Report

CHAPTER: 1 Introduction

Report A report may be defined as a formal statement describing a state of affair or what has happened. It contains detailed description of a problem or a situation, findings of an investigation, recommendation or action taken. It generally includes conclusions and suggestions for future course of action. A report is to be written in an informative and clear manner. ‘Advance Learners Dictionary’ describes report as a spoken or written account of something heard, seen, done, studied, observed etc. specially one that is published or broadcast. According to C.A Brown “A report is a communication from someone who has some information who wants to use that information.”

Chapter: 2 STEP IN PREPAIRING REPORT A) Collection of details B) Analysis or processing C) Arranging D) Drafting the Report E) Editing the Report

The steps are explained in detail:A)Collection of Details The first step required in the preparation of a report is the ‘collection of details’. Details means: “All relevant material”. Necessary data should or information should be collected carefully. All such details should be suitably obtained from the variable sources. These details form the basis of the report. These are assembled like raw-materials.

Methods of collection of data 1.Personal observation 2.Telephone interview 3.Personal interview 4.Questionnaires

The details of method are explained below:-

1.Personal observation Some report will be based on your personal observation. For example, you may be required to write a report on an experiment you made in the laboratory or a job you performed or an event to which you were an eye-witness. Since in these cases you will have to rely on your sensory perception and memory you must develop the habit of careful observation and accurate recording – traits which even otherwise are helpful. Lest you should be caught

unawares, it is advisable to keep a notebook and a pencil ready for jotting down notes.

2.Telephone Interview. Another method of collecting data is interview personal or an oral on telephone. If the information you seek is of a routine nature and only brief answer are required from a small number of person you may contact them on telephone, and save time on travelling. But often you may not get as effective a feedback on the telephone as in the case of personal interview. Further, the information you collect may be unrepresentative because all the persons you need to contract may not be on the telephone. And if some of them are residents of others town, long distance calls will be necessary and in that case this method will prove very expensive.

3.Personal interview Interviewing is an art and will demand intelligence, patience, tact and courtesy on your part. Even though you need one type of data, remember that all individuals cannot be dealt with in an identical manner. You need to be shrewd, observant and sensitive to the reactions of the of the people you are interviewing. You should be quick to readjust your approach and attitude to suit each case. You must first secure a person’s attention, excite his interest and established a rapport. He must open out to you and cooperate in giving you the information you want. And all this depends on your own knack of handling people. How does one go about this business of interviewing people? First, you should do your own homework well. You must first of all break up your problems into significant components. It becomes easier to handle it in this manner. Then carefully prepare a set of questions covering all these aspects. Next, you must fix an appointment before calling a person. Tell him beforehand the amount of time you are likely to take. Before starting the interview, give him brief introduction about yourself, your organization and the purpose for which you are collecting data. Do not embarrass him by asking personal questions or by seeking confidential

information. If a person is hesitant about imparting a piece of information, do not press him. If he would like to be anonymous, respect his wish. Lead the interview but do not talk more than is essential to elicit the information. Maintain a comfortable atmosphere throughout the interview and terminate the meeting gracefully. Do not prolong the interview unnecessarily. Sometimes this method of collecting data is used to supplement through questionnaires. Through this method you can get qualitative data- data which cannot be obtained from yes\no answers or the choice of alternative given in the questionnaire. Sometimes the answer given may not be clear. Though personal Interview you can put supplementary questions and get the exact information you need. You get not only what is being said but the exact feel of it. This will help you to get to draw your own conclusions better.

4.Questionnaire When a wide geographical coverage is required and a large number of people have to be contacted, the most efficient and convenient method is to collect data through mail questionnaires. You can send thousands of questionnaires at a comparatively low cost. Since you cannot seek further clarification as in the case of interviews, you should take utmost pains in preparing the questionnaire. You can send thousand of questionnaires at a comparatively low price. Since you cannot seek further clarification as in the case of interviews, you should take utmost pains in preparing the questionnaire.

B)Analysis or processing This is the second step. All details or information collected by you may not be useful for the purpose of writing your report. So, out of the bulk details only necessary and relevant details should be sorted out. While doing so, the propose of the report and the person or authority whom the report is to be submitted should be kept in mind.

C)Arranging Hooch pooch presentation of facts may render a repot totally useless. So, the points of the information should be arranged in a logical sequence and in order of importance. It is better to make rough notes.

D)Drafting the Report This is the final stage and requires a careful attempt. With the help of the facts and information duly arranged, draft a rough report and read it carefully. Anything unnecessary should be taken out and anything necessary but left should be incorporated. The rough draft should give us the idea about the perfectness of our report. From this rough draft, make a clean report; write it in a proper form.

