam" in the dhyaana sloka of Vishnu sahasranama. It is difficult to believe that himsic silk was used to adorn God in olden times. Detailed explanation on this is covered in the next post. But a story exists that silk from China (Cheenamshuk) – the himsic silk – was brought to India only within the last couple of millenia. It was brought for pooja by the highly ahimsic Jain people unknowingly. The story is given below. Without the knowledge of how that silk is made, silk has entered temples too and for adorning gods. Anything that is costly or rare is supposed to belong to the Royalty and God or be dedicated to kings and gods. In that sense, himsic silk might have come into use in the temples.

Non- violent silk in Vedic times? There are little traces of 'silk making' as an industry in Indian until recently. Sericulture was introduced only 400 years ago. However, words denoting silk are found in Sanskrit and Tamil texts. At many places in Valmiki Ramayana, silk is mentioned as 'Kausheya'. Sita wore Kausheyam. Here are a few verses on kausheyam, from Valmiki Ramayana. Sita was sighted by Ravana as wearing a silk sari. (from Aranya khanda) sa taam padma palaasha akSiim piita kausheya vaasiniim | abhyagacChata vaidehiim hR^iSTa cetaa nishaa caraH || 3-46-13 Here, 'piita kausheya vaasiniim' means "ochry, silks, wearing". Sita was wearing Kausheya at the time of abduction.

“tapta aabharaNa varNa angii piita kausheya vaasanii | raraaja raaja putrii tu vidyut saudaamanii yathaa ||” ( 3-52-14) piita kausheya vaasanii= ocherish, in silks, dressed; (meaning :-.That princess Seetha scintillated like the oblique flashes of lightning in a cloud, owing to her golden coloured body which is muffled up with jewellery of pure gold, and added with a golden coloured ocherish silky dress, while traversing in the sky.) In Kishkindha khandam, Sampathi describes to the vanaras the abduction of Sita. He mentions that Sita was wearing superior kausheyam. “suurya prabhaa iva shaila agre tasyaaH kausheyam uttamam | asite raakSase bhaati yathaa vaa taDit a.mbude ||” ( 4-58-17) tasyaaH uttamam kausheyam= her, best, ochry silk sari; (meaning :- Upper fringe of Seetha's silk sari with golden glitter is upheaved in the sky, and with the reddish hue of sun in red heat of midday it beamed forth like a reddish cloud. ) Sits dropped the jewels wrapped in her upper garment of kasuheyam while she was being abducted. “teSaam madhye vishaalaakSii kausheyam kanaka prabham | uttariiyam varaarohaa shubhaani aabharaNaani ca || 3-54-2 mumoca yadi raamaaya sha.mseyuH iti bhaaminii |” (meaning :- 2, 3a. vishaalaakSii= broad-eyed one; varaarohaa= curvaceous lady; bhaaminii= lady with resentment; kanaka prabham kausheyam uttariiyam= golden, in hue, silk sari, upper cloth; shubhaani aabharaNaani ca= auspicious, ornaments, also; raamaaya= to Rama; shamseyuH yadi= they indicate, if [they may]; iti= thus [on thinking]; teSaam madhye mumoca= their, amid, released - dropped. That broad-eyed and curvaceous lady with resentment Seetha, inwrapping her auspicious ornaments in the upper-fringe of her sari, dropped in the midmost of those five Vanara-s with a thinking that 'these creatures may perhaps indicate them to Rama.' [3-54-2, 3a]) We find in Valmiki Ramayana a valuable information on silk of another kind. This is about a silk-cotton tree. In the same chapter on abduction, Sita curses Ravana that he will be doomed to hell for abducting her. There is 'asi patra vana' in the hell, having silk-cotton trees with throny iron projections. Ravana will be doomed to embrace that tree in hell.

Here the term 'kausheya' is not used to indicate the silk But the tree is mentioned as "shaalmali" - which is the term in sankrit for silkcotton tree.

tapta kaa.ncana puSpaam ca vaiduurya pravara cChadaam || 3-53-20 drakSyase shaalmaliim tiikSNaam aayasaiH kaNTakaiH citaam | (meaning:- 20b, 21a. tapta kaancana [tapta] puSpaam ca= molten, gold, [melting] flowered, also; [tapta] vaiduurya pravara cChadaam= [melting] lapis gemlike, best, shrouded [by lapis like leaves]; aayasaiH kaNTakaiH citaam= with iron, thorns, encrusted; tiikSNaam shaalmaliim= sharp, silk-cotton tress; drakSyase= you will see.

