Roman

Literature and Libraries in Ancient Rome

Margot Hanson LIS 612, Knuth 12 December 2006

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Historical Background In order to discuss the libraries of ancient Rome, we first need to take a brief look at the history of this time period. There are three main periods of the history of Rome: the Roman Republic, Roman Empire, and early Christianity. By tradition, Rome was founded in 753 BCE by Romulus, who also became the first king. There were seven kings of Rome before the founding of the Roman Republic in 505 BCE. The Roman Republic became the Roman Empire with Augustus as the first Emperor in 30 BCE. Christianity was officially recognized by Emperor Constantine in 313 CE with the Edict of Milan. The Edict gave Christians freedom of worship. Throughout Roman history, culture and conquest went hand in hand. Roman culture was largely inherited from the Greek culture, and literary and library efforts were modeled on the Greek forms. Military success led to economic prosperity, which lead to an increase in cultural flowering. Many of the literary and library-related advanced of Rome were from the conquest and “harvesting” of cultural and literary artifacts from the dominated culture. The Latin alphabet is one example of this cultural syncretism. The Latin alphabet which we know and love (and use) today is adapted from the Etruscan alphabet, which in turn was adapted from Greek. The Roman Republic was characterized by expansion, expansion and more expansion, which ultimately led to its shift to an Empire. The cultures in the areas of growth were absorbed into the overall Republic, and many people moved to the urban center in the city of Rome itself for economic reasons. Slaves from the conquered areas also became a large part of the makeup of the Roman population, and each culture

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contributed a bit of their own flavor to the amalgamation of culture. One could think of the Roman Republic as a precursor to our American "melting pot" concept. In this way, the influence of Greek culture had a profound impact on Roman literary traditions. Literature, literacy, education and philosophy were important features of Greek culture, and the Roman elites strove to emulate these aspects of Greek life. Literacy and culture (luxuries of a life of leisure) were restricted to the upper classes. "Educated Greeks began working as teachers in the early 3rd century, and Rome's first elementary school opened in 234. By the mid- to late 2nd century most upper-class Romans knew some Greek; literacy in Latin existed among the elite, and, to a lesser degree, among skilled craftsmen."1 The earliest known writings in Latin are inscriptions from the 6th century BCE. "The 'publication' of the civil law by Cn. Flavius in 303 (304) shows that writing, though still limited to relatively small numbers of citizens, had gained a new importance."2 Civil law had traditionally been passed on orally, but the publication of the law was evidence that enough of the population could read to warrant a published version. Early Literary Scene The early Latin literature was mostly made up of translations and adaptations of Greek literature, which already had a long and illustrious tradition. The first works of Latin literature entered the historical record in 240 BCE, at a festival that year. A man by the name of Livius Andronicus presented Latin renditions of a Greek comedy and a Greek tragedy. Livius was Greek by birth, and was from the city of Tarentum in southern Italy, which was a Greek cultural enclave. He was brought to Rome as a prisoner of war where "he became a slave in the household of the Livii."3 After Livius was freed, he was

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quite a prolific contributor to the beginning of Latin literary history. According to references in other Latin works (none of his works are extant), Livius translated Homer's Odyssey, at least eight Greek tragedies, and a few Greek comedies. "Before Livius, Latin poetry consisted of hymns and drinking songs."4 Livius' contributions are even mentioned by the Roman lyric poet Horace, who wrote at the end of the first century BCE that "his 'whipful' schoolmaster made him learn some Livius by heart."5 During his time, private libraries were made up from spoils of war from the Hellenic world and elsewhere, and Greek literature was very popular. The booktrade in Rome had not taken off yet. Livius may have had access to the private library of the upper-class household where he was a slave, which would have made it possible for him to translate those works. The next big name in the Roman literary scene was Plautus. Plautus also specialized in translating and adapting works from Greek into Latin. Plautus focused on adapting Greek comedies from the school called New Greek Comedy (although they're quite old today!). New Greek Comedy was a sensational hit on the stages of Athens and in other parts of the Hellenic world from about 250 to 350 BCE. He is the first Latin author whose works have survived, so we know a bit more about him than Livius. He adapted at least fifty comedies from Greek to Latin, twenty of which are extant. Although he was not a native speaker of either Latin or Greek (he was from Sarsina, Umbria), he learned both languages well enough to not only translate, but even improve upon others' literary and dramatic efforts. Cultural events in Rome were not quite so highbrow as in the Greek world, and theater was in competition for an audience with other spectacles such as boxing matches, tightrope walking, etc. In order to get an audience, the plays had to grab the attention of the people. And, in order to sell his scripts to the theater managers

