Research Definitions

Research- definitions • John W.Best- the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the developments of generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events

• Clover & Basley- process of systematically obtaining accurate answers to significant and pertinent questions by the use of scientific method of gathering and interpreting information.

What is research? • Characteristics of research – Directed to solution of a problem – Emphasis development of generation of principles or theories- help predicting future occurrences – Based on observable experience- empirical evidence – Demands accurate observation and description – Gathering new data – Applying rigorous analysis – Requires expertise- skill to investigate, search literature, analyse the data – Strives to be objective, logical, test validity, reliability & authenticity – Carefully recorded and reported

Main steps in research 1. •

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Selection of subject Basis of experience and the available facts of social work, - formulate social problems Formulation of hypothesisform social ideas about the problem- tentative justification the validity of which remains to be tested. Construction of research design – carry his work systematically to test hypothesis, analyze data Literature review – related problem survey Collection of data

6. Tabulation of collected data – systematically tabulated and classified. 7. Analysis and interpretation of data- which data belong to which field and what are the basic requirements of a particular data and what are its characteristics. 8. Verification of problem and hypothesis – verify the problem, hypothesis 9. Generalization – certain general principles – based on results

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Title Statement of the problem Review of earlier literature Sources of information to be tapped Development of bibliography Nature of study Objectives of study Socio- cultural context of study Geographical areas to be covered Periods of time to be covered or time dimension of the study Dimensions of the study The basis for selecting the data Techniques of study The control of error Establish the reliability and validity of instruments Chapter scheme

1. 2.

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Title – no more than name of topic- suggest theme of study Statement of the problem – not exactly same as title- an attempt to focus on clear goalexpansion of title. Major questions may be followed by several minor questions or statements Review of earlier literature preliminary step before attempting to plan the studyessential to review all relevant materials connected with problem- show how problem under study relates to previous research studies- show how this work differs with existing literature

5. Sources of information to be tapped – documentary and field sources- field sources – living persons – have fund of knowledge – documentary sources- published and unpublished documents, reports, statistics, manuscripts, letters, diaries – either primary or secondary. primary dataparticipant observation, personal interview, correspondence, conference, questionnaire, 6. Development of bibliography – each reference – appear on separate card- name of author first, his initials or given name – title of reference, publisher’s name and date of publication

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Nature of study – statistical study, case study, or comparative study or experimental study or combination of these – should be decided. Objectives of study – compiled in clear cut terms. Hypothesis may be formed and tested. Socio- cultural context of study ascertain socio cultural behavior pattern of the persons. Understand persons adhere, deviate or withdraw from them completely. Geographical areas to be covered – physical boundaries to be specified

11. Periods of time to be covered or time dimension of the studyperiod to be encompassedexploration of problem made easier and clear. 12. Dimensions of the study – limitations to be mentioned, new concepts be defined. 13. The basis for selecting the data – greater care in selecting the sample from the universe. Sample be closely representative of universe. 14. Techniques of study- based on nature of study. questionnaire method, observation method, interview method or some techniques collectively

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The control of error- what variables operate given situation.- field study to control key variables and to randomize others. Variables – their control to be described Establish the reliability and validity of instrumentsevaluate the data collectedprimary sources – desirable than secondary sources

16. Chapter scheme – last stepheadings may be changed – final form is determined by nature of study - - basis of for chapter scheme is the objectives of research problem. must include main findings as independent chapter- first chapter is introductory – last chapter for findings, conclusions and suggestions. Five to six optimum numbers.