"You will see silk-cotton trees flowered with molten gold, shrouded with lapis gemlike melting leaves, and enshrouded with sharp irony thorns in hell. [3-53-20b, 21a]) (Shaalmali is also found mentioned in Rig veda X-85 where it signifies the garment worn by the groom while mounting a carriage to go to the bride’s house for marrying her. This hymn is the basis of Vivaha mantras used in Hindu marriages.) In this way it can be seen that Kausheya was used in specific places to indicate a specific meaning. And there was in existence silk-cotton trees too from which silk was made. The root of kausheya is kosha or kausha. It means – among other ones – the sheath covering the silk worm. This is nothing but the 'pupa'. The pupa is called kausha or kOsha. The derived meaning of the term kausheya is 'cloth made from the cocoon shell'. Some of the meanings of kOsha are given here:kṓśa— 'bucket', 'case, cover', 'sheath', 'storeroom' , 'seed-vessel', 'inner part of breadfruit' kōsa— 'box, sheath, storeroom, cocoon, praeputium'; kosa 'seed vessel of jackfruit', 'silkworm cocoon'; G. kuśeṭɔ, °śīṭɔ m. 'silkworm cocoon'; kośeṭā m., °ṭī f. 'fine pellicle round the stone of a fruit'; koslā m. 'cocoon'; — M. kośerā 'dry scab of a wound, cocoon'. An interesting correlation can be found in Tamil lexicon. There is a word in Tamil, "kOsigam" which means silk. Kosigam is that which is derived from kOsakaaram. kOsakaaram is an ancient Tamil word for silk moth. Since kausheyam is the silk worm's pupa stage in Sanskrit, it is understood that kOsigam is derived from the Sanskrit word. It is also known as kausigam in Tamil. In spite of the prevalence of these words related to silkmoth in Vedic and Tamil culture, we hardly come across any trace of sericulture in ancient texts. For example we find a spate of professions and terms related to various jobs done by ancient Tamils in Purananuru. But there is absolutely no mention of domesticating silkmoths and cultivating cocoons for drawing silk threads. Since we come to know from texts that silk clothes were used, we must look at other ways of making silk. One such method is collecting the cocoons in the wild. This is a high probability, because anything of some value that is found in the forests was collected and taken to the treasury. This explains why only the Kings had worn silk dresses in those days. The cocoons of the wild moth variety comes under the category of 'dravyam' or riches of the forest. In Tamil, a separate term exists for that – 'kaadu-padu diraviyam' In Ramayana times too, such a practice had existed. When Sita wanted to own the golden deer, she rationalized the hunting of it on two grounds. One was that she wanted to have the rare animal to be her plaything in

the forest. On the other hand, if the golden deer could not be taken alive, its skin could be taken to their Treasury in Ayodhya. She said that its skin was a precious looking one. Such precious and rare looking objects must belong to the Royal treasury. If the deer could not be caught alive, its skin could be taken to their kingdom when they returned. So the practice could have existed of collecting the discarded (or even live) cocoons in the wild and making silk out of them. It is possible to assume that the silk strands found in Harappan sites were of non-violent or ahimsic variety – that is, taken out, after the moth had left. Silk making from such a source would be laborious and such products must belong to the Royal family only. That perhaps explains why Ramayana makes a specific mention of kausheya – how the cloth was made – whenever it describes the cloths of the Royal persons. Since specific mention is made of 'kausheya', it can be assumed that silk from other sources (plant) also could have existed. Silk in Tamil tradition. Let us now search for clues in Tamil texts to know whether silk was used in ancient Tamil land. If we look for the words on cloth, we do come across a popular Tamil term for silk, namely "பட்டு " (pattu). There are different sources available in Tamil texts, to study what this pattu was all about. Of the different names for cloth or vasthram (in Tamil, vatthiram), துகில் is the most common word and is also the name which is defined as having the term 'pattu' as one of its synonyms.