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and make a living, Plautus had to make his scripts very interesting indeed. His adaptations included much more "vigorous and playful" dialogue and other literary charms than the Greek scripts upon which they were based.6 Private Libraries There were many private libraries in the wealthy homes of Romans, and it was a source of pride and prestige to have an impressive library. Private book collecting became something of an art, and for scholars it was essential to have a considerable personal library which could be used as the basis for literary efforts. For example, Cicero called his library the soul of his house, and requested that his friends bequeath their libraries to him upon death. Some of the private libraries were just for show, to impress visitors and prove that the owner was a cultured and learned man. In the first century CE, Seneca (philosopher, dramatist, and tutor of Nero) wrote about this phenomenon with scorn: Among cold baths and hot baths a library is also is equipped as a necessary ornament of a great house...who seeks to have book-cases of citrus-wood and ivory, who collects the works of unknown or discredited authors and sits yawning in the midst of so many thousand books, who gets the most of his pleasure from the outsides of volumes and their titles.7

Seneca perhaps thought that these collectors were hoarding books while other scholarly persons could derive some use from them. This brings up the question of who deserves to have books, and access to them, and who does not? A modern parallel might be having a baby grand piano in your home without knowing how to play, but just to include it as a beautiful piece of furniture. Does a person not deserve to have a piano although they

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cannot play it? Is the piano itself a thing of beauty to be looked at, or is it a musical instrument to make beautiful music with? In fact, this type of comparison was made by Ausonius: That thou with Books thy Library hast fill'd, Think'st thou thy self learn'd, and in Grammar skill'd? Then stor'd with Strings, Lutes, Fiddle-sticks now bought; Tomorrow thou Musitian may'st be thought.8

Another, perhaps even harsher criticism came later from a writer named Lucian, who wrote an essay called "Ignorant Book Collector." Here's a taste of his opinion: For what expectation do you base upon your books that you are always unrolling them and rolling them up, gluing them, trimming them, smearing them with saffron and oil of cedar, putting slip covers on them, and fitting them with knobs, just as if you were going to derive some profit for them?9

Lucian points out a difference in perspective between collectors and scholars. The collectors, in Lucian's view, think of the books as objects of adoration and awe. Lucian believes the books should be used, read, and learned from. The tension between books as artifacts versus books as containers of information still plays out today in the decisions modern preservationists must make between saving the book as a relic or the past or saving the information contained within the book. The private library at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum is a very impressive example of private libraries of the Roman upper-classes, and it has a very exciting archeological recent history. It is unclear whether it was of a scholarly variety or just for show, but we do know that it was a monumental library from the remains excavated there. Unlike other Roman libraries, we are able to surmise the extent of the library because of the preserved papyrus remains due to the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE. Before the decimation of the town, Herculaneum "functioned in ancient times as a resort

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town between Naples and Pompeii."10 Wealthy residents of Rome, Naples and other cities escaped the summer heat in Herculaneum near the sea. The town was covered with 65 feet of volcanic ash in August of 79 CE, which buried it out of sight and left it mostly forgotten for centuries. In 1709 workers were digging a well for a monastery located on top of the volcanic rock and discovered an ancient villa beneath, with treasures of marble and bronze. Excavations took place over the next few decades to unearth more treasures, and in 1752 stacks of ancient papyri were discovered. Since the excavators were looking for treasures, they didn't value the papyri, which looked like black lumps of charcoal after the devastation of the volcanic blast. It took a little while for the value of the classic texts to be fully realized, and experts came in to lend a hand in the tedious process of unrolling and deciphering the damaged papyri. The makeup of the collection is somewhat known, although the initial location of the papyri was not recorded. The papyri were found in three locations: mainly the library, also a reading room, and in a doorway. The bulk of the collection is in Greek, although there are a few Latin texts as well. There were more than 1,700 rolls of papyrus excavated from the site so far, and there is speculation that a separate area for Latin texts will be found in the future. The collection seems to be made up of Epicurean texts, both written by Epicurus himself and also by other, later Epicurean philosophers. The discovered texts had been copied between 3rd century BCE and early first century CE.11 There were several other noteworthy private libraries in Rome which we know of through mentions in personal correspondence or other writing. The first one we know of was the library of Paulus Aemilius, who was a Roman general and scholar. Aemilius