E)Editing the Report Before submitting the report to the person/authority concerned, cast a deep searching eye on it to ensure that it is perfect in all respects. Examine the draft and see that it reflects the purpose for which it is drafted. Check your grammar, spellings, punctuation and style. It is advisable to read the text to yourself and judge whether it sounds well or not. Check your illustrations and if possible, show it some component person and seek his opinion about its accuracy.

Chapter: 3 PRINCIPLE IN PREPARING REPORT While constructing your report keep the audience in mind. Reject the material which you think will be beyond your reader’s comprehension or which you not help him take a decision or action. While collecting materials you must have borne these factors in mind and hence may not have much material to reject at this stage. But it is advisable to have another look and to discard material which is of doubtful value. Often, only after looking at the total picture you will be able to judge the

relevance or otherwise of its constitute elements. The following principles will help you to decide what to include, what to reject, and how to organize the selected material into the form of an outline The principles are given below:-

A) Principle of logical ordering B) Principle of numbering C) Principle of phasing D) Principle of dividing E) Principle of procedure F) Principle of purpose G) Principle of organization H) Principle of clarity I) Principle of brevity J) Principle of scheduling K) Principle of cost The principles are explained in detail below:-

A)Principle of logical ordering. Weigh and consider which ideas, or piece of information are important than others and in what order you should present them to achieve your goal. One obvious method is to order the material from the least important to the most important or vice versa. It has been suggested that the former is effective if the report is interpretive and the latter is advisable if the report is informational. It is argued that the reader of an interpretive report likes first to go through the material on which you base your interpretation and recommendation. On the other hand, the report of an informational report wants to gather the most important piece of information first and sometimes he is not interested in unimportant

details at all. Other methods of ordering are categorical, comparative and chronological. If you use the first of these, you will start with a general statement and then discuss particulars. For example, if you are writing a report on ‘International Airports in India’. You may first write about airports in general and then take up particulars airports for description and discussion. Very often, you may like or be required to compare a procedure, a process or a system operating in your organization with those in other similar organizations. Then you will use the comparative method, usually in conjunction with another method of ordering, discussing, or analyzing the events as they occurred or the action as it took place. However, this method is useful generally for reporting laboratory experiments and describing industrial processes. In many other cases it has been found unsuitable because things do not necessarily happen in a logical order.

There could be other methods of ordering your material. The circumstances of the situation will tell you which one to use for your purpose.

B)Principle of numbering. To established a suitable relationship among topics and sub-topics use a single numbering schemes throughout you outline and follow the same in your report. Two schemes are most commonly used for this purpose: letter-number and decimal. In the former both letters and numbers are used as shown below:

1 A. B. C. 1. 2. a. b. c. i. ii. iii. (a) (b) (c) (d) Note that a full stop has been used up to the fifth level of subordination whereas at the sixth letters have been put within brackets and there is no full stop after them. The decimal numbering scheme is as follows: 1. 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.3.1.

1.3.2. 1.3.3. 1.3.3.1. 1.3.3.2. 1.3.3.3 And so on An important thing to note is that the letters/numbers indicating one level is equidistance from the margin and that you move towards the right side of the page for showing subordinate levels C)Principle of Phasing The words, phases, or sentences that you use for indicating the topics or sub topics of your outline should generally have parallel grammatical construction. Look at the following extract from the outline of a report on nationalized banks. Advantages of Nationalization. 1.Mobilization of national resources. 2.Promotion of agricultural production. 3.Encouragement of new classes of entrepreneurs. 4.Channelization

of people’s savings towards productive

purposes.

D)Principle of Dividing. Check whether any single sub-topics have crept into your outline. If you find one, eliminate it because splitting a topic logically presumes more than one sub-topics. Avoid subdividing a minor point into a large number of sub-topics. Fill in the details at the time of writing. Too many details in your outline may

make your report imbalanced.

E)Principle of Procedure. How do you go about making an outline? This question is difficult to answer because there is no set procedure for doing so. You will with experience discover one which works. However, a few steps that may be helpful are suggested below. 1.Go through the entire materials you have gathered and think of possible organizational patterns. 2.Choose one pattern and then jot down the topics and sub-topics as they come to you. 3.Then arrange them on the basis of the principles discussed above. 4.Prepare a tentative outline. 5.Carefully examine it and make changes, if necessary. 6.Write out neatly the final outline.

F) Principle of Purpose Every report must have a specific and sound purpose. A clear statement of the purpose helps in the preparation and use of the report.