In sutra 6-69, சடாமணி நிகணட , the Tamil thesaurus. gives the synonyms of 'thugil' wherein 'pattu' is found a mention. According to this sutra, the following are the other names for 'thugil'. thugil = idaiyal, vEdhagam, yEdagam and pattu. Idaiyal = very thin cloth. vEdhagam = vEga vaiikkappatta pon, i.e., very thin sheet of gold made malleable by heating. yEdagam = cloth made of fibres drawn from yEdu, or leaf of some vegetation.

Pattu = nEthiram (same as Sanskrit nEthram) which is very soft as the peacock feathers with the eye. That is, pattu is that cloth which is very soft to touch and to see, as how the peacock feathers appear.

Looking at this meaning of pattu, I am drawn to look at the 'காடு படு திரவியம் ' – the wealth of the forests. One of the wealth of the forest is peacock feather! Nowhere can I locate sericulture or reeling of silk thread from cocoon in the Tamil texts or from the sources related to products of the 5 lands of Tamils. But the meaning of Pattu as nethram (peacock's feather) make me wonder whether Tamils knew some method of making fine cloth using peacock's feather. There must be some connection to peacock feather, as we have even today the dothis called 'ம ய ில் க ண் ேவஷ்டி '! This dothi is well known for the soft border that resembles the eye of the peacock.

Mayil kaN veshti is a special garment worn on special occasions. It is possible to assume that some laborious art work could have gone into making this 'mayil kaN' from peacock's feathers. However we do come across an explicit reference to cocoons in another sutra in ChoodamaNi nigandu. In sutra 6-70, it is said that Pattu is of two types.

They are பாளிதம் and ேகாசிகம். paaLidham is a very soft cloth used to cover the top part of the pandhal (vidhaana seelai) It is kOsigam which has silk moth connection. Kosigam is that which is derived from kOsakaaram. kOsakaaram is an ancient Tamil word for silk moth. Since kausheyam is the silk worm's pupa stage in Sanskrit, it is understood that kOsigam is derived from the Sanskrit word. It is also known as kausigam in Tamil. This shows that silk was made in Tamil lands from cocoon. Yet the mystery remains if it was made through violent or non-violent ways.

From Adiyaarkku nallar.

A big group of synonyms for thugil has been given by அடியார்க்கு நல்லார் , the famous 'urai aasiriyar' for Silappadhikaram. The interesting finding is that this group contains the kausheya (drawn from pupa) cloth and also the cotton cloth. From the different terms, it is understood that this group contains all the varieties of cloths made from different sources and made for different purposes and persons. The very first term that Adiyaarkku nallar has given is 'kOsigam' – ( or pattu as defined by ChoodamaNi nigandu) the Tamil equivalent of kausheyam (made from cocoon)!

In chapter 14 of Silappadhikaram, comes a line, "அகிலும் , துகிலும் .." agilum, thugilum (line 108). Writing his commentary on this, Adiyaarkku nallar says that the word 'thugil' thugil' indicates any of the following type of clothes. They are

"ேகாசிகம் (kOsigam)

பீதகம் (peethakam)

பச்சிைல (pacchilai)

அரத்தம் (arattham)

நு ண் துகில் (nuNthugil)

சுண்ணம் (chuNNam)

வடகம் (vadagam )

பஞ்சு (panju)

இரட்டு பாடகம் (irattu paadagam)

ொகாங்கலர் (kOngalar)

ேகாபம் (kOpam )

ச ி த்தி ர க் க ம்மி (chitthira-k-kammi )

குறித்தி (kurithi )

கரியல் (kariyal )

ேபடகம் (pEdakam )

பரியட்டக் -காசு (pariyatta-k-kaasu )

ேவதங்கம் (vEdangam)

புநகர் (pungar )

காழகம் (kaazhagam)

ச ில்லி ைக (chilligai )

துரியம் (thuriyam )

பங்கம் (pangam )

தத்தியம் (thatthiyam )

வண்ணைட (vaNNadai )

கவற்றுமடி (kavattrumadi)

ூநூ ல்யாப்பு (noolyaappu)

திருக்கு (thirukku)

ேதவாங்கு (dEvaangu)

