Policy Formation

TeachingMaterial No c

PolicyandPolicyImplementation

Jones, CharlesO.and Mafthes,Dieter

'rPolicyFormslien,'

In Nagel,Stuarts. (ed.)Encyclopedia ofpolicy Studies.NewYork: MarcelDekker,l9g3 Ch 6, pp.117 -14t.

PolicyFormation

.syo n ln.inp..lor "s. n.t@r k{ on lh. m kyP' or :s Hrshtl.clo conclud.sby notins tn. foUo*{ngtilnd in Americs politici: r Im4ir. !yin! to sov.ln in r3itultion *h.rc thcahortl.rm louticrl rceurccr vou n..d tc $.ck.d eund 1.ha*ins e.i6 of di@r. ie.i,1nd {h... porLoecr e.ing th.$ i3lucshav. nothinsro pr.v.n. thdircftsingcl.iisb. $.r rh.y can 6ffc. ir r.Em.lrt:si.. r@ rhd.L nos th.v do. t nnd.6t.nding d suppod.iion publicb!ck.h sho haecth.lonFt.!fr tsouE* rh{ v@ ..Gd. r{hirev.d b.u..n cttucs ..d d. b.li.v.6, p6lict soold .lmv! cld to.voly. to lev.ls.l insolubiltv,lt a not lav f.!.3oci.tv to politiciz. ia.u :nd r.th. s.b. rin. d.pouticiz. sov..lmcntlcd.uhir, Bur wc in th. UnitcdskrE

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lmplicd in tht stai.medt is a !6licy prces nor. ontulins ed unPrcdicubt du in rh. p6t, gtu tlui h$ br! .lt r.d liqnifidtly by &. .tu4i4 narlc oi t!. Am.ricm poll' kar inm. h tn& chlptq we e.k !o pren! in ovedi.w o( tnot lcliviti.s .$oci,r.d riih poucy fomltion ir llG coudy. TtbL l indi6t.! !hos. sisdlffl ttivilica lnlr hakc !p $! pan of t!. policy proc.$. ]li6c acrivi!.3 *.! &rc ls an oudi,. lor tlc of r p.oblcn to rne .h:pt .; th is, w. fo.q.d on thoe :.no6 &rt l..d from .w.es phn d..lhs witn n for derctopn.nt dd lpplov.l o t 1 Vhat 4 th€ 3our..5 of probLtu t .rlcd in lovcmcnt How de Priodticaset?How do iss!.s chtle ov.! tin -t Vho is Involvcdin lomdrtidc PropoeL, dd how do th.v do it? How ir ;pro.t d.v.loP.a ior Policy roPonjd Vh.l h thc .ffect oaidtltuion'l taci[l't prca$s oi po;& dd.loPdat? Vnrt co3-iistituliot:t d.riet .n.c.,t' vnmew! tnis ch:pl.r. qellod & dilus.d i^ Posible, ;osnn dedbpncrll llEe with ;e d.rn. key c;.c.pG, id.nriJy chdcr.inic b.h.vio, o, .cuoc rsirr.d "ch .clivity. povAc r.lcvat ddPlct. sd nok li8tnficut k.ndr

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f,\. 745 POLTCYAND tOLICY IMfLEMENAATION --,-:==

Tabl. t. PoUcvForm"!ionActiriti's

lc.rliricationof in&.n3

4 llro4ldb4 b nr sd, o! Puhn. Cohsst.lic R"dikd tv pdhn'ioi \'.&!drh luhlrhing Cdriahr oi9t hy "EboktcoL 9]940 hb[di4 cohFri/, MonEEY,cA

Conctu.io$ dEwn in lhis ci,t1.i t.nd to b. consin. vilh liFlot 'ndvsis Subtl' bur si8njfi(s r (hnns* ir rh' Amclid Pot icalrv5kh hlE ait'''d th' Po!'v P'oe$ l or cinpl., pdlcipatFa ct th! p|r{ooll l(8I .3 sel 15dodg tinsl' irp' Poul:6 continu6 ro ilctrsc, Charact.lislicalv, rhisPan'ciPtlion i! hl.N &d unMProdjtina in narurc. A tolict pro..$ dcaignedto facililalc conlron!. is trcElv l'stcd bv tlE poli.y d.nmds of rho$ undling to tlrS.iq Thir @ndili6 ol incE&d Pubucpanici ri! Pan' bot! fot ;.6d in policy fomalion, t]l.!clo!.,l.adr to ndc un@n intv thm 'n pt.dicting [email protected] dd tor Mdyzi!8 b.n {id.

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tNGo'ER.{MENT *aa, oo ,"ooaa*s TREATED

rlhntion Pt't a muldiudeof nlDli Drobl.tucontituoudvconP't' 'orr@M'nl trpp.": ro or.i rt- tharr"rrr gde6m{r d?P.tuBor th@ 'ondidotur"PoBiblc fol qli:inqtl.m $.rc. How t,cnau rEnl r0rE pdPl. whoPoeiv'!&d dzfn't prob' i.t,lr'ting t'oo rr,..""ns, *hi.h otganlz.lioB4it ro Phe th'ir dcMdrbdorc eolcm.nt to :ll.viatc rlc ploblam,sd {nic! k v d@i'ion ntL6 rapotrd 10d@dg aUn.lp sha!. ine co.icxt ?ndboundtits of rh. Potcv Po@$ for .cting on dv onc

rA. 745

f OLJC\' AND T6IIJ{]I"IMfLCNTENTATION

lt i

wlBr nlk s i {ro6ld puuic? llo* do publjc probl.tu ditier fioh p.iEtc proL Ltu? ,ohn D.w.y (19:?: t 5-l O dcfD4 ,!b/k !5 consini,s_of aUlloe whore af. a..ted by tlE ituitet @eq&n@s of lluecrios !o such6 ext4nr dur ir is d.a@d neee./ to hryc tnc. cleqe@s c{.d for. Plbuc p@btetu, th.r. , t. rhoe in t h.v. ! boad cfi.ct, irdudins sns.qu.nes fo( p.6.nr oor dn cdy inblvcd (An&elr I 975: 57). Tr?icdly. rl& E$lurion of ttrltc troblens reqaire3a 6nri6rlion by de noi Likrly lo prc6t+.* rntolsh rdrrion. Inu luch probLeGnay .cr_121.ldicipr riod uJ'ia$ lh. pullc nindifi.mr, Mdy .hB do nor !ffect a lr9. nMbs oi p.oph dd do rrol sem to lold coequ.G5 lor dbe nor d ircctly inrclv.d. lhe$ d. privd. Isu.! !. ckt d elH cera d.rudsd ftade on eovetucnr to olve perc.iv.d p.rc.iv..l fh. origil:! tut u ntutiof, hay b. diaa.r.ndy hy pinicipett o. t@blen! ob$d.rs, d.rebyL.dinE.to Eios d.6rilioc, d.tuds, and 31nr.gi4 to d..t Mrh prcblctu r.5ulting frcn ih. ftnt- Muh of whlt sov.dcnt docsr.pcents cffotu to d.:.1with co.tradidory rdd.on j.ru.l d.anirions of and oluriotr ro oci.tyt probLrc. lvlDt is ci.aed to a.dE'\dn!/ Fobk@,-Jor @ph, @Bisrs of Mr isn s.Jfating peoplcir .I za of!:f.. Ar.eer 5uchd 1hcAEb oil .mb&so l.adr ro edioG p.. c.prioos dd d.fuliti6 wiahcgart ro n|. pstlcnr rh.i Esult irom tn. .ftn! dd hov r.heyshorld b. m1c4 DlrErd rlrk on sor@t ,oftdly r.fl.cr $ch divnsity. Jd6 E. ar&rs! (197tr 55) dir..rly norer d:r " F lhr narue or th. probt.m . . . helpi d.&din.lh. dfri.?olicy pro.sr " trrr Th. cxr.nr ldlddcip.li.n ia $obl.m d.aDirion rd ,gcndr $nirs by sov:lmenr pdval. .!d indilidlritui6 codid..nbly, d doesih. dcse. of &op.rarion betw..n r!. tm. 11. iouotii!,g IN 6l-iq !6vidc ucful illnrarivc c6.5 for discusionpq71rPdI : /Typ.2: / Typc s: T}?. 4:

P^r4. d.ElopDd $rho y tldEt [email protected] invor(m.r, cav.fudn r.bp!@r lidr odyrEdirCd pnva& i.rclycncor p.lvat rLvdophent Co6bi..r!6of sffitarnd NciltE. Go{.tunat ror lriElr d*dopn.nt

Tr"e I eLs 10iie iftrEtiN in sldch rn. privalc rcctor pric4 pubticprctle6 b.fo 8ov.m.nt. 'M lIGs mry te n fertr oarctivi.i.5 und..r.l.r by pdvat. citize4soa b.haf of othq ci!i2!d ,!o !& ben ifl.ced by a c..tah .!cnt or inqrion. Or tllit poc6nay b. hitat dby o4-t dFiht! gloupr.tt.nprins10r.!ce oth.6 vbr n rc tiiraivcdrad !.t!..1. p.nial:I !ubh9 plobleh. the Rdph Nldq c@d. on b. halt of ruto{obi.'9.t.ty 3t ftLrd. ir . d. a podr. h M5 orny .&.r his costtnt od *.tl publicl2.il prse rlErlo@r took action to dcal s,ith a tuio. pubucpobli in t\is conntry: tn 'h.k of.d.qqE a@nobne efety pbteclion for pe.gcu. ltb doa not m.a4 no*t€, rh't rnos. i! tlE privl. $hc& p.ritionilg 8ovstu.nt p..ei ind d.fhe L\. lobloiin rh. 6. my. On 1i. conrrart, onc wo"ld *p.ct conp.liti( .Id @nili.(. auloiiiobt a:n!f:.rur.s, for leple, r.sin.d tnc rthpt by Nad.. d otlu sroupsio fqcc tnh to iEperc sf.ry fe.tur.s in thcir l(onotil.s. !n the aM olra.|gy, cd.i op.ntoa dd th. Unit d illir. lvo.kcs (IiM\l) h!rc bo .t odd5for d.qd.{,whcr a djd ru. dist.r o.cu6 andf&o!s public2ttntiono. si.ly probl.tu. ciril.Olrlro6 h.ft s.n.ollY p.iceired and d.fd.d !h. p.obl.n to b.

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t,\ 745 I ' O l t . \ , \ ND t o L t c \ ' iI t p L E t \ t E N. la T t o , ,

of is]1oondo. !hrPiitol $. mina,st{.$ th. tM$hdonlEr.ndy bld.d "n ro,topoaoacrthS t oq! in rh'er.tJ arcdn!{rrh-. 1978).h lhod, ^,nnrtr-ey ;,jript? d.fnrioNol prblicp,obi.nta(i*t d. cl4a3 ofsov.rm.nl lrb on6. dr. on. hdd andlh. it?. oigov.iM'nt.ct::1or Lt: otno Tnn. h.y b. a nulb.io..4b1?rioi! lorlihircd go 4M!nl ivolv-T.ntin d.. fsins prcbl.ms th,t d p.r..iv.d to b. inponanl in rh. pnvat. sph.&. Il n.y b. dur Doticytukcs simplyarenoi awii. oath. cxinen..oflh*. pbblcns,orpcrhipspolicy ;ards d. r*d. ot 1n6c toblcmi yel tc.! thrl thcy lack audority to d.rl with thcm, probkn bcqn$ ot orh.r prioliti.r. or dcy maysidplyr.fu!. to d.al witht rccoCniz.d Fior to ln. 1930s,ds pnvaG*.lor play.da.cnualrol. in pobhn idc^tifi..1ion, aii.i ty p4nionirg Sofrt1w.l ro act or by an.npbng ro acl wi{holt 3ov.rM.nr Morc rccently,gov.mnent hd b?!n duch nor. Involvcdin d.fning lroblens in rh. For .xdplg fir p.trohummdunrvhab.in in. Potrionin r.cnt pnv.k sph?re. v.sr to conrol de no, ol p. uol.J l{dakJ probka3 to tnc8ov- den as.ndr This ;aftm cut 16a dma{c ;nd wl.n rh. AFb nrtions cur off thc flow ot oii ro the UnjrcdStatlsin ii. rsl ol 1973.Sine thct, sov.mh.nt hasbccon ouch nt..ctiv. in lcsllating &e o! industry dd th{eforc in dcfhilg th. Pobhns a$ocil.d sirh !h. indunry. This ce ilunEl.s thlt m .vent of lignindn' Poportion n1v d.afr.ric.Iv alrer the mtuer in whichpubri. Prcblem at d.rloPcd Th. cuii.nt l!.nd is rwav rlom pu.ly tram. d?v.lope.t. h !.4ri d.ads,govdM.nins beennu.n norc lctiv. in p.rceivingud d.fning Publicpobl.ni t:sullit3 trod ecinal .tc.s andsnu.tioB Ttp. 2 depickthepocs4 in which3ol{nnc.! dcvelotspublicProblcft with d d.anc Fob' liftjt it pivlr. parttcip.lior In .iir st Putlic Policv m.L.u p.reiv. lahswithoutnec!3siiy Paningfor Privlk innhlive,lt n3v bi rill droe afi.ctedbyr c.d.in.v.nt o' rituriior L.k th, t sourarrodcnandsovdM.nl reu.r E-! Sch,tl' sohncidd{1960)talrsaboltabiaa in ourpolirical!vn.n,bv whi.h rhc. with th. aE rcsinc.d foi Eovllmht alt.ntionhet thal im. andmon.vro Pctitiongovsrmcnt for rhr rU.t Co$.+.ntly, sov(6.nt potcy nak.tt rh.nElv.r dav b.con. i+ rolv.din dclininsproblcdsfoi tnjr sroupud att.nPl rol.sislster.li.l som.rim.sdn3 ilvolm.nl k quirc circlmntntirl. For .xupl., a Pr.tidentirl ptinlry chPaisn thsush w.* vn8inn conhibut.d to John F. K.m.dy\ r.cognnion th:l . nvdad of pdbleN conl,ont.d tn. poo! in lhis cohq oi amu.nc.. Vlal h. qltne$.d ashe tourcd rh. Dorntlins oaApp,r.chn si€nifiddy affet.d hGPriodtic asPr6id.nt ot 1ll! Ujitld Sra1.5,pnolili.s rn t wercc6ntinu.d by Ns tucc.sor in thc \trhit! Houe, Lyn{ton B. Joh.!.n.lr. mtI.! off.ct, thd bundc ol Prcg(e3lnou 4 dre rP.r o! Pokrly' @prc$nt.d 1 *$ vhcr. gor*ment look th. iniIntiv.; dd n, th. fcd.hl gov cm.at p{c.iv.d ed dcldcd vhal ih! rrobl.tu w.!., andon thal basGdoveloP.dpo F.hi to drd vith lnm (D.'nom, t 96?i l',oynild. 1969) A wirr\ tyT. I , nultipl. dcfmioni ol what Problcmscxtl nay llro occurfre. qendy vh.o tt! [email protected] it tn. pdncipareurc. of P.obLh d.0nition. Vrrioc lolicy mak.!5 nay diffct in thq p.rceplion ol what plollens .xi!t, ad th.$ dill.rilg Frrc.ptionr nry afiect cflo.li to d.vclop acccptrblcsolutioB, Also U). lyp. I , il t difi' c'rlt b nnd nay "pu&" a*s *tuE sovcm.nt d.vclopsFoblmr rodly *iinout prlv.r. irtqr2crion.Wncnrhjsd*s occur,howlvcr, n n.y b! thil sov.@qnr i^iti.lly