Criteria of good research 1. Purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concept be used 2. Research procedure used – described – permit another person to repeat for further advancement- keep the continuity 3. Design – planned carefully- results – objective 4. Complete frankness- flaws, findings 5. Data analysis- reveal significance- appropriatevalidity, reliability- checked carefully 6. Conclusion- confined to data 7. Confidence, integrity

CGR • Systematic- structured- well defined rules, creative thinking, conclusion • Logical- induction- from part to whole • Deduction- some premise to conclusion • Empirical- based on real situation- deals with concrete data • Replicable-

Objectivity • • • • • • •

Personal emotions- researcher bias Personal motives- informer bias Customs and superstitions Misunderstanding – lack of knowledge Quick and hurried performance External pressure – (organisational, guide) Faulty methodology- Sampling bias, wrong design, biased tool

Difficulties & limitations • Problem of collecting information • Dependence on others • Problem of analyzing data • Problem of tool (questionnaire) • Temptation for generalization • Complexity of data- human beings difference • Problem of cause – effect relationship • Dynamic nature unpredictability • Maintaining objectivity • Difficulty in verification- non repetitive

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Difficulty in use of experimental method

Research problem selection and formulation • Sources of research problem – – – – –

Inference from theory of one’s own interest Daily problems Technological and social changes unexplored areas Professional literature- research reports, bibliographies, articles, periodicals, research abstracts, year books, research guides – Research gaps – Discussion with experts

Format- chapter scheme • • • •

Chapter I- Introduction Chapter II- Review of literature Chapter III- Research Methodology Chapter IV- Analysis and interpretation of data • Chapter V- Findings, suggestions and conclusion • Appendix

Introduction • Background of the Research study

Review of literature • Previous literatures- to identify research gap

Research methodology • • • • • • • •

Formulation of research problem Profile of organisation Main aim with specific objectives Hypothesis/hypotheses Sources of data Research design Sampling procedure/design Limitations of the study

Analysis and interpretation of data • • • • • • • •

Editing Coding Classification Transcription Methods of transcription Tabulation Electronic data processing Analysis of data

Findings, suggestions and conclusion

appendix • Bibliography • Research tools • Map

Research design • Data collected accurately and economically • Pauline V Young – logical and systematic planning and directing a piece of research. • Russel ackoff- the process of making decisions before a situation arises in which the decision has to be carried out.

Essentials of R D • Plan- - specifies objectives of the study & hypotheses to be tested • Outline- specifies sources & types of information relevant to research questions • Blueprint- method to be adopted for gathering and analyzing data • Scheme- generalizability- to large population- to different situations

Preparation of R D • • • • • • • • •

What is the study about? Why is the study made? What is its scope? What are the objectives of the study? What are the hypotheses tested? Major concepts defined operationally? When or in what place will the study be conducted? Reference period of the study? What kinds of data are needed?

• • •

What are the sources of data? What is sample size? What is cost involved?

Types – kinds of R D • • • • •

Explorative or formulative Descriptive Diagnostic Experimental Case study

Explorative • Achieve new insights • To formulate a more precise problem • To develop hypotheses

Descriptive • Portraying accurately the characteristics of a particular group or situation. • Attitude or view of people towards anything

Diagnostic • Solution of a specific problem • To find out relevant variables associated with the problems • Typical problem solving strategy – emergence of a problem, diagnosis its causes, formulation of possible avenues of remediation & recommendations for a possible solution

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Means Case history Interview Clinical observation Informal testing Formal standardized testing

Experimental design • Observe & measure the effect of manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable • Testing casual hypothesis • Occurrence X- determine occurrence Y • Control group- experimental group

Sources of data- Secondary sources • Internal source • • • • •

Private documents Life history Diaries Letters Memoirs

external source public documents 1published 2 unpublished journal newspapers radio TV Films public speeches

Sampling, sampling design, technique or methods or types Population or universe Defined as a set of data that consist of all conceivable (or hypothetically) possible observations of a certain phenomenon population which may be homogenous or heterogeneous. Census and surveys Conducted with populations that are heterogeneous. Census – provide highest accuracy – free from sampling errors Sample error- due to use of sampling surveys

Pilot study • Preliminary step conducted on a limited scale before the original studies are carried out • Acquire general knowledge about problem