G) Principle of organization. The elements of a report should be properly planned and well-organized in the right sequence.

H) Principle of clarity. A report should be written in simple

language. Some people write very long sentences reducing the various arguments to phrases. This type of sentences construction fails to give due importance to the arguments and the reader has to follow a zigzag path and is liable to misunderstand the meaning and the intention of the writer. Moreover, this sound likes a declamatory style, which is out of place in report. That way there is importance of clarity in report.

I) Principle of Brevity. The report should be brief because short reports are easy to prepare and analyze, cost less and highlight the relevant point.

J) Principle of Scheduling. Reports should be scheduled in such a way that they can be prepared without undue burden on the staff and with sufficient time for their preparation. However, too long a time interval between collections of the data presentation of the report may render the report obsolete and useless.

K) Principle of Cost. The cost of a report should always be less than the benefit.

CHAPTER 4 A Specimen of report A report on the design of a honeycomb collector for a solar pressure cooker is given below:A Report On

The design Of a Honeycomb collector For A Solar Pressure cooker by S.K. Handa, ID NO 87E06134 and Bharat Bhushan, ID NO 72Eo3048 A report submitted in Partial fulfillment of the requirements Of engineering practice 1 27 December, 1975 Acknowledgements We are grateful to Dr. K.S. Rao, professor of chemical Engineering, for all the help and guidance given for this study. We would also like to thank Dr. D.P. Rao, Dr. G.P. Avasthi and sri R.s. soin for many valuable ideas and suggestions for completing this project.

Contents Acknowledgement 1. Abstracts 2. Introduction 3. Flat plate honeycomb collector 4. Experiments conducted 4.1Flat plate collector without honeycomb 4.2Flat plate collector with honeycomb 5.Conclusions Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Bibliography

1. Abstraction Flat plate honeycomb collectors are used successfully to get high plate temperatures. So far only glass and polymer honeycomb cores have been used to achieve this. This study shows that use paper drinking-straws of a length to diameter ratio of 12 as honeycomb cores is not only efficient but also more cost effective. We could achieve a maximum plate temperature of 203 C {During December} with a zero efficiency model. This high temperature effect can be utilized to generate medium high pressure steam. The steam so generated can be directed into a pressure vessel for cooking.

2. Introduction With the every-increasing demand for energy and repaid depletion of the existing conventional energy sources, people all over the world are turning to the sun as anew sources of energy. Scientists and engineers are directing their research towards utilization of this enormous and as yet untapped source of energy. It has recently been realized that considerable overall saving in the consumption of energy can be effected by finding alternative to the conventional sources of energy for cooking. The individual household need for energy is small and hence should be met by some simple and inexpensive mode of exploiting solar energy. With this objective in view the present project was understand. A number of experiment were made to find out whether a flat plate honeycomb collector would yield better results than a simple flat plate collector to achieve temperature high enough to generate pressure steam, which could be exploited for cooking. The experiments were conducted on December 13, 19 and 20 1975. The readings were monitored every 15 minutes. Manuals hello static alignment and standard temperature measurement methods using thermocouples were employed for the collector of data. 3. Flat plate honeymoon collectors A simple flat plate collector consists so a thin sheet of high thermal conductivity [mild steel, aluminum, etc.] painted a dull non-reflecting black. This acts as a thin glass sheet. Three types of heat losses – losses by conduction, convection and radiation- can be identified in this. The honeycomb is a device used primarily to reduce these losses. The idea originated from the hexagonal honeycomb used by bees. These tubes (preferably hexagonal and of a thermally material like glass, polymers, etc.) are placed in a core-like formation on the absorbing surface. The use of a honeycomb can effectively reduce the radiation losses from a solar collector. However, in the range of 150-200 degree Celsius the natural convection heat transfer between the absorbing surface and the glass cover plays a dominant role. The honeycomb (under certain condition) suppresses natural convection currents, thus reducing the convections heat losses as well. The conduction lose directly through the honeymoon can be made negligibly small by choosing the right material.