p A . 7 a 5 IOL IC \', .1 N DP OLICY Ii\ttLLtIl|iN' ,I\1tON

tl 7

rc@8nid th. problenin ordcrlo rlowprisrcgcupr to er!.r theDoljcyproc.$ud 6*e demads.lyp. 2 .1*s mry rto inchd. rclativ.lt&n.onsor:n:l B3!.srhl on onr to.cncludcth:t bc.cred4n withlit1Lepublicily.lnslowry,llts dieusion1.3d5 th. ndc cohnon rype oap.obl.h d.ydopn.n( bcl!d.. r r.K ol priq!. dd public activitics,.toprcwc tum ro ncxt, Tho& [email protected] aseciat d with typc3 probrblyl.ad b !n. mo{ im.i.nirs poLicy' siruadotu.Mon Probleod.%lopm..! rdivin. occurs a rcsultorinr.Gclionb.rs..n govcm..t &d privat..cto6. Ar goErmenl cxtendiits$op. of.uthonry,r.otlcn d.linitidn :.lMti6 harc b.cofr. mor! inblv.d, ofr qirx, rnd rjmc
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r A . 7 8 5 n o r ,tcya !D r o lr .y tlttL EvENT Ar loN

218

P R IOR IE 5IN C OVERNM ENT I I , SE T T IN G Ho* ar. pdoliti.r et? Acd.di.g lo D.vid L Truhu, the 4ist!n@ ot gouP lovdti.s d.rmincawhar probkfrsd. acrcdon in sotnmeat (trunm,l95l). sin@sonany 6oups exirt .nd conp.dion inons fi.n for BoEd.nt ltl.nlion n intnE, dd ;inc; srout life i! chlndc.ied by o€rlappinSdd nultipL dcob.6hiPs, !o o.. sloup consLrntly d.ienhe5,*hi.h Probl.di goE'm.nt rvol .cl on orc. a p.iiod of tim.. policy mke6 acliv.lr ParriciPa..in thi3SIouPconltictand 6 Ro3.r W. Cobbed cfrrlsD lldcrpoinlout:'[al Primaryrunctionol8oreM.nt ..istomnt8csroup Robcd A. Dal! hasalsosusscnedtnil orsaniz.dSroutsh.vo thc dPacilv to bc hcid in od political rynen, rh.rcbv intu.ncin3 *htl Prcbldr Erch th. Policva3..d1 (Inl,r, 1956),ftc tujor criticin dncd.d .l thi5Foup appozch, dd th. llurilisl inl.! i5ln. inld.nt)iasJeslltingfron rh. cxdlulionofdo$ ,ctaiioi olpoltics in Sencrd, ;ho aMot olsanie tn ir concrni Ar norcd.arli.', Scht(rch!.id.t IB idotifi.d I bis iahcrenl i! 1l$ sy(.n ol poucynakjtg (1960) Wnhout pr.5ftibi4 hos on! nay sohcdisrrobl.noarhc ':.nnov(.isr.p.opla, rhcfactr.n,irB th.lPolicr mtlct! inr.Bci contirtroudy witn lho* *ith rcsouce5to orSdiz! ind voic. d.@ndr. Co6.qu.ndr,abirr,r' cstlir yrerllt,h:di1]3oneschohiochaiict{n.ou!syst.nason. of pr.tcrdtia!pllnlirm (Jon s,1977:18) ll is inroitani lo gobcyondtnosaglid.lifts oullinedby srouPtheodnswh.ndie ProbkdstcachtlE Policyag.ndai. varioN*:ys. Trblc c!$nrgprjoriiy4ctting6c!iriti.r 2 Fovid.sani,y.ntoryof.vcnrsth:tbay dev.lcthc con$qrcnlProblehor probl.N Tn. inpotuir l$tlof poli.y ana\* n to id.rluy whict Pot orro rh. rolicy zgcnda. l.ms i! $lt.d itom lh.E .v.n8, whod.ar.d 6cF in Pnil ntocr, who orCdi&d ro Emedy thc p@blan, ud whichkey poliry mali4s took an aclivc !ol. in an.nptilg 10 rll.vixr! tn?p!obl.m.Dda or th.s max.tspddit 0E an.lyd lo iud8. $c.11.tr1to rhich the Etur. ol t]1. ?olicy pro@$! r\aped by ptobl.h d.vdoPhe4l ud .g.nd! A probt.n nust har. t r lyhpxthy ud conndd tht suPPodor k.y d.clsio. nar(cs ro altiin assnda51,tus.ln sen{a], lohcy nal<.6 activelypanidipatein prio.iiy $tring, dd th.y u. .o( byrbnd.6 by dy narnr Cobband Eldd id..tiry f.cl6 thal nly sirc .lna' EouFssr.{.i ace$ thd o$.is. Th.$ irclud.: (l ) in. daislon @kd nayb! ind.bt.dro lnrl soup,(?)soh.glou hiv.60& GFued tn! oih{s or @ bcn.r rtL b nobiliz. th.[ r.srer, (3) on. soups d lo6t d & nnt'sicdly in lhc oci,l sd csooftjc rtrucluie ltEt th.t intercst! c,mot b. ignored,and (4) sonc groupj r. h.ld in gEat.r .5t.4 by lh. plbUcllrn oth.B &d tha coMed g.1t ! .6.8 to d.cidonn.!.R (t972:90) Sinflarly, OtrLr O. Jona noki t6l rsend4ening nctcgi* diff.! ,long ditnh' sionsoaB'ouF o':Aiarioo md Ftt.m of aces- H. cil.r thc lollowiq hri.tioa (\917:41): l. 2. 3. 4.

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A wen.o.idiz.dtrcop wnh.abljdcd acc.s A wcu.or3&i2.d Brolpw hout.ilbliltrcd rcc.s A pe.ly o4rjz.d groupwith .nrblBh.d .ces A poorlyolldn.d groupwidouren.blsnd acccs

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PA, 7A5 I'OT,ICYANDPOLICYIMPLEMDNTATION

