Power quality, part III Transient disturbances: Transient power problems originate outside buildings from ground faults, lightning, public utility switching. They also originate inside buildings from inductive loads and switching. Photocopiers, air conditioners, compressors, motors,light switches and fluorescent lighting circuits are all common sources of power line transient disturbances. Any collapsing magnetic field or any sparking in a switch will create transient waves which will appear at various locations with different modes and the consequences will varry. •Undervoltage (brownout): this is a situation where the public utility either voluntarily or not drops the rms voltage below the rating for an extended period of time. Circuit overloads and poor voltage regulation can cause undervoltage conditions. It, usually, exists over a few seconds. •Overvoltage: it is a steady state rms voltage level that exceeds the nominal voltage plus the tolerance (usually + 6%). If this condition prevails, undue stressing of connected loads is caused that may eventually result in failure. •Sags: are drops in rms voltage for less than few seconds, beyond normal tolerance. The causes may be any of the following: when heavy loads are started or energized (like motors, air conditioners, large inductive loads) or when flashover of lines occurs due to lightning, when power system faults occur. Swells are brief voltage increases, often caused by sudden load dropping or turnning off heavy equipment. •Surges: are short periods of over voltage from one to several cycles in duration. Surges include: spikes, impulses, switching and lightning surges. The common range of voltage magnitude is between 100V in electronic devices to 4000 KV for surges on power lines without protection. •Frequency Variations: it is not a common problem in North America. Even minor frequency variations can affect the operation of certain loads and can cause maloperation of such devices. •Power line noise: it can be classified into normal (differential) and common mode noise. The normal mode is noise that appears between the hot and the neutral wires, common mode is between the hot or neutral and true ground. Microprocessor and digital logic control systems utitize the voltage between neutral and ground (theoretical zero) as a zero voltage reference. This distortions of the normal sine wave can be caused by transmitters, fluorescent lights, electronic control circuits. •Radio frequency interference: also known as electromagnetic interference is the generation of high frequency waves and due to the high frequency the electromagnetic disturbance can be radiated through free space. In general, these emissions are due to the steep wave fronts and very rapid switching of power semiconductors in devices like drives. This occurs when transistors, GateTurnOff thyrestor (GTO) or other fast devices are gated on and off in circuits like d c choppers, inverters & rectifiers. These high frequencies can be conducted through the power or control conductors directly into other equipment (if not inhibited). These same conductors connecting to the devices generating these high frequencies may act as an antenna and radiate the R F energy into the surounding medium. It is possible for the EM/RF to be induced into nearby antennas and other conductors and fed into the loads connected to the conductors. It is not always possible to predict the effects of electromagnetic emissions
or even the effectiveness of corrective measures. Other sources of EMI are operation of high voltage and low voltage switches in inductive circuits. The effects of transient disturbances on loads: As can be seen from the above, the disturbances that any load may see can vary from undervoltage to overvoltage, to surges, to noise and interference. Certain disturbances can cause overheating and if lasted can cause failure of equipment, example motors when operated with voltage below nominal. Other loads like heaters will overheat with over voltage and can burn itself out if the disturbance occurs frequently or last for long duration. With spikes electronic loads can be destroyed and motor or transformer insulation may break down. Noise disturbs microprocessor based equipment (eg. programmable logic controllers and microcomputers) and it may blow power supplies and boards, burn chips, cause memory loss, premature component failure, data error and unexplained microprocessor malfunction. Electromagnetic interference can lead to malfunction of supervisory control equipment, inverters, digital metering equipment and industrial controllers. Corrective measures to transient line disturbances: •Builtin filter: most equipment has some power line filteration built into the power supply. These filters are primarily designed to stop disturbances eminating from the equipment into the power line rather than the other way around. •Dedicated lines/isolated grounds: these are separate lines running from a panel to the sensitive loads. The ground wire is insulated and runs directly back to the panel ground. Power disturbances should be considered as a likely problem even though a dedicated line has been installed. •Regulation transformers: are designed to maintain the rms voltage within certain levels. They will accept input voltages of plus or minus 15 percent from the rating and provide output voltages of 1 or 2% variance from the rating. They have no effect on transient disturbances or common mode noise. •Isolation transformers: they incorporate shielding and grounding to eliminate common mode noise. They do no attenuate normal mode disturbances. If more than one load is connected to the output of the transformer, ground loops will occur. •Saturated transformers: are designed to operate with the primary coil in full saturation. They eliminate normal mode disturbance but output a square wave. They can add further disturbances to the system like harmonics. •Ferroresonant transformers: are designed to operate in saturation with suitable capacitors on the output coils to create a resonant sine wave at 60 c/s. •Ultra isolation ferroresonant transformers: they have the features of the isolation transformers and the ferroresonant transformer.; Probably they will give good protection against common and normal mode. They are load and frequency sensitive. They produce heat and audible noise. •Line conditioners: they incorporate the features of regulation transformers and isolation transformers. Clamping devices are added to reduce spikes. They offer good regulation of rms voltage and good ground isolation from common mode noise. •Clamping devices: are also known as surge supressers and sometimes surge arresters. These are non linear voltage sensitive devices such as silicone carbide, gas discharge tubes and/or metal oxide