4. Experiments conducted

4.1 Flat plate collector without honeycomb A 28 gauge aluminum sheet (1ft square area) was used as the absorbing surface. A temperature of 135 degree Celsius was attained at 12-30 (two hours before the peak sun intensity time) and after that a fairly rapid decrease was observed. The rate of increase and decrease was determined by the fact that aluminum has a high thermal conductivity and a very low heat capacity. After attaining a maximum temperature of 135 degree Celsius the temperature gradients between the glass cover and the collector was very steep and the convective losses become large. Though the sun intensity kept on increasing, the heat gain was largely offset by the large magnitude of convective losses. 4.2 Flat plate collector with honeycomb

4.2.1 Mild steel collector with glass honeycomb Two ms plates (1 ft square area, 0.25 in. thickness) were welded together to form a hollow container. The total weight was 5.9 kg. The glass tube honeycomb had and L\D ratio of 9 and weighed 7 kg. A very slow increase in the temperature of the plate was observed. This was because of the enormous weigh and the relatively high heat capacity of the collector. Further, the heat taken by the glass tubes was attained at about the normal peak time. A higher temperature could not be obtained because the total heat capacity of the system (collector + honeycomb) was so great that a large amount of heat was required per degree Celsius rise. The thickness of the glass tube (average thickness 2 mm) was another negative factor. A temperature gradients of about 5 degree Celsius was observed between the top plate of the collector and the bottom plate of the collector and the bottom plate. This was because of the relatively non-conducting air gap between the two plates and the thickness of the ms sheets. The results of the above test encouraged the continuing of experiments with the honeycomb model with some modifications. 4.2.2 Mild steel collector with glass honeycomb with water

introduced in the collector. The model described above with water introduced between the collector plates was used. In this case a maximum of 64 degree Celsius was observed. The reason given above applies here also; however, water further increased the heat capacity of the system. A continuous increases was observed and the water extracted at the end of the day had a temperature of 64 degree Celsius. This demonstrated that a ‘Solar pond’ had been created and a method of storing the energy received was available.

4.2.3 Aluminum collector with glass honeycomb.

An aluminum plate (1 ft square area, 28 gauge) was used with the glass honeycomb described earlier. A fairly rapid increase in the temperature of the collector was observed. This was expected because of the low heat capacity of the aluminum sheet.

4.2.4 Aluminum collector with drinking-straw honeycomb. The above described aluminum sheet was used with drinking-straws forming the honeycomb core. The thickness of the straw was 0.05 on the L\D ratio about 47. No appreciable results were achieved. It has been observed that an L\D ratio of 15 gives the optimum results. Unless the honeycomb is aligned precisely in a way that the sun’s rays reach the collector directly, no energy can be received. This is so because by the time a ray travel down the length of the strew through a series of reflection, most of its energy is observed or reflected back, as the paper has an opaque surface with non-secular reflections. 4.2.5 Aluminum collector with drinking-straw honeycomb The same model as described in the previous section was used with the modification that the straws were cut to give L/D ratio of 12. A significant rate of increase in temperature was recorded with the maximum of 203 C at 2.3 p.m. At same time the wax from the straws had decomposed and condensed on the inside of the glass cover, thus greatly reducing transitivity. It was also observed that the straws started getting charred at about 150 C. The wax on the straws helped it to char at a lower temperature than the normal. The conclusions from this experiment were that we should: [a] ‘dew ax’ the straws by placing them in an incubator under controlled temperature before using them, and [b] Separate the straws from the collector by raising the entire honeycomb core by about 0.25 inch.

4.2.6Aluminium collector with drinking-straw honeycomb [raised] The aluminum collector with drinking-straw honeycomb of an L/D ratio of 12 was used. The straws were tied together in bundles and raised from the plate by chalk pieces acting as pillars. A maximum of 102.5 c was attained. A good and uniform packing could not be achieved due to inconvenience in handling. The experiment was discontinued after a few hours because of the impracticability of the method. 4.2.7Aluminium collector with drinking-straw honeycomb [raised] The model describes in the above section was used with a modification. The honeycomb core was separate from the collector plate by a thin glass sheet (3mm thickness) resting on wooden supports of thickness 0.25 inch. Thus an effective