Pre testing • Process of an advance testing of the study design after the schedule/questionnaire has been prepared. • To detect discrepancies that have crept in and to remove them after necessary modifications in the schedule

Meaning of sampling • Sample – smaller representation of a large whole • A section of the population selected from the latter in such a way that they are representative of the universe called sample. • A group of elements is referred as a sample and the process of selection is called sampling • The method of selecting for study a portion of the universe with a view to draw conclusion about the universe is known as sampling • The selection of part of aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made

Sampling design • Theoretical basis and the practical means by which we infer the characteristics of some population by generalizing from the characteristics of relatively few of the units comprising the population

• Population or universe -Is the aggregate of all units possessing certain specified characteristics on which the sample seeks to draw inferences; • for example, families with incomes within a given range • Census – a total enumeration of individuals’ elements, or units in a defined population

• Sample – a method of selecting some fraction of a population • Design – describes the method by which the sample is chosen

Methods •

Probability sampling or Random sampling-

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Non probability sampling or non- random sampling

Random sampling methods • • • • •

Simple random sampling Stratified sampling Stratified random sampling Systematic random sampling Cluster sampling

Non random sampling • • • •

Accidental sampling Quota sampling Purposive sampling Convenience sample

Simple random sampling • Each and every item in the whole population (homogeneous) has an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample. • Suitable to small homogeneous population • Lottery method or table of random numbers ( 1) tippett’s table of random numbers, 2 )kendall and babington smith numbers, 3) fisher and yate’ s numbers

Stratified random sampling • Universe is divided/subdivided into homogeneous groups called strata • Sample is drawn from each stratum at random • A stratified sample is thus equivalent to a set of random samples of a number of such populations, each representing a single type of stratum

Systematic random sampling • Every kth item is selected in a list representing a population • Number k is called sampling interval • Items of a population are arranged in a systematic order on the basis of its important characteristics • First number is chosen at random from the first k items • Sampling interval K = size of the universe _________________________

size of the sample Followed when complete list of population is available

Multi stage or cluster • Several stages

Non random • No assurance that every element has some specifiable chance of being included. • Accidental • reaches out takes the cases that fall to hand continuing the process till such time as the sample reaches a designated size. • For example, the researcher may take the first 150 persons he meets on any one of the pedestrian paths of a street • Economical, convenient , too much accuracy is not required

Convenience sampling • Called chunk • Fraction of population being interviewed – selected neither by probability or by judgment but by convenience. • From readily available list - automobile registration, telephone directory • Making pilot study

judgment • According to one’s personal judgment. • Include only those items of the universe in the sample which he considers are most typical of the convenience. • Only average items are considered, \not extreme items • Selection – adjusted in accordance with the object of enquiry, so that significant item may be ignored • • • • •

Suitable When only small number of sampling is the universe Solving every day business problem Making public policy decision Urgent problem

Quota • Is instructed to collect information from an assigned number, or quota of individuals in each of several group • Group being specified as to age, sex, Income, • Choice is interviewer’s not being decided by probability methods

Sampling error • • • • • •

Biased Causes of biases Faulty process of selection Faulty work during the collection of information Selection of sample in a haphazard way Substitution of the selected item in the sample by another • Incomplete investigation or response

hypothesis • - is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be every hunch, guess, imaginative data which becomes the basis for action or investigation

• If hypothesis is proved, the problem of which it was a tentative solution is answered. • If it is not proved, alternative hypothesis or situations would need to be formulated and tested.

Sources of Hypothesis • • • • • • •

Religion, custom Folk wisdom Current popular beliefs Findings of other studies Cases Personal experience and individual reaction theory

Criteria of good (Workable) hypothesis • • • •

Conceptual clarity Formal (conceptual) Operationally Empirically testablecan be tested in field observation • Closest to things observable • Specific in nature

• Related to a body of theory • Relevant & available techniques • Simple- to the point

Types of hypothesis • False hypothesis • Barren hypothesis • Null hypothesis