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defeated King Perseus of Macedonia in 168 BCE, and claimed the king's library for himself.12 The trend of taking the conquered people's libraries as spoils of war became common practice, and many other famous private libraries in Rome used this method of acquisition. One of the great collections of war booty was the personal library of Aristotle, which was won by Sulla in 86 BCE when he conquered Athens.13 The collection had been inherited by a family in the Pergamene Empire "who had kept it stored underground to save it from being confiscated by the king's agents."14 He sent the entire collection back to his own home, and began the process of repairing the scrolls, which had been damaged by their years underground. A Greek slave/librarian, Tyrannio, supervised the conservation and organization of the collection. From the personal correspondence of Cicero and Atticus, we know that the use of highly trained slaves for library work was common at this time.15 These slave library workers were responsible for gluing damaged rolls, gluing together papyrus pieces to be used for copying, labeling rolls with parchment pieces bearing the author's name, and the head librarians, like Tyrannio, were in charge of the maintenance and organization of the collection. Like the collections themselves, scholars shared their skilled workers to assist each other in their library needs. From the letters of Cicero, we have a glimpse into this arrangement: "You will see Tyrannio's marvelous library arrangement of my books...Could you send me a couple of your library people whom Tyrannio could use for gluing and other jobs?"16 We also know from Cicero's letter to the Roman army commander Publius Sulpicius in the autumn of 46 BCE that sometimes the slave library workers tried not only to liberate themselves, but some of their masters' books as well. Perhaps they felt it

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was just compensation for their dedicated work. Cicero wrote to Sulpicius requesting that he keep an eye out for Cicero's slave Dionysius, who stole many of Cicero's books from his "very valuable library" and "absconded."17 Another famous private library made up from war plunder was that of Lucius Licinius Lucullus.18 He had fought earlier under Sulla,19 and continued to lead the Roman cause of expansion during an eight-year campaign in Asia Minor. When he was removed from his post in 66 BCE,20 he turned to a more refined pastime and cultivated the library from the booty he had claimed during his conquests. He had several homes, both within the city of Rome as well as a few country villas in outlying areas, and he installed libraries in each of them. The libraries included collection rooms, reading rooms, and areas for gathering and discussion. He opened his libraries to his friends, members of his economic class, and also to Greek literati living in Rome. The collections of Lucullus were a popular destination for Greeks thirsty for literature in their own language. Public Libraries Lucullus' library was certainly private, although he opened it to certain members of the community. At the time, the only public collections were in temples and government archives.21 Lucullus' method of making his collection available to others was a precursor to the first public libraries in Rome. It was the vision of Julius Caesar "to build for public use a library of Greek books and one of Latin books, both as big as possible"22 in Rome to rival that of Alexandria. To that end, "he appointed Terentius Varro (116-27 BCE), a noted scholar and book collector, to gather together copies of the best-known literature for a Roman public library."23 The plan was cut short by Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE, but the dream did not die. The concept was revived and

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completed by a supporter of Caesar, Gaius Asinius Pollio. Pollio had gained a fortune through his conquest of Dalmatia in 39 BCE, and he used his money and influence to gather together existing collections and combine them to make the first public library in Rome, which opened for public use around 37 BCE. There are no remains of this first Roman public library, so we only know of its existence through mentions in writings of the time. It was centrally located just off the Forum, in the Temple of Liberty on the Aventine Hill, where public archives had previously been stored. There were two sections, one for Greek works and one for Latin. This method of arrangement with linguistic segregation, which was part of Caesar's vision, became common in Roman libraries, since so much of the literary heritage of Rome was based on the rich history of Greek traditions. The subsequent era following the building of the first public library, known as Pax Romana, was characterized by peace and prosperity. Generally, times of economic growth and military calm can lead to a flowering in social and intellectual life, and this period definitely encompassed those goals. Lead by the first emperor of the Roman Empire, Augustus (63 BCE-14 CE), neglected public buildings which already existed were restored and new buildings were erected. Among these were new public libraries. When Augustus became the first emperor at the end of the Roman civil wars in 30 CE, he began the tradition of emperors being responsible for the task of building libraries in Rome. Augustus founded two libraries, one of which still exists to some degree in the form of ancient ruins. The second Roman public library was the Library of the Temple of Apollo and was also referred to as the Palatine Library.24 It was begun in 36 BCE and