separation of 0.7 cm existed between the honeycomb core and collector. A maximum of 165.5 degree Celsius was attained but the charring of straws and wax decomposition still occurred. The bottom glass sheet cracked due to a temperature gradients which resulted in non-uniform expansion of the glass. This gap also affected greater convection losses, thus explaining the low values of the maximum temperature. We concluded that raising the honeymoon core so as to crate a gap between it andan undesirable features. ‘Dew axing’ the straws and impregnation with some fireresistant chemicals is necessary. A proper material for the honeymoon is required. This material should have all desirable features of thin walls, thermally insulating, proper L\D ratio, non-charring, etc. and should not have any undesirable property, like the waxing described above. 4.2.8 Aluminium collector with drinking-straw honeycomb. The same model as described in the previous sections was used. The L\D ratio of honeycomb was 12. This time the model was fixed to a position facing south and at an inclination 33 degree to vertical. No heliostat alignment was followed. This was tired out with the understanding and anticipation that in the ultimate design, heliostatic alignment would create unnecessary problems and could also involve complication in design. The maximum temperature achieved was 148 degree Celsius. The rate of increase and decrease was very steep. This was expected since the straws took up almost no heat expect in the wax decomposition and charring process. 5. Conclusions The use of a honeycomb type flat plate collector is a very economical method of achieving high temperature. We were able to get a maximum temperature of 203 degree Celsius, using a honeycomb from the of paper drinking straws (L\D=12). But the straws got charred due to the high temperature. Separating the honeycomb from the collector plate did not help as it reduced the useful heat gain. Basically, for the honeycomb to be effective, the tubes used should have L\D ratio of 12 to 15 and should possess low thermal conductivity, small diameter and thin walls. This study indicates only the first stage of the design of an economical and convenient solar cooker. The next stage will involve the designing of a suitable honeycomb type flat collector, design of a simple heliostatic aligning mechanism, design of a pressure vessels and mechanism of transportation of steam from collector to the pressure vessels.

Evidently, a solar cooker using honeycomb flat plate collector is possible. Further research and development is required to improve the design and to reduce the cost.

Appendix A Date: December 13, 1975 Model: Hollow mild steel collector (1 ft square) with honeycomb of glass tubes (L/D= 9). The glass tubes rested on the collector plate. Thermocouple used: Fe/con. Position: Heliostat alignment. Weather: clear sky. Time pot. Meter reading plate temp. Ambient Temp 11.52

4.5

85

23

12.01

4.7

89

23

12.15

4.9

93

23

12.45

5.05

82

23

01.45

5.45

67

23

Appendix B Date: December 19, 1975 Model= Aluminium collector (1 ft square) with no honeycomb. Thermocouples used: Holiostatic aligning. Weather: clear sky. Time pot.meter reading 11.45 7.0 12 7.10 12.15 7.13 12.53 7.17

plate temp. 132 132 134 134

Ambient temp 23 23 23.5 24

1.15 Time 10.54 11 11.06 11.14 11.24

7.12

133

Appendix C pot.meter reading plate temp. 3.48 67 3.84 73 3.98 75 3.93 80 3.93 78

23 Ambient temp. 22 22.5 23 24 23

BIBLOGRAPHY 1.Baker, H.D., et.al. Temperature Measurement in Engineering London Wiley, 1961. 2.Charter, W.W.S. and Peter. L.F., “Free convection Suppressing Using Honeycombs Cellular Materials”. Solar Energy, Vol.13 (4), 1972. 3.Duffle, J.A. and Beckman, W.A., solar Energy Thermal Processes. New York: Wiley-interscience, 1974. 4.Holman. J.P., Experimental Methods for engineers, New York: McGrawhill Book company, 1972. 5.Pellete,P.,et.als., “Honeycomb Thermal Trap”, solar energy, vol. 12(2)

CHAPTER 5 LIMITATIONS A report sells the result of the study but every project has its own limitations. These limitations can be in term of: a)If some particular question in the survey confesses the respondent then a reference of the same should be made to warn the readers to be careful in interpretation. b)The extent up to which the limitations can affect the result should be specified. c)The degree to which the results can be generalized d)The researches should put a not for any weakness in the research methods used in the study.

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION Conclusion from the research investigation should be drawn with direct reference to the objective to study, find specific conclusions relative to each objective. As Regards the recommendations from the findings are concerned, it is not always possible for the researcher to draft these properly. Making recommendations required through knowledge about the polices/objectives and resources of the organization as well as the merits and demerits of various alternative action possible for the problem situation. For effective and useful formation of the recommendations, a close interaction and the researcher is necessary for report writing.

CHAPTER 7 BIBLOLIOGRAPHY It contains detailed information about the reference or sources of material found in various forms of communication. The whole make-up of the report must be essentially logical and to grasp its framework to achieve this purpose. It is useful to consider what happens to a report when received by the sponsoring organization. It is observed that excellent research sometimes appears to be very poor because the research worker is not able to present his work satisfactorily. One common reason for this is that report writers are not able to appreciate the needs and want of relevant audience. Frequently researchers use technical terms and turn out a scientific presentation which passes over the heads of their audience. Incomplete reporting is also one of the factors which are likely to minimize the appreciation of a research investigation by the users. A careful review of the sample design, the questionnaire, the field method used and the analysis methods adopted will almost always pay dividends.

Annexure 1. Specimen is extracted from honey Comb Company. 2. Extracted from books.

3. Extracted from internet. 4. Extracted from magazines.