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Seeing God: Observations of popular devotion to Catholic images in Italy and China UNIV 340 Jacob Sierra December 4, 2018

God lurks in his creation. This is a profoundly Catholic sensibility. In his book, The Catholic Imagination, Andrew Greeley argues that what makes Catholicism unique from all other Christian denominations is this sensibility which he calls the analogical imagination. He writes, “Catholic churches...are strongholds of the analogical imagination, of stories of God’s presence in the human condition”1. Relics of the Saints form the base of church altars while the walls are covered in Catholic art. This prevalence of Christian art and relics in Catholic churches creates an understanding that God is present and very active in creation. Consequently, the spaces that house the art are endowed a certain sacredness as they help draw devotees closer to God teach the faithful the stories of the Church: “At a time when both social conditions and technological limitations made it impossible to teach the faith by the book or by formal education, the church inundated its people with stories”2. Centuries ago, church art was used to make Catholic teachings available to illiterate believers. Today, Catholic art holds the same stories. However, the purposes of the stories are less to teach the faithful and more to bring them into contemplative prayer through images of the lives of the Saints. This is the role of the devotional image. The focus of each image is in articulating a connection between devotee and the divine. One studying such imagery must ask themselves: why articulations are successful in creating these ‘sacred spaces’? How can the devotee discover and experience God through an image? The answers to these questions, I argue in this essay, undoubtedly vary across cultural and sociological contexts throughout the world. This research focuses on two specific contexts: Italy (primarily in Rome) and China (primarily in Beijing). Through observation, interview, and 1 Andrew Greeley, The Catholic Imagination, (Berkeley, California: University of California, 2000), 39. 2 Greeley, The Catholic Imagination, 34. 2

consultation of several peer-reviewed sources, I find that the values that support Catholic image devotion in China and Italy are very different as they are informed by their respective social and psychological contexts. However, the question for Catholic imagery in each of these contexts remains all the same: how can we see God? Defining the Devotional Image A holy image, as defined by the Catechism of the Catholic Church, is an image that principally represents Christ. Images cannot be used to represent the invisible God, yet through the Incarnation, Jesus Christ issues a new ‘economy’ of images: “All the signs in the liturgical celebrations are related to Christ: as are sacred images of the holy Mother of God and of the saints as well. They truly signify Christ, who is glorified in them.”3. Similarly, the Catholic Encyclopedia defines iconography as “the science of the description, history, and interpretation of the traditional representations of God”4. One must also make sure to notice the difference between image and icon here. An icon as it is understood in this paper best aligns with the definition outlined in Jeana Visel’s Icons in the Western Church: Toward a More Sacramental Encounter. According to Visel, icons are traditional paintings created in a style characterized by featuring two-dimensional figures in ethereal, gold backgrounds and painted through a succession of prayers5. Icons have been historically associated with the Byzantine Empire and Greek Orthodoxy, where they were first created and implemented in liturgy and devotion. Iconoclast movements, incited by various

3 Catholic Church, “Holy Images,” in Catechism of the Catholic Church (Vatican: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2012) 4 Charles George Herbermann and Knights of Columbus, “Christian Iconography,” in The Catholic Encyclopedia (New York: Encyclopedia Press, 1913). 5 Jeana Visel, Icons in the Western Church: Toward a More Sacramental Encounter (Liturgical Press, 2016). 3

Byzantine emperors, prohibited the creation and use of icons throughout certain periods of Byzantine history6. Throughout the eighth century, many early icons were brought to Western Europe where they were still allowed for devotional use7. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 787 signaled an early ecumenical meeting to clarify the role of images in Orthodox and Catholic Churches. The Council settled (at least for a few centuries) the role of Christian iconography and imagery for devotional purposes upon the understanding that images bring believers into reflection with the Saints and into deeper prayer with God. In response to the iconoclasts, the council argued that images were intended to bring veneration to the Saints, not unto themselves. This reasoning formed the orthodox framework which gave legitimacy to image devotion in all of Catholicism. As images began to become more widely accepted in Western Catholicism, newer styles embraced three-dimensional art forms which included an elevated role for statues in devotion8. The painter, El Greco, embodies the shift in artistic styles noticed around the fourteenth century. El Greco was trained in the Byzantine icon-painting tradition, however after having spent a considerable number of years in Spain, he began to produce artwork which featured more threedimensional figures and incorporated space and context9. This favoring of three-dimensional art forms also led to increased production and usage of statuary in Western Catholicism. Statues and vivid imagery entered the space of the devotee better than flat icons that lacked context.

6 Iulian Isbasoiu, “Representations of God in Icons. Immanence and Transcendence in Christian Art.” (Dialogo 2, no. 2, 2016): 165-74. 7 Visel, Icons in the Western Church: Toward a More Sacramental Encounter. 8 Graham Howes, “Christianity and Visual Art.” In The Oxford handbook of religion and the arts, ed. Frank Burch Brown (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 294-301. 9 Andrew R. Casper, Art and the Religious Image in El Greco's Italy (Pennsylvania State University Press, 2014). 4

In Italy, images that successfully create an intimate space do so through their visibility and proximity to the viewer and by inviting the viewer into a closeness with the Saint and with God. These images become an attractive alternative to the more ‘popular’ pieces of art for those seeking devotional prayer. Observations in Chinese Catholic image devotions and preferred artistic styles show that Chinese Catholics articulate relationships with the global Catholic community in ways localized Chinese forms and symbols cannot. European-style artwork is favored over Chinese styles that were created throughout recent centuries. The following sections of this paper will explain and argue for both of these observations:

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