238 -'==-

!R IOR IT IE S IN C OVERNM ENT I I . S E T T IN G ro DividB Tlumd, L\c.xjstene oagrcuplovtlti.s Howaie pnodd.ssel?According d.t.dircs {n i ProbLos ar. iccd o. in 3o€mn nt Oru@, l95l )- Sine s @nv s o u p . . nr u d co mp .l i ti olnh o n s!h.mfor sovdd. r r lt.nuonsur .r ' M d gtouP ;sr;sroup Lih 13"hjEd."&d bvov{l,pphtud hultiPl' m'hb'AniDr' noon' .onsnt.ntly d.r.m'!.twnich prcu.ns so€tmcrl tf, rci 6n oFt t p.riod of tihc Policy n!ke$ aclivcl, ParticiPat.in tjlis soup con,Ictand .i Ro8.! W- Cobbdd Ch,rl6 D. ndd Poio. otrt: "kl prinrry function or8orcm.nl . . n to Mn.!c 8reuP Rob.n A. Darnhs de 3u8S.rtd ll,t o.Sutcd s.oupshrc th. ap.citv to bc hea.din our poliric,l sy*em, thq.bv inltuancinswhtl plobLo t.ach rn' Policvts'trd' (Dit . 1956)Tlt r')or .nlErs dtr..lrd zt thi srouPapptod.l"ad lhc Pldcljn inr F ;r?urion ol pouricsir s...ftI,! th. irha.nt biarr.$ltug frcm lh. *hrion of.he who dmot orsanizelh.ir conemr' A nored.illjc!' SchattNcln.ldd nts id.ntitcd a bi6 bncr.nt in dis syn.m of Policvoari.8 (1960). Wirhout Frer,ibina howon n1v solvethi3 problcb .l il. !.misEtiSr-P.opl., ' th. fd Gnai( tnai PolicvnrkcB int racr@rliruouny with 1h0* vih Geurccs 10otSuiz. .ld voiced.@ds Cotrc' qu.ntly,a bia5,sllc.iraidy !.N1.,l..dingon. scnob to chitur.riz out lvst.n .s on oi prf.Enri.lpluFlln (toms,1977:38) lr k impoidr ro 80 bcyondthos. suid.lin ! o!t[n.d bv stolp rhcorirt un?n dis' c!$nlgprio,ity6e(ingadivili.s lrobl.msrolchrh. poh.y.g.ndain v.rioursy. Tibl. 2 povid.sd inEnlo.y of.vcnEthlt may.l.vdq thc co!(quent problcmo! piobl.N o;io lle !o]i.y 4.nd.1 Th. idport tr trsk lot tot.v anrl).I: is lo !d..luv whichpob' (ho organiz.d 10 l.ms r?$ltedfromth*c rv.nts,tho dcfa.d th.m in whalhad{, ln .ctiv. rol. in anmPti4 ro En dy tlE probl.n, dd whjcnk y potcy m.LE lool aleviarcrherobtm. DaGon tn.e mtrcf PermnL\eanalynlo judgs$t cxkntto ehich ln. mtlE of th. polcy poe$ n sbP.d by ProbLn dev.lopm4l ud s.nda A poblem nusr hrv. tnc synpainydd cond&d rhe suppotl of k.y d.ci.ion m.l.d ro arr.tn aslnda sbtli. ln 3.n.nl, Polcy m.Ld .crirely P.niciPar. in P.ionty sctlins, dd th.y d. nol byrEndc6 by my mcant CobbandEldet id.ntify fidou rlut hay stc e.r.i rtouF gr.l.r ..6 tlE olh.F. ft.s irclud.: (l) dtc &cision nEr* bay b! ind.!t.d ro th,1 soup, (2) !om. 8lolPs h.v. not. t.5our.es ind oth.6 or 4 t nc. $L ro ftobilt th.ir rc$cs, {3) som. souls d. lo6l.d so(ni.si6!y rn th. ed,l 6d .6nonnc aldqrur. th:l $.n id.r.rt5 dFol b. isnor.d. and (4) $c 8rouPt u. lr.ld ir gr.rt.r .r!.cn by th. puhu. ln.n othcs &d thB comed lr.rtd rc@$ to dailion mrtat (19?2: 90) Sihndy, Oun4 O. ton.s not 3 lnat .scnd.-$ning .tiat.gt!3 diff.r rlons dLr.niions ol B.ouptorsuintion &d p.ll.m oI i@$. H. cli.! thc follo*in8 hri.tio6 t. 2. 34.

groupvnh .*bliih.d rd! A v.l!-onri-d A *lU€rgMn.d grclp withourAtablifiedicc.s A poorly ortDi&d roup vi.n .nrbtiJEd .@$ A p@rlyo!3uu.d Sroupviuout .nrbtsh.d .cc.$

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Eachstoup will cnplot *,lDcv.i rdqbg.s ir p6s.s.s, *tc r.r it b. .xLdiE org4j. arid. coonnu4 &c6, o. bofi. Not .! pubtc probl.d rcsuhingfron .venrswitiin .oci?ry d. actcdon id 8ord. E.dt, .!d &t atl publi. pobLdt actcdon in Socrddr c@ift .q!:l .tt !ti6n. Eioc nils nun b. et give! th. codpcriiion lor govc@cnt atr.ntion. Thc contexteitnin wlilc! pdoiiti.! dc *t ii a rlem9 laclor. Duri4 dh.s of prosplity, plm rceu6 d. .,eoding, sn'ng Fioliti.3 lidply Eq6 divrSjnse .Elgrowi4 pic. Su.[ 1 !itq. tioo cxined rfter WorldVa tr i! lnj3 coutry- Ecooofricsro"rh dov.d sowmetrr rcElei !o ir@e. rl . prc. {h.r. n w po8!2s could bc fun&d {d old FoSt@ m.jnliEd. Rdady. hoftEr, polict n.k 6 hrv. hadto copc wiih tundilg Lr8c so+ l'Mctrt prcg@. in . pc.iod of rcdued ?@nonicEosan- E tort. e nd b.dg di' r.r.d loqrd m.bne .lsrlrs pogrft morc.mci.n. r.!h.. th:n i;urlng rcw Pc Pr.sid.nt r!@y C{r.r dlcd th. Con8ps in 1980lo approE . 'pntdot {d t.. spoNbh oel pl2a 6c thir @uld bc 't.n oahl. blu.pdn( lo !trt&th. d4 oaSoF cm.nr ed baLne ln. budga by l9al ' (Can{Aiatul Qrd.nl $lakll R.pon, F.6 ru.ry 2, l9!0, p, 235). Pr6$8. ro b. nor. I'EIy^B.ftdv. .l& dit. in t!. Co!sr.si ..o.cths thc potlic n@d to cut tnc sn. ofrov.lmcnr dd rtrcu'lin.. Pcrlu9. ..v.n .limb:t., 5one 8ov.m.nt lrostm- Nl of tncscd.clopftnE inllu.n€ con..a_ pd.r/ p.idity *trirg R.trrionshipsthnt h2v. dirt d aory.rs diy h:vc to 1djat ro n.s uc{dJrrics 15lrosms may b. in dmgerol lorlrg the ruppo .njoy.d ia ltu pat OE Nurd .xp.cr d!. pouci.r or priority s.ti.s to b. ooc it|.e dd cspl.! lith tiis adkIio 6f {:ihbL ..$u@r.