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completed in 28 BCE, and the first librarian was Pompeius Macer.25 The library adjoined the temple to Apollo that Augustus ordered to be built, and was in the style of Pollio's library, with two separate language collections, one chamber for Greek and one for Latin. The library was almost like two twin libraries side by side. Both of the collections were stored in niches in the walls, into which were fitted wooden bookcases lined with shelves. The scrolls were laid on the shelves with the tags facing the library patron for easy access.26 The second Augustan library is known as the Octavian Library. It was built in the Porticus Octaviae structure, which Augustus had built in honor of his sister, Octavia, and in memory of her son, Marcellus, who died in 23 BCE. The first librarian for this collection was Caius Melissus. There are no remains for this building, so we know of it only through the words and descriptions of others. Following Augustus' lead, future emperors also built libraries. The Ulpian Library, founded by Emperor Trajan, was the last of these imperial public libraries to be built. The remains of this building are quite extensive, so we know much more about it than other libraries. It was built as part of the forum Trajan dedicated in 112 CE, which sits on Capitoline Hill. The library shelves were tucked into the walls of the enormous reading room, which had a highly ornate vaulted ceiling and well-lit reading room in the center of the floor. Like other Roman libraries, the collection was divided into two language groups. The building is lavish in all of its details, and typifies a main difference between Greek and Roman libraries: stacks for storage and access, versus handsome, spacious work spaces in which to read and discuss the books.27

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Bath Libraries A Roman library location which we find slightly horrifying today from the perspective of preservation is in public baths. Visiting public baths was a very popular pastime for the Romans, and some facilities were so elaborate as to include warm rooms, hot rooms, sweat rooms, cold plunges, and massage chambers. They also served as recreational and cultural centers, surrounded by gardens, playing courts, meeting rooms, and sometimes even libraries.28 A couple of examples include the Baths of Trajan and the Baths of Caracella. The Baths of Trajan were completed in 109 CE. The library at this location included the usual two chambers for the bilingual collection. The Baths of Caracella still have standing remains and are a popular tourist attraction today. Construction began in 212 CE and took over a decade to complete. Judging from the remains, it seems likely that bronze screens were used to close the library during offhours. Perhaps we could take a hint from the Roman librarians and take the libraries to the people! Libraries in the shopping malls! Libraries at the bus stops! Library Staff In Rome, library directors, or procurators, were known as procurator bibliothecarum, and this position was a stepping-stone to higher political positions. It was often filled by a skilled and educated Roman, and sometimes in the earlier years by a freedman. Each library department was headed by a bibliothecarius "librarian." The libraries were staffed by slaves and freedmen, and staff were known as a bibliotheca, "of the library staff."29 This staff didn't include a circulation desk, however, because books were all for Library Use Only (unless the patron was a very influential member of society).

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Like bookshops and publishers, libraries in Rome relied on staff to make copies of books as a method of acquisition. Slaves (usually Greek) were used for this job, and were specially trained. In the publishing world copyists were "much sought after and expensive."30 Although they were slaves, the copyists were paid a minimal fee for their labor, and Emperor Diocletian set a minimum wage for copy work. There are inevitable problems with errors in copy work, so publishers began to employ special copyeditors to catch mistakes before they were released onto the public. This problem was compounded by translation issues, as there was much written in Greek and Latin and copying to be done in both languages. Early Christian Libraries: Book forms and Censorship In 313 CE, Christianity was officially recognized by Emperor Constantine in the Edict of Milan. The Edict pronounced that Christians were to be granted "free and unrestricted opportunity of religious worship." This allowance contributed to the spread of Christianity and the influence of Christian literature and libraries. The rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire contributed to library and book development in several ways. There was a shift in book form from the papyrus roll to the vellum codex, libraries starting popping up all over the place in monasteries, and a new literature emerged. It also provided another outlet for censorship and the destruction of offensive materials. Censorship and bookburning had already been in place under the emperors, namely Augustus and Tiberius, who wanted no critical materials circulated. The shift in book form took place slowly and evolved through different phases. "In the first four centuries A.D., papyrus was the most widely used writing material."31 Papyrus was from Egypt, and there was an imperial monopoly on its production. Vellum