varistors. These devices remain in a non conductive state until the predetermined voltage is reached across the terminal, at this point the internal of the device will become a conductor. Excessive voltages and associated currents are shorted to ground. •Back up (standby) power supplies: they consist of a standby battery and an inverter which come into operation when the a.c. power supply is interrupted. Often such products incorporate clamping device on the line to attenuate spikes, surges & impulses. During normal operation of these devices, the load (equipment) is powered directly from the a.c. •Uninterruptable power supplies (UPS): it will maintain a continuous a.c. supply when the a.c. power supply is interrupted. With such systems, the equipment always draws its power from the battery and there is no switching time involved when the line power is interrupted. The main elements that build such devices are: the battery, the charger, the rectifier and the inverter. This system isolates the equipment (load) from all power line noise although it pumps harmonics into the a.c. line. Indicators of the quality of power in a plant: A few questions asked by the user of power to the utility company can give an indication of the quality of power expected to appear at the service entrance board. These questions are: 1 The length of the feeder to which your electric power supply is connected to and the point of supply in conjunction (in relation) to the total length of the feeder. Example: 12 miles, 24 miles, 6 miles,...etc. In theory the longer the feeder the more exposed it will be and thus more faults will be seen due to trees, animals, accidents, failure of components,..etc. Also, this will give an indication of potential undervoltage or overvoltage conditions under emergency overload conditions or underload conditions. 2 What is the philosphy of the utility regarding the use of reclosures for longer feeders. For example if a feeder is 24 miles in length and the supply point is at 8 miles from the transformer or distribution station, if there is a reclosure midway on this feeder and a fault occurs at 14 miles from the station, the reclosure will interrupt the fault rather than the breaker at the station thus the outage will be only confined to the loads downstream the reclosure and the upstream loads would only see a brief sag. 3What are the total number of feeders connected to the bus feeding the subject plant? If a fault occurs on any feeder, all the loads connected to the faulted feeder and the other feeders connected to the bus will see a voltage sag or dip. A knowledge of whether the feeders are overhead or underground or portions of would, also, give an indication of the quality of power to be expected. 4Another question that is important, especially in the areas where thunderstorms are frequent is what is the method used to protect against direct lightning hit? Is it the use of lightning arresters or the use of overhead ground wires (for shielding). If it is the use of L.A., what is the distance between (span) the arresters used. For indirect hits, the knowledge of the basic impulse level of the poles and insulators used is usually useful. 5The knowledge of the feeder protection philosphy will give an indication of duration of outages when a fault occurs on the feeder. If there is a reclosing scheme in the protection, the delay before the first reclosure of the circuit breaker is important to know. If the scheme employs a low set instantaneous, this may cause more outages to the affected feeder. If it does not, more sags and disturbances will be imposed on all feeders (connected to the bus), if one feeder is subjected to a fault. 6Whether overhead voltage regulators are installed across the lines, as this may affect conditions of
under and over voltages. 7It is important to know the philosophy of the utility when it comes to the use of capacitors (whether distributrd or lumped at the distribution station, transformer station or at the transmission level). As this may affect the spikes, surges or impulses that the connected equipment, at the lower level, may see. The magnification at the lower voltage levels will be severe under the following conditions: the capacitor switched on the higher voltage system has a rating (KVAR) much higher than the capacitor at the low voltage bus, the frequency of oscillation which occurs when the high voltage capacitor is energized is close to the resonant frequency formed by the step down transformer in series with the low voltage capacitor and if there is little damping presented by the loads on the low voltage system (it is usual with industrial plants as induction motors do not provide significant damping to such transients). Standards: The IEEE Recommended practices & requirements for harmonic control in electrical power systems (formerly, Guide for harmonic control and reactive compensation at static power converter) ANSI/IEEE 519 includes line voltage notching, total power factor, voltage distortion, harmonic current distortion, telephone interference and flicker. EMI disturbances are not addressed in 519. For the EMI reference, it is often made to FCC rules 7 regulations volume 2 part 15 sub port J class A or Ontario Hydro "specification for transient interference immunity tests on electronic equipment" or IEC "Electromagnetic compatibility for industrial process measurement and control equipment" series standard 801. For surge protection, there is the ANSI series 62 that covers the application, testing and classification. For the high energy application (Lightning arresters on distribution systems and stations) the CSA C223.1 can be referenced.