TIACHINGMAERIAI- FOEC(^SS*OOM9SEON'.Y

r . 7 a5 to t.tcr 1 Nl)to l- r cY lir tL n [lE]\r AT lol PoUcyfhol&sdso n..d ro conpr.he(dthc dynmicsa$ocial.dwith$ting Pn o t i i i e r i n so v.n rmrn t.'tru n u (l95lil05- 106) nolesth:r lhcci!.nin.vitablecxfm sionof gov.rmcnl, sin.. piorirnse.m ro l..d ro otherpnoiilirs,A sajor rEnl on poduc.4p!le cffdcr!lor pnority*iting,l alllevcl!of 8ov.m.nt, ar w.ll asin th. pri. mt. sphcr., The Gr.!l D.pr.sion, ior eranPL, 3Enfiandt alt r.d griority s.rfng in b o i h p ub l ca n d p l i vrtssp h (e 5.Mocr ec.ndy,ticoilenba.g.,ofl9T3lushada s i s ni r icml.xpanrioncfi.ct.Thjiev.ntelNdddprobl.mia*o.ircisithln€rsysuppunlo th. ropofrl|. gowM.nr ag.nd:.Orhd ir.or w.E r.l.e.kC ro lowrpnor tn.ls. Pdorto rh. o0.nbaqo, tor.rdph, enrnomen&lforca ueicscorngmajo.poLncal victori.5in id d.a oa.ivncri.i bl co^c.m,.r0cciellyair d w!t!r pollutionton ceds Theoil cmbagocha!.d thernrne.ontexl*ithin \yhichth4e sctiviri.sdcc!n.d, leadingio atndu.l reconsid{ation ofenvirom.nlrl Boals d th. tsr of pnon ln addirionro dt5 prft.$ dfdbplaci.gon i$u. $ilh rno-(ncr qillrin lhe niv iss!., Forenhpl., tlt oil.m. tics,d expdsior proc.$ nEy oc.ur quicldy pe(ol.un donas.s dld lo.g 96 lir.5, Ld to initirl d.bar.r .onc.dins briso andhow!o d.!.1withthisinnrediit?probl.h.soon,no{.v.r,o1n*pobl.tu Elar.dto ',h iihial cvrnlbeihs qrir..pp:*nL, pobhns such d.p.idii.ccr ioicip.il, mfil!ry prioririBin thc l"liddl.E4t,dd.@nonic con..or 3uch.srh. incEdirScon! enslingsavnnnentpnor orintortod ctudeoil. tn s1ron,.i. evc.tnot onlydisrlac.S ides,n ako l.d b rippl. .f|cca 1hr h,k pl,in rh. probl.msdrl tao r.$h Gomone ThisexpMrionwill conthu. to o6urareolernm.ir idsonthc$ ndv prcbl.ms. tnorir'.r of sbr. andlocalBovem.ntsmayale b.,rre.r.d. Th.!sov.nrunarcy i rhef.dci6uev.l.For.6pE, hlve10adju( rhenom *!rk in ln. lBhl .l actrviries riE fcdcral liv to conscfl. fu.l by r.ducin: sped Limir o. jnt.r!la{. hiShuyr r$lted in law.nro6emen!adjusth.nkatboth n.rc andlocdl.v.!. F.ddal ....g.v.rrci.n.t nzndardrfor fedei:lbuildin8l,in.ludinglhq.mdstii conkot,hav.dsdatilcred3!ne dd lo€! 8oEnftnl'. This ripplc .fctl so.s b.yond sov.mftnr. Pr'hr. irdxnry ,'d irdividu.lsril alsohaveto ldjuslpdorili.s.Theoiienba+oh6lfft:td rhcauromobih indun.y. lndividu.b havenrd to rdjust th.ir d.ivi^s bbnr ti!& g6oLin. h.5 b.coft! eithd sarc. or .xpcnsjv.. D.nadr for sitl.r .as incdsd ris:ificanlly, forcirg mrn ufactureEto shifrldodrirs flom lwtry lo fuel.fncie.r .*s. Th.ir lackof ror6idrtlnd 6n?.1!tion fom tbr@d hr@ r4uh.d in furthq probldnr: Th..uronobil. hduttry nced.helpfrom 8ov.rddt, iluiirlths rheti,n. dim.nsioninirccniin piiorit/netting dyndi6. Ripplc .ffcct o.y oaur $vcEl y.ds .tl.r thc ini6l crcni r*.s p!re. h n2y .bo b. $e 6i rtui d .rcnl ftit h4 rn cxrNnsive.ff.cl nay r.irtodr€ Prioriti.s llEt w.c dilphc.d rsli*. o'r. !:d!1. *ould b. rh. 1930nol3 in v-itni, Florid!, vltch v:ridly pcinlcd ro th. ditl.ne of .nproyo. ,nd *oomic pobl.m in bbck cotuunitics acro$tn. couni. Ahck1.d.6 u$d rhis.ve.l10rcnind.l.ded oflicirls lhtr th. u. oa pov.rry ol rh. l96C hadnot ban won. Coalmjn. ef.ry tLo ilunrlks thisdin.nrion ofprioriryslning.Wn n: majorfrin. dirai.. d.u6,$ch 6 th. onein !.min8ton,W.n Vtsinja,in 1968,pplcy m.l{s.r. adjoui-rod.d *ith tn. p.od!6t of ef.ty in ud.€ound c€l nin.r Otaltn.r, t 9 78).AJt.r r p.riod oa titbolic or slbs&ntjvesov.m.Dral activiii.r,otn.!,hoi. pr$ins{.ns dirplc th. saf.typrobLmond.r ot sov.M.nr,l p.io.ti.s, lnril .notnd Fix. dien.r occuE, b tljllfu.y, th. dynmjd olprionrys.ningd.!r. artrnriondu. to th..ornai and

cdpLr ht.miion b.tren p.rccp.ior .nd d.fdjtioE of .vcn6 1r ,{ ld.l' of soEfl! nc.t, ir bot! Lh. privatc ed public sphcc. Tls rcsult ! an.rctclund's. unpr.dict:bl. cons.quenlnppt cffcc6 infiuenci4 al aes chege in govclm.n ral pdodtiesdd -\. Cowlmdi.l priodri6.r. oitn r.f.d.d to a?8.nd6. Cobbdl Eldq i<1.n6ry two .gcnds. The liBl is d. tyllsic aS.ndlconsirtilg of zl i3u6 trbt r. cdmonl:/ coffilniry asm.iitif,3public*rcmion bd d ,ercciv.dby n.hb.s ol tn. DoLitical oi.:iiting gotmcni.ulho.ity" within tE lagjrirotejunrdictlon involvhrmalbc (19?2:85).Ih.s..ondislh.in*iludon.lqen'j,,d.ancd6 tll:r tr oi ncnsexFii.itlv d.cnior nricc (i972i 86). I].jj up ror divc ud*riou considcrii6i-Tiilno-r*trlivd reae$to thor probldtr pflt.i!.d 5) dtcirioi i[k*s to 5eirrrDo.tmr sedotrd4.nda a.d ciio 5 rd dcv.lcp a .cu6. of acbon.Th. !-v* .nough to ffut ndons nt.lon bcu.dries thar d.aft *har l.Sitina& rgcndi suEE4B rhe dnl.nc. ofg.ocd.l r.mic by golement. Tht roncoll hdicri4 Lhitin...tain politlnodticsfrry beconsidercd iqr syn?m!ccrtain kinds of isiu.s cmdt cone b.tor. govemtnt b.caE. ot dt Et@ of th. id.olog/ { poljndt rtrudu.. I 1lro s:.f;: t. andicar!lhal rhe pld.t.c i! chrng. ov.r rimc. lv].|t w6 lo$iblc b.forc th. l910l in thn counq, for .epl., quirediff-cnt lb6 whain po$ibl. todayin soroffi.nlag.nd:s.ting b3com6{en mor. compu. Ll novin8bcyondthd. broadconc.plr. dl ep&Iion or cat d. h tte au$ pl.c., th. lounding fad.6 Fr€nt.d uswiLh *,ih powe( ud fed.ralism 10dirp.Re policy-Faline actMti.s tnJough.lt d1. poliridl ty: noluQriselofhd thrt a PlnicularProblcFcan ten. coGcquendy,it shouldcomeas bep.rcliv.d ed act.d onby d.cisiondrk.6 in oneitutirution:t onelerelofgoveD ddl whilc nor b.ir8 plriv.d .t all in oorh.r. h lhorl, multiPk !3.ndr tuy .rnr witiin ud dcng vdiou in5rituliod al djff.(fli l.wk or govetu.nL S.cond,alongwitn lh! iBtltulio.,l or syst.nic brczkdoq, Poliry agcndrm .]e b€ d.fftd doflg r din.cion of fuGtion2l loltcy tctiviti.s: (l) Pobl.f, &tuition udd. for "it m! rd.ilins t tivc dd *do!r' rd.rch md d.fui:ioo,'(2) r popaer agcn& "vn !e a $ift na be.n madcfrod d.iLling th. probLento fbdin3. bl!ho4" (3) a bsS:hiry agendaio! proposls fof *hich suPPortir '.ctiwly ild sriously'd.' velop.d, rd (a) continuilg .S.ndr ao("it.6 €€iving cotrtinuoB .miutio!' Trblc 3 combin.s th@ two din.nsioN of th. poUcyasendrcorepl 6d illutrnt6 ttEt rio6 tt?4 of policy 4.nda tuy lxirt witnh dd vary rtudugnotr8oE@6d istitutic Olc cd .xpdd this llbL fulthcr hy inclldins r.gjond, iat, ud loat sovcffi.ntat bodi.!, A! icritutios, hoe.Er, do nor ne4srily d",1s'ith .! Problcc Et con bclor. Sovd@cn!, Along with odr.! facroc, rhc i$u. ii$]I {ill d.t mi!. whnh L!6tLioc b.con. ilvolv.d tad rr wnit !t!8. olrhc loucy Pioc6 Oncd ito .nrtya .amit: s.tlina in Ld of fon l md inlom.l {.naa. It [email protected] rb!@ & at a! 1in6 l6mal lLtingr ol {ork to b. hlnd.di lh! ftay includ. tnedtnt *h.dd. for ine S.n.tc ud Houe."thii lomal as.n(r mly dinqr fton on l P.6oiil vi.* oa.{mts dd I!. probld3 .tttfrtilg fron thos. .4nts. Orn.u m.y ditf.' i! i!.n inc.prci. don lf protLd h.foc roftnln.nl, in6t6dnS tos $bj*6v. ag.ods dd a!md! ehi.3 h r d.m@4qy, govlmcnt nay ..8!sc i! a numberor !g.n,ln*tin8 {Et'ss cd.trwn( mi pl.y . v.ry UFit d .ol. in as.odaj.rtins .crivinB This nd.s/ wodd