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and parchment could be made anywhere people ate meat. The papyrus scroll evolved into the papyrus codex, which gave way to the vellum codex. "Among the papyri found in Egypt there have been instances...of papyus manuscripts in codex form."32 The codex form was encouraged by the ease of use for Christian scriptures, and the vellum codex overtook the papyrus in popularity. The use of vellum, which is a finer writing surface, also made possible the first book arts. Censorship was present in the reign of Augustus to quell the anti-imperial voices who had been defeated in the Roman civil wars but still opposed the new emperor. Toward the end of his reign, "bookburning...became an established legal form of punishment in the Roman empire."33 Books which were found offensive, inflammatory or deemed inappropriate were sentenced to the flames, and sometimes an author's entire oevre was burned. Censorship also "began to invade the classrooms of the schools."34 He was especially sensitive against discussions in classrooms which promoted birth control, since he wanted to see a reversal in the decline of the Roman birth rate. Tiberius continued this reign of censorship, and eventually the Christian leadership followed along with this status quo. Writings of pagan authors or non-church related works were removed from library collections and relegated to the flames. Decline of Roman Libraries Libraries in the Roman Empire enjoyed a period of great blossoming under the initial imperial support. When the peace and prosperity of Pax Romana dissolved into warring on the borders of the empire, the leaders turned their focus from cultural improvement to defense. Libraries were left behind, and the lack of official backing left them to deteriorate. "After Constantine's foundation of Constantinople 11 May 330, the

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establishment of libraries in the new capital assumed greater importance."35 When the capital of the Roman Empire shifted away from Rome, the libraries of Rome were left behind and forgotten. In about 378, Ammanius Marcellinus "reported that the libraries of Rome were even then like tombs, closed forever."36 1

Stearns, Peter N., ed. The Encyclopedia of World History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001. Ibid. 3 Casson, Lionel. Libraries in the Ancient World. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2001. p. 62. 4 Stearns, Peter N., ed. The Encyclopedia of World History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001. 5 Casson, Lionel. Libraries in the Ancient World. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2001. p. 62. 6 Ibid., p. 62-63. 7 As quoted in Lerner, Fred. The Story of Libraries. New York: Continuum, 1998. 8 As quoted in Dunlap, Leslie W., ed. Readings in Library History. New York: R. R. Bowker, 1972. p. 31. 9 As quoted in Harris, Michael. History of Libraries in the Western World. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1995. p. 60. 10 Sider, Sandra. "Herculaneum's Library in 79 A.D.: The Villa of the Papyri." Libraries and Culture, vol. 25, no. 4, Fall 1990. p. 534. 11 Ibid., p. 534-541. 12 Harris, Michael H. History of Libraries in the Western World. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1995. p. 56. 13 Dunlap, Leslie W., ed. Readings in Library History. New York: R. R. Bowker, 1972. p. 29. 14 Casson, Lionel. Libraries in the Ancient World. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2001. p. 68. 15 Ibid., pg. 70. 16 Ibid., pg. 71. 17 Ibid. 18 Dunlap, Leslie W., ed. Readings in Library History. New York: R. R. Bowker, 1972. p. 29. 19 Harris, Michael H. History of Libraries in the Western World. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1995. p. 56. 20 Casson, Lionel. Libraries in the Ancient World. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2001. p. 69. 21 Harris, Michael H. History of Libraries in the Western World. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1995. p. 57. 22 Casson, Lionel. Libraries in the Ancient World. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2001. p. 79. 23 Harris, Michael H. History of Libraries in the Western World. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1995. p. 57. 24 Casson, Lionel. Libraries in the Ancient World. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2001. p. 81. 25 Harris, Michael H. History of Libraries in the Western World. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1995. p. 57. 26 Casson, Lionel. Libraries in the Ancient World. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2001. p. 82. 27 Ibid., p. 84-88. 28 Ibid., p. 89. 29 Ibid., p. 97. 30 Pinner, H.L. The World of Books in Classical Antiquity. Leiden: A.W.Sijthoff, 1949. p. 30. 31 Reichman, Felix. "The Book Trade at the Time of the Roman Empire." The Library Quarterly, p. 40-76. 32 Kenyon, Frederic G. Books and Readers in Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1932. p. 94. 33 Cramer, F. H. "Bookburning and Censorship in Ancient Rome," Journal of the History of Ideas 6 (1945): 147-96. 34 Ibid. 35 Bruce, Lorne D. "A Reappraisal of Roman Libraries in the Scriptores Historiae Auguste." Journal of Library History, Vol. 16, no. 4, Fall 1981., p. 551-569. 2

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Harris, Michael H. History of Libraries in the Western World. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1995. p. 67.

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