Power quality, part II The effects of steady state disturbances on loads: The degree to which harmonic currents and voltage notching (distortion) can be tolerated is function of the susceptibility of the type of load and other components of the power distribution system to such disturbances. •Motors and generators: the major effect of line disturbances on these machines is increased heating due to copper and iron losses at the harmonic frequencies. In some severe cases, pulsating or reduced torques may occur. The sum effect of the harmonics is a reduction in the efficiency and life of the machine. Generator regulating controls can also be affected by harmonic currents and voltage notching. It may result in hunting and instability and may make paralleling of generators very difficult. •Transformers: voltage harmonics cause higher transformer voltage & insulation stress. Higher voltage will cause overexcitation and consequently high harmonics contents in the line currents due to the higher excitation current. Transformer heating, increased copper & iron losses and reduced life are the results of high harmonic contents in the transformer phases (lines). If the system is 4wire, overheating of the neutral due to the flow of the zero sequence harmonic current is a possibility. •Power Cables: medium voltage cables involved in system resonance (because of the inductance of lines or equipment and distributed or lumped capacitance) that is caused by harmonics current may be subjected to voltage stress and partial discharge that may lead to insulation failure. The flow of harmonics currents in a conductor will cause additional heating due to skin and proximity effects, both of which are function of frequency or order of harmonic, size and spacing of cable. In 4 wire systems, additive harmonics in the neutral conductor can result in a neutral current exceeding the phase currents. This may lead to overheating of the neutral conductor that may affect its insulation and its surroundings. In 3wire systems, the third , ninth, etc harmonics are not present. •Capacitors: Capacitors with the inductance of the system can cause resonance at a frequency other then the fundamental. This may impose a higher than rated voltage on the capacitor and may cause excessive currents to blow capacitor fuses. The life of the capacitor may be shorten because of the overheating due to current harmonics or the over stressing due to the voltage distortion. As a rule of thumb, the life of a capacitor will be halved for every 10 deg C temp. rise above normal or for 10% above rated voltage. •Switchgear and motor control centres: excessive harmonics can increase heating and losses in switchgear/MCCs, reducing current carrying capability (continuous) of fuses and shortening the life of the insulating components. •Protective relaying: for electromechanical relays additional torque components are produced and may alter the time delay characteristics of the relay. This may lead to incorrect tripping of the relay. For solid state, non RMS sensing, nuisance tripping or mal operation can result if the sensed current is rich in harmonics. •Metering and instrumentation: these induction disk meters are affected by harmonic currents and voltages. The conditions can worsen if resonance results in high harmonic voltage. The induction disk devices see only fundamental current, harmonics can cause phase unbalances which can lead to mal
operation. Positive or negative errors are possible depending on the harmonics involved and the design of the meter. Using the RMS sensing meters and relays will alleviate the aforementioned problems that are encountered with peak sensing and induction disk meters & relays. •Electronic Equipment: power electronic equipment is susceptible to misoperation caused mostly by voltage notching. The voltage notch can distort the voltage wave form near zero crossing point, making it difficult to synchronize the firing pulses for phase controlled devices. Computers, electronic instruments and control devices may incur erratic operation and sometimes malfunction should the harmonic factor exceeds 5% and 3% for a single harmonic. •Circuit breakers: the presence of harmonics, function of the type of the interrupting media and the arc quenching process, may cause the breaker to fail to interrupt the currents flowing through it. Under resonance conditions, the voltage appearing across the open circuit breaker may cause the failure of the breaker due to stressing the insulators & insulating medium. •Communications: when a long communication line (telephone line) is run in close proximity to a power line feeding solid state devices and nonlinear loads, harmonic interference can occur. The effect is interference with the transmission of information. In some cases, harmonics can emulate a signal and cause sparious system responses. •Other devices: ballasts for fluorescent or mercury lighting may have capacitors which together with the inductance of the ballast and the circuit have a resonant value. If this value corresponds to one of the generated harmonics, excessive heating and consequently failure of the fixture will occurs. Clock or paging systems can be adversely affected when one of the harmonic frequencies falls on or near the carrier frequency. Voltage notching can also cause misoperation