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coincidewith typeI oflh. Fobl!m d.v.lophentrctiviti.sdiscus.deadicrilhatis,priv.rc problcm d.v.lopm.n1 rclintiB, wh.th.' hdoniou ot contu.turl, *i dcr.di!. pdoritid. Thir conFtilion Lnds ro favor t!o$ hr.r.5a lral ce o.suiz quicHy .nd .ff.ctivoly. Ihos goupsh moir necdofsovlmm.ntltlcnrioniwidour cslKs ne6. sary lo con!.t. for a8.ida siais, lil b. ignor.d n.d.r rhn hsdsilt.pp@ch. As us ndtiotr d .dU.r, th. llmd r.tu 10bc lowd hoE acliE g@e@enl in 'Nolah.nl A s..ond ucnda s,ttinS not&/ n for soEM..i 10.nco!Es. b.od irhlv.n. it probt n d.iirition. h rhjs3tEtery sov.ffi.nt b.con s l.$ p4.ivc in Frceivjns ed d.finlns public probleB. Goy.lm.nl docsnot ho4ver. id.ntify !rcU.n! for orh.s, bll only .idr t[o.. lchovl.ds.d to lrck rI. Eso@4. In 6. third a8!n
l a . 7 4 5 i 'oLrc \',rN D r'()l - l(t t i\ lt , t , t iNrN l. \ r ' i( ) \ norc.cntclizedrh. poutical*rucr! (i, ln. morculdy lbt rhe whocontrol|h*e slructurcswi]l besucccsirl in coruolllrg 4.ndrs Tha, non dcdiion m.tins ry ocur und{ aI Ltee rdlegi6, agiiniiluncting rh. complcxityol dE conc.pt. Th. k nd 1pp.6 to b. to$d no.. tdiv. Sov.mcnr ilvolvenent in th. ag.nd:*nin8 ph* of rh. policy pre6s. Thn d.fraci.3 !.tiiity @ics with it ln. .nomous Fspouibility ofjudghg ut6. probl.ff 4c$R. 3Girio. [email protected] in t M tlE codnic6ov.r prioririls;) tn. pst. *e my 3xp€.!ereng.atercodp.riri..in

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It; usciulto idcntilythrc. typcsolissues, in i.frs otdciEndr nad. on govcm ,rd conllx.ring.som! nsuesar capi4iv. innrturc, m.nr crp$ivei consdlidatile, rldr h, gov.rn.n r .apasionn vtnlrlly in.vitibl..lV?hr..lEidy disNed th. incvi. !.blelcvnation t. govcrMeni'a3*ellasIhrilppl.rfiec$inh.rentin policy-m*in8 rcrittt.r. Manysocblellre i$u4. for .xhPl.,will .xpad 3sa coNqlenc. ofgcvcn. n.ni actionits.ti Thark, onc.gov.m.nr hd rct.d, fu.tn.r rtio. h in.yitabl..ThBc feenon 1hexxclv.s,since th. initizld.nud! will cortinuclo gros untilal $ose issLes c!$ble to reeiv. bc..fiEii anextandirspopularior,reindudcd.Co.sequenny, dc nudswilloccu.c6ntinuourly,leadinsroconnanlr..o6'dc!!tionandadFnDcnr. 'fhosenorinclud.dwi d.mandrobc includ.d.\rh:rcs thos ll'radycoTaedwill de iEnd norc.ovcr.g. Prognn5rhatgivedncctben.illsor nak. {in c! paymenbto!ndi' vidudsd. p.dicullrlywlnd?bl. ro th6. rt?er oapolcy aclvjri.s. Dolcnsc policyaisofib undd lhe calcBory oi.rp3nsivcksu*,.sp.cialy durjns 1im6 ca sktn.d rel.tiorr ,ith ti. Soviel Union-T!. consrxnln.ed i! nod.miz. w.' ponryandhieuig.nc. gslh.rinsd.vic.sl.adsro an.xpansion ofd.nuds conc.r.inB derense{rlarsd i$ues lhoreare,oicou6., d.ges or.xpdrion. Dndngeltin.,lhe d.mCr .atur.!y iicrlr ligtuli.sdy a.ll r.otrr.6 re nobiit.d lo conclud. the wd $quicBy 6po$ibl.. AJr.rrhew.r !6 end.d,d.mands co.linucbui at a !.$.r pacc.A3 lonsasconiontalionwil\ dr Sovi.tUnjonis a iealD , der.Bc{dakd dendds \i[ con. tinueto cip.nd. Und.r.ontri.ringrceurccs.hosev4,th& t.ndenci.3 vril undorbr.d. ly con. und.rar!!ck.Th. cun.nr d.bat. rufiou.dingcflcrlslo bahne th. f.dclalbud. Con.olid:rivc d.mandrcon
r-\crrNc M^Tetu^r

f/ \, 7a5 toL( \ A N DP O r - r (\ l] r t ' L lt lr ! N | | I l( , . pro8rminbcr ud.xpMd itsscopeofruihonry.TiLccL:{c:: qerd iid,car*, how.v€., ih.tdemMdslo Gduccor.!miGr. progrds vill bico:rernirc Ir:ir!( ii Ll! i .ic, pcd.ps fuel.dby mor. atfs.'ive.v.luti.n tcchuiqurs. All thte. d.tundt mayb. Edc for a singici$u. al !n? ore F' ": 5ple, ranri*, .-]i'j:' f.d...l$bsid-/ p.oemtoaamcB,ruchdt.t.cc. s.i.:ri. I J;:,:i. d.nm& r snbsidy inr.us occuryer rter yrr r, h.rl rh: Ar? ..:.1.)i)t. . l::t:1.: Nonfming gioups,or hmi.g grduprt.pr.s.rrri ,;iLt:,.: !.:: ..,1 r:i,1,:I r.:: !l8!e a8zi6t suchincrc6.s,callinginrt.?d f6.: i1.ie;.ri:j,1 i i aid to trmcis. ,rilisfloting eroupr j',r,1l :rr..': iis federal d srryd u l p r6 d u c6 ci g r.liis,wltchinr r m( ;usr r !.".r - ilJr i;J.ir - ::,,t.:,- . . w .i 8 h e d rn d .vi l u .l cd b ypolicyn.!:.car iEy.r ;i:?ii,:l.::.::;.:l:;1,.:::::de dncd:onof motcEr;eod.@dr in our p.li:.. :y:i i rt :. ilr.r tr; i 3:i,'i-:") pl.c.d on.varuadod andelicicn.y,p*hi$ i.adlir i!.iqL*:ii: rr i:n;lai! sir!i. i ;. . p ro g d s$ a ra rco o rw o rEr g.Unler .onditi.o,r r tir ..r i) :gr .:!.f4, .::j:1r ;;- ,' d.h{ds wiUiicrce, comprjcdti,l8 th! loUry !:...:r ..1r;r:..1lr -1ll: }i-r.rd. r.ducliorsingov.rmcnl,Ccci.ionost.6rerpo:rdrt".L..ti!.-t.inij,i.isa:oe_;-,j. andyrt sct mo@sadw*ly .afcd th. dcMd! ..' qxearrs=n..r ;y 9ou.3 ,iF?n.'t .;:iir,.-'r-. t,, b?n ftins, S.v.d bycaoa@n0icrreuit mc *ian,i,:i::,: - 4.,:. kouens. rcs.lv.whal!. baicaly i.companble