ொபான்ொனழுத்து (ponnezhutthu )

குச்சரி (kucchari)

ேதவகிரி (dEvagiri )

ூகாத்த ூ லம் (kaatthoolam )

இரஞ்சி (iranJi )

ொவண்ொபாத்தி (veNpotthi )

ொச ம் ொபா த்தி (chempotthi )

பணிப்ொபாத்தி (paNippotthi )

என்று ொசால்லப்பட்ட பலவைகத்தாய ொதாகுதி "

This list starts with kOsigam (kausheyam) related to kOsa-kaaram, the term in Tamil for Silk-moth and peethakam (yellow vasthram) of Sanskrit origin. It also contains terms suggestive of other sources of cloth making. For instance panju means cotton, denoting a cotton cloth. But interestingly, the common word for silk, namely, 'pattu' is not found in this list. Does this mean the term pattu was not in common use or was not used until Adiyaarkku nallar's times (around 9th

century AD)?

Panju must been a common term and cotton weaving must have been a cottage industry in ancient Tamil lands.

There is a reference in a புற நானுறு verse about the 'முற்றம் ' where cotton (panju) was dried. Another verse says about 'பஞ்சி கைளயாப் புண்ணர்', meaning 'like the cloth (panji) on a wound, it hurts' So cotton cloth making must have been widespread activity.

Other terms connected with 'pattu'.

The words pattu, pattOlai, pattai, patturuvudhal, pattayam all have their roots in ம ரப்பட்ைட , the fibre of trees. Pattai is mara-p-pattai, or fibre of trees which is also known as mara-vuri in Ramayana.

In those days, if it was said, 'பட்ைட உடுத்தான் ', it meant that the person wore the cloth made of mara-pattai. (eg:- Raman 'pattai' vudutthan, during his vanavasam.)

PattOlai is the sheet made of mara-pattai in which messages and declarations were written. Pattayam is the sheet used as promisory notes. Patturuvudhal is removal of fibres from pattai (pattai vUduruvudhal) This patturuvudhal was weaving the fibre.

From all these the word 'pattu' must have come to stay. We can also see that mara-p-pattai has been the basis of pattu or vasthram, in other words, vegetation had been the basis for cloth.

Pattu also means a small town.

The ChinnaLa-p-pattu is a type of cloth woven by weavers of the small town called Chinnala-p-pattu. (Both patti and pattu mean chitroor a small town) Here 'pattu' in chinnala-p-pattu does not mean silk.

The word Pattam had been in common use in Tamil for cloths. According to Chudaamani nigandu, 'pattam' means vasthram. The sutram (11-13) is "pattamE vOdai, thoosu, padavi, vaaL, kavari maavaam"

Pattam is synonymous with, kuLam (tank) thoosu (cloth/ vasthram), padavi ( position one holds) vaaL, (sword) and kavari maan (kavari deer) பட்டிைக means 'kachcham" like in pancha kaccham, the folds of cloth. The அைரஞான் கயிறு (worn around the waist) is also known as pattigai. The paatam or vasthram or cloth worn by people (pattam vudutthal) must have come to be known as pattu udutthal.

There is another word, kOdi, and 'ேகாடி ' udutthudal means wearing a new vasthram. kOdi means new cloth.

Is silk / pattu a pure (madi) cloth?

மடி is a Tamil word for cloth or vasthram. Madi also means pure cloth, or a cloth made pure by maditthal. மடித்தல் means 'அழித்தல் ', or removal of impurity.

There are methods of making this madi mentioned in shastras. The cloth must be washed in water and dried in vaayu, i.e., not under the sun, but under a shade.

7 types of vaayu present in this Universe, (5 of which are in this world and the 6th one leads the worlds into pithruyaana and the 7th one leads one to dEvayaana (brahma lokam)) will dry the cloth making it fit for wearing for vedik purposes. If one has no time to dry the cloth sufficiently, one can flutter the washed cloth 7 times in the air and it is then considered madi or purified for wearing.

If one enquires about how the grand father or great grand father had used the new vasthram, it will be known that none of them wore vasthram new or fresh from the weaver's place. They used to wash and dry it before wearing even for the first time.