of clock systems. Remedies and mitigation techniques to reduce harmonics related problems: Before getting into the available options to minimize the adverse effects of harmonics, series and parallel resonance will be covered, briefly. Inductive reactance increases directly with frequency (2πfL) and capacitive reactance decreases directly with frequency (1/2πfc). At the resonant frequency, of any inductive/capacitive (LC) circuit, inductive reactance (Xl) equals capacitive reactance (Xc). For the series resonance circuit, the total impedance at the resonant frequency reduces to the resistance component only. High current magnitudes at the exciting frequency will flow. For the parallel resonance circuit, the total impedance is very high at the resonant frequency. High voltage magnitudes will appear across the load and high circulating current will flow in the capacitanceinductance loop, although the source current will be small in comparison. The available techniques to alleviate the harmonics problems: •Shunt filters: a number of shunt filters tuned to specific harmonic frequencies (5, 7, 11) can effectively reduce the harmonics currents in a power system. Each filter consists of a series LC circuit tuned to resonate at a specific frequency and is located relatively near the harmonic source. It will provide a low impedance path and will shunt most of the harmonics current to ground thus preventing it from getting into the power system. In some cases these traps can overheat if they trap harmonics from other sources than those intended for. •Series filters: these filters consist of a parallel LC circuit tuned to resonate at a specific frequency and
are located at the equipment being affected. •Zero sequence filter: it is a specially designed zigzag reactor which provides a low impedance path for all zerosequence currents. This filter provides low impedance path for currents in phase and high impedance to currents not in phase (in case of 3 phase systems to currents, 120 deg apart). •Phase multiplication: it involves phase shifting transformer to distribute power to harmonics generating devices, mainly rectifiers and converters. By properly shifting the phase relationship to various six pulse converter loads, the new effect in the power system is to create 12 or 24 pulse circuit. The result would be less harmonics generated & transmitted through the power system. As mentioned under rectifiers, above, the harmonics remaining in the power system will be np +/1. •Harmonic Injection: harmonics currents can be eliminated by inducing harmonic fluxes in the core of a transformer with 180 deg. phase shift from the harmonic fluxes induced by current flowing in the transformer secondary. These devices are designed to constantly monitor the load current, inject a current equal and opposite to the distorted component (thus cancelling it). •Power system design: the effects of voltage distortion and harmonics currents can be minimized on other system loads by properly locating and isolating harmonicsproducing equipment as much as reasonable. The power wiring to a converter can be isolated from the control wiring or other load conductors to minimize the inductive and capacitive coupling between the different wiring systems. Voltage distortion can be minimized if the adjustable frequency drive or the harmonic producing devices load, as a percentage of total transformer load, is kept to a minimum, also if the distribution transformer short circuit level to the actual load current ratio is increased. Major resonant conditions can be minimized by locating relatively smaller banks of power factor correction capacitors throughout a power system. These can be switched as needed versus using a single large bank of capacitors. •Reactors or isolation transformers: the effect of reactors or isolation transformers is to slightly change the shape of the current wave, thus lowering not eliminating the amplitude of the harmonics currents. The reactor is placed between the harmonics generating device and the point of common coupling. The distortion to the power system at the point of common coupling may be reduced. •Reducing System impedance: as voltage drop in a power distribution system is function of each harmonic current through the impedance, voltage distortion can be reduced by either lowering the current or the impedance. Keeping the conductor lengths as short as practically possible, using low impendence transformers (this method has other advantages and disadvantages), using delta primary (this method has its disadvantages) winding in the distribution/rectifier transformer will eliminate the zero sequence currents path outside the delta, these are just a few ways to reduce the impedance in a power system. Transient disturbances: Transient power problems originate outside buildings from ground faults, lightning, public utility switching. They also originate inside buildings from inductive loads and switching. Photocopiers, air conditioners, compressors, motors,light switches and fluorescent lighting circuits are all common sources of power line transient disturbances. Any collapsing magnetic field or any sparking in a switch will create transient waves which will appear at various locations with different modes and the consequences will vary. Part III will cover this topic.