[1ETHODS, IV. THESOURCE, AND STYLE5 FOfuVAIION OFPROCRAM W. conenow!o.ocider thaactu.lbi!L\ oaprcpclir iorBover.n..r r!:!on 1osoiJe public probleG. ltho is i.rolved in tlEr acri\itierl /.rd rl*r rrs L',. vai'u n,i.:,o,ir ur.d to aomuht. plorods? Bero!. .ddJesi.g $.i qu?rricri nitc'ly, l1 ir 'i.rLl r. by dis&ajleqjlrg ir rB.n nz clrify ehat wc nld by the t.d "erogr. lomdltion ri.rb.d l.Cur(1963: i29)Ccfu6 ":ocd/rrud'

:,

..: m.rh o d 6 rd *L :oir *js |n nin.s rh. m.rsorprosrd whichacNereot s. thouslr o?rl,i!r+d,r;.;;rr, rddo.sro by rhc.ppiicxtionof aruiyticzltcch'nquero di!co:! lr ii.:i;i.; .o& ud m.ur ud |}.:oa.ql

r, iLrri: Nor.lheidplicitcmptd:rotrs'.t.n.tjcntrht,!itihhdtintr;t.ArG?a;i lationisa dor..nconpsins tsm. Il includ6thekjrd ofmc-hodicll.r svtan3c.:'ir' nhs cited by Oas, bul it i.lsoilcLudcsdu.h l* dSoros hd m!.iL iirrc 3uoj€rilt . fiorr' to resolv.public prcbl.d. Thir dcfitirion of lomulibon t.mjc !r io :i.l!i: pdha$.v.n bc rol.6d of, L\. sork oi po! iiri! : j .l'ty r..l 1. :.r i-i t:t:.: or&.t c.Lcdod. S.ldM.[ou8hl of6 plm:=,:r:a.d ai|-il: fo isca rnd dn6t idrtinctiv.ly fortuht. Prq: *! flr ir.:ina -:r: -- : r. :: $.s.prop6aLs. anter.drhroug!3,.acn.f -)c::cr!t.ii':?l3t::::: j:.! tr1ri:e"' Policypropoe! o.yenlMl. irorn?.io8 r,r ,,e: i :6 _: :'^"' r: luthority,ud rdbu(6 of te6oN i^ u3 clt t: :.r '

P . 785 POLI(J'I'AIiDPOLICT' IMPI-EMDN'TATION

ior te.tin8 a public probl.m mxy %ry from 3ev.Bl to a a.w or j6r on . PtoP@lt ntv TyPially,iz. andtknincoe of tlc tssuedatmh. b..onp.Iitivc orcompl.mcnrary. ee lodhcomingFoi cx.hplc,thc trcbl.n of.qudizhowmalyconDelitiveF'oposab ilg hezld sedicesnat t. ?r?:c..d !o inolw nry fod .to6 pioducing id.c sd rlanr tb!1 a. hiehly cohp.iiltve. On th. othel hbd, the Problcn of inodLating a Sroup Ery a.* p.noN andvill.tcir..i4l. PrcPoer' -orschool childr.n nonaly sil involvc Cortucr f.cqucnty iocr.e5 35th. problen i1*lf is moe visiblc Ute6l]y Ihousndr of questioBb.ing 6i5edo! cou.daywi6lrout problensa( trcatcdby govchmcntscvery .opiv rond.d solulitN o. @ tltit di*ranon terproporils brins dd.lop.d. BuEltcraa io find dms lor hddllS a newsituttion.How.ver,whenani$u. commd! tI..ncn' tian ol d.c&d ofiicizL, it is oftcn bccaus it hd b.con. publ.ly visibL And wh.n d issu. is raker !p in ih. politicrl .red, sE.ter conllicl n lypic.lly !r\e r.$nl T\. p ecir sou'ccaof propotu!al' mdJ andranrd I ron stl$ Sovemn.nlon.