Even the strict vediks will not advise you to wear a factory fresh vEshti but ask you to wash and dry it for wearing for any vedik ceremony. It happens in marriages and it happens in upanayanam.

They insist on wetting and drying the cloth before using. What could be the rationale of this? Is not the cloth already pure as it is made hygienically from factories and made under best possible pure conditions?

The following is what I understand by putting together the facts known to me. In those days vasthrams were made from vegetation, especially from cotton. In ancient works in Tamil, the term cloth is denoted by 'panju' or 'panji'. Cotton has been the source of cloth making. What is this cotton? It is a part of a live tree. Any living thing radiates energy or an aura around it. This holds good for the cotton ball. When it is plucked, that life energy or aura around it starts decaying.

It is like this. It is a proven fact that all people possess aura. When a person dies, this aura decays or something of a decaying nature starts setting in. That is perhaps why death-theettu (impurity due to death) is removed by water (taking bath). Even if a person is not related to the dead one, if that person happens to be anywhere near a dead body, he has to purify himself by

bath. (The same logic holds good for cleansing by water during and after the mensus. Since the aural position of the woman changes during menstruation and the dead ova with all its subsidiary energy-items are washed out of the body during that time, it is said to cause or radiate impurity. Once the dead cells with decaying aura are removed from the body, the woman cleanses herself by bathing.)

Since every living organism has plucked cotton ball also has an still sticking to it. It then becomes without removing this impurity, if it is a brand new vasthram.

this aura, it is assumed that the aura in some decayed form or some decaying aura logical to assume that a vEdik would not like to wear it even

Later, the general purity of the vasthram is ensured with every wash. That is why a madi vasthram is that which is washed and dried overnight. But silk is considered a madi (pure) vasthram. How? If we think on lines of logic as above, only then we can justify the madi (purity) of silk. Silk of kaushEyam is made from the secretions from the mouth of the silk worm. The secretions have no aural connection! It is Honey It is there

similar to how honey is collected. is an important vasthu used in vedic kaaryams. obtained from the spitting of it by the honey bees. Here again is no aural connection.

That is perhaps why elders in those days would have accepted silk from silk worm or cocoon after the moth fly had fled, as there is no need to wash the cloth every time and there is no aural impurity in it. Remember, the silk cloth is generally not washed at all in those days It will be just preserved carefully. While a big fuss is made about cotton vasthram, vediks would not mind using silk as madi vasthram. The silk will be used many times without a wash.

In the absence of sericulture in those days, it can be assumed that silk making must have been a rare activity. And himsa was never part of Vedik precepts.

There is no himsa in obtaining honey. The bees are chased away and the honey is obtained. Similarly, no himsa would have been caused in deriving silk from cocoons. Sanatana dharma, which considers ahimsa as parama dharma can not accept himsic silk.

But the complete ban to use of silk in vaideeha –related activities such as marriage and upanayana give rise to an opinion, that himsic silk too must have existed in those times and hence was avoided. But today, what we have is himsic silk only. It can not have Vedik sanction.

It must be recalled how the Paramacharyal of Kanchi had always spoken against hismic silk. He never approved of this silk. That must give us a clue about the silk that was used by Sita. That must also give us a clue about why there is no trace of sericulture in the ancient land of this Bharath. Ahimsa is the supreme dharma of this land!

Conclusion:(1) Silk is very much indigenous to India. Making silk from cocoon was known in Bharath even as early as Ramayana times. What has now been discovered in the Harappan sites comes as a proof of silk-making that dates back to Rama's times. The Harappan findings are to be considered as Post-krishna times. The culture was rich with much greater strides in the pre-Krishna period. Silk is one facet of it.

(2) The knowledge of making silk from coccon must have been present throughout India, as we find its name in Tamil texts too. The existence of quite many terms for cloths on the basis of source and the usage factor shows that our ancients were more knowledgeable in cloth making and it is no surprise that they knew reeling silk from cocoons.

(3) Sericulture was not practiced as an industry in Bharath, as silk making was done through non-violent ways. Empty cocoons must have been collected and silk was reeled from them.

(4) Such non-violent silk was considered precious and was used by the Royals and for adorning deities.

(5) Silk making by violent means has no sanction in Hindu dharma.