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I .xecutivd. Picaidcna,sowrnoc, i.y66, dd lnBt appoinl..s n.y F. -4olitiel soo.iiy S.n ,.L propor.ls, blt norc comonly ltEy lrindaLi co,Med, ot dn.ct or authotity, thry nry alsob. th. lcciPieni3 on\*s to do so. Be@u* df th.i! pG, 'ioB kith 2-, Bugudats. Manvbucaucraaar. ca*cr pldn 6. But thos buFaucrals otisi E5ponlibiliriesnay dro b.con. involv.d tn fomu!.ting FoPosalsa an oulgtowlh of rh.i. adiinnvltiv. work. novleryacliki!th.cadyllaE s oaPro. 3.//CoBultuts. Consuttingsroups!r. eirnld.Elopn.nt. Thcy nay do nuch ol th. t tatc! fili ir !.qut.d, .f,d th.y roy id..rify li! oplionstor treatjn! th. is$e .t hud. Muy consullut! havcar onetin! 4- R.i.dch a8qci6. Th? nationrl golemc.t reli.s on ils oh tcs.rch h!o. i.slirutions such8 th. RiND Colpor.tion, aloies, support qusi,sov.rMintc$dch pdid.s gruh pdv.tc ro unircniri.s ad r.r.rrch i8.tui.s- thc r.euch po
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Croupssuch6 rhc. orguizedby Rrph Nrder,Comon Cas, md by 5uchgroups. .nvnoMenul in id.nbfyingprob dd .n By o'gmi4tio6 .crivdy panicipated vlioE L6 rd ProPosogslurio6. 474olitic.l parier. th. .is ot :iti4n glorp PrniciPerionin p.og:e de.rlopn.m con1i6l5 wilh dr dcclineoltoUtical paiy involvencnt. ?arlics w.re u impotut sur€ of propos:ls!t on. tin., .t L6t .t tn nrlc rd loel l.v.l Ilr.y !. tes signifi 5,,'Th. dedir. N."sapa6 dd nagazins conthue to bc a souc. for idenrir'ying pubt; p.oblctu dd suss6ringh.ds aorsotvbs thcn. Bni th. Lr?oi.nt dev.lopncnt oo 3!c.da ruilg, h c€nt d*ader t !h. rid6pr..d inpxc! of t.l.r'ision, pdicllrly l.levisiondoon.nt !i.5 cm dow at.ntion to md pomot publicisuB. oftenwit! r prioritymatlerin govedcnr th. @sultthatrnc isuc becomca S.r.il poirrs i\ould 6. .dphaiz.d in thinking abour Urs. vdios rotrlc.s of pG posll Fi!r! wod ol dd $urc6 mavwork.@p"ntv.lv in deEloDospo6e$6! in ax acunnsorby dvidns Jp theso k G.s. edu .ou<.! pmulyh. '.ri volvedin kt ntifyinS a problcf,, othc6 ldmdily involvedh M.lydng optio6,3ti! oth.6 i. il?.tins oa. cole oarctioo o€. orh.6). S.ond, soctu.nLt th.rulv6 widin th. sr politicn Eay b. ln! !ouc. oi lropo$k fo( . dr.r tovam.nB
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ctcrrty,tid!.l.nf.tsintroduccnunype'riutatior5ofcomPrchcnsivephoninsorfor nur.rion-I]r.!rstiddlirLic,andthc'elotth.lca3tlrobabic.islhcuniYdsal,synoptic, cro$,jsE rpFoach, by lticn on. .{.nt6 ro tt.at all t.Fctt of.ll e..rs Problm!, ircluding.silnrtltE the .li..ts of anypropoeLon dl cth* iruer. A.tuaily,{hal k r.+ q!.nllylib.led i'comp(heNive is no norc th.n antpProtchthll d€*5 i s.frPleof p(.bllnr, t€as s:lecled .rp?.ts oathde plobl.ns, andcstinat$ th! .fecb or prcPc.k Evennrorccoroon ir thepu,.ly e34antd apairtun.act orlhc probl.tu trexred, inonci, r.hichconxide^sehckdEpuclsoljlst oneissu.or p&blcmandnry o. nay not ci!nr.r. &. cffrca oaproto:ih. Thu!,ii cohnon ueq. lhe dift e.cc betsccnth. .or.trglENiv. and tn€ seF.ntd altroachc! to progrn fonllriicn tums on wn |h.r tno{ invon€dgobeycndth. na(ov/enpo$iblear:ly!!.Iilh.y do,rhe. rh..fiorr hay be popularlyl.bil.d conprehensiv..' Th. dil.crcmr b.lw.dn syst nrtic anduryned(c eth6& r.qnncr L$ dist p.rticipalina who in fofrulition nndehd i.sion. Ofr.n n n a disrinctior,b.rw.rn is touL4, de availrble. I\usi ior exa ple.on. nay cipectasienal or technici&in !n 4fncy with 4plc f&aich iundsto bchieNy rystetutic. on !h. other hdd, r n.nbcr of Cong.; mpailni,lg i,r O,cdt:rricr is lit ly ro bc q$r. r$yn.cati. ir tarh.rinB inaoi rtion abortpro6hm andddkingconcl$ionsrboul$nal olght 1ob. doie,bour 'nE!rcj.chtt.2criv. dichoro$ynr.ht.d torn ..tlj.rdirtin.lionb.i{cn as.ndr*rth8sthtegidd4isned lo'malr. il herpen'vesus1hos. dsisn.d ro :ktil happ.n. Thlt ii, th. p'oj.ctivem.llod n lorwardl.okjns.Iiaucnprsb.stimate future ircblcm s .(.cb .a.riiing and propGcd gov.Dn.nt pro3'rms.Th. \nowLdsc satreCiro& lhil eLorl is f.d inro trcsni prosrm rodlhlion. Often th. prcj..li€ nethcd ha !n. cifccrotcarrndinstic asenda ofgovemncnt,sinccitleadsro a kindor "covcr th. *lrcrfrona n. ntality- i l trv. onrcoE6 ,r po$'ble, theo on. rhould pr. p.r. for d iv( By .hpr*on, thos @nt nr qirh th. rcacrircn.rhoi arcl.s .MioE .nd perh.psalsolq$ coalid.nt,h rl'i node,thos!qilh d'{ incr.n lnd an&aity to tomu. i:ie propas\ for sovemn nt action mn lo! thc buildup ol d.man&, rtspondingwhln Lh. PasE is gEat. Th. racriv. n.lhod is bzsd on qlile a dift E ?hno!@ny otgove@cnt thd n th. proj.c$€ m.thod.lho!. ralinstnir.ppro.chvtuws.vrmment6i cor.clive for troblensdlat resistpriv.tesolution Sg'Ls of pJo;re fomda'ion dfq lr_*hir d! FUe o' in prcpaiinSprop6,L!.Rounne funulotion ttjca on $lBr wd don. in thc p.st-tlming ro pac.d.nt or th. stad.d rtspon5efor i pirticul{ !.1 ot citcumstancs. lnalosoutfomuldtbn .xstus rlEt tra n!!c to t..a r r proLi.'! juLis.d to bi j;intu U chlncrcristics to th. pr.enl probi.n. Cn..it. lmuhnoa n.ot bonnd by th. pdt or ty .ndosj6. R.dtd, d .fiort :r n? de lo d. vriop ih aSinarile plop os! suit. d t o t5. lniqu. chx.ct risticaof th. prob. Sourc., n.rh.d, .nd sryl. m.y b. detcmin.d i. p.n !y d!. tin. ayail.bL ro pc !os. solltion!.ndwhdhq or not. ploblcn ir lorcs.cn.A! cncr8 ncyorcisi5dry he u hloiesectrlroblernEquiringlhnediiG .ctio{ Undcirielc clrcmsLrces, 'learrd9anicipation my b. lihir.d 10top .rcutirc. who h.v. no rinc for 5ys!?h!ric analysi! 2.i Dry b! ro(.d to r.ly on .ran.!b rouri.es or ddosnt. Conk6.ly, turlim n:y -no be detu.d asu.ffon ro forsc. the.ncq.nce ofp6btem! in rhetonsr.m (20 ro s0 y.aE). Il ul.n !cdo6ly, such.t|ons hay be cxpccted io ! ftcr wid.sprcad

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pdricipllionin ed out ofgovcmm.nliod ie$lt in dena.di ior ryn.({i. mdysir ud mdinun cartjvity. Finilly,it shouldbenocd tnd ieldon is u\eim.diaE ncrtiy sprEble tod.ither th. p{tor thc tutur..Todryk.rdra:n.y tuybc o.ly rL. lat ds ral of rmoiow\ Fdn nt age.d,. Y.r rh. uryslematic.lly ds.loprd, thoar.m .lponrdby a f.w pe6onsm3ycrellatlE roulin.or anzlogi6o. whichrltud progrsE

V , OU IL D IN G S U P P ORFOR T PROPO5ALS Thcn.xr activiti.slo con{d&arcthosccrocii(.d with h!d.g.ic\ ?irposda.cept.ri $lur ir involv.d i sairirc .a.pbc.1 Basi..Iy, ir is 1 pr*.s ol s.triB rh? rpFov.l oi thoscwho count. And who coulisl Th. sp.cific 4w.( to tlut qu4tion wili vrry !'roh onepioposl b ft. ncxt.ln s.nor.l,how.Er, orc cu say!h!t tno* p{sonscornt eho o( no Dd Ehohaveth! inr.r6t. o4&jzali.n. d.l r. h.\r L\. aulho.it/ toey't6 3our6 ro & h.(d @ tl. obF.(. c.itin3 appovrl, dEn, typicaliy Gqui.s 8.tii!s $p qry by tfieprotsL ForriroE lios. viL\ aufoaq rc st.res!. !no* rorchedin ior. tneymly bc r.ted oi io. bundhssuphry havcb..n irvolvedir it3developmenr.Ilso, m!{.' ro b. all.inclusiv.in P.oss fo. wilh otn.6. 8ut ir is not .lpr$ a inole Do.t muhriotr. Soc .ff.dr.d gronpsint nrionally o. unhrentjo.tlly ,€norcdin thc d.doPm.nrph6e mry lhen.*iv.ly oppos.ti. t'dposil asitn s.tbeforethor.win\luL\only. pottlcsoneshouldb. P(?d:d for intcBction Thepoilt is tiut in progih developmcDr b.l*.nmd mon! lnoe witnauthontyard trr.r.n. Gcnins rh. apporJ ol th@ who cou.t is, by dcirttio., a conpl.r n1tlcr in r w. ha!3esrrblB\ciftr\.r dlmaFcy ofsuchlarses3lea lild! in lhe UaitcdStates. proeles lwic ly involviJts majodty at.lt l.vck ofgovqmenl-Procas.t .l.ho6te coditior buildi.: in r.dsl.tu6 (trodtly in tuo tows), .x&uliE rpp@n, ,nd, oft4!, to et .n'r dl ple .o6id.abta bucaucEtic disdcnon. It muld h. m mttttt.Nnt pogos! [email protected] e. subj.cr.dto longdd 1edio6lpprov! trocascs,Een complicarcd *ith najor lolicy inpucstioff may win quick lPPro%l froh th@ in rumonty (. 9.,rn. connoErs-v E dmnic O?pod.ity Act of 1964). But th. tlt.nrial lor . loog,&lq{ul ir nMF ln .. b.ds. of ltE cl,boo!.n.s ot fomrl n tho& ror s.ltirs 1sE.s.nl Fqlhdr, g.rling lhe appiov.l of tho5. in 2lrnodty docsoot avays .tuurc r€.Ptdc. of |h. prosrs by tho$ .ff.cl.d. Th. L.tt.! may hrve very Litl. 1d6c. lnforuson .bo!t thc pmpod. or not b. pepcd ro fom & opitrionmn il th.y do h!. th. inaotution nEn rcatioBmry notd.v.topuntu lh
1tr r50

PA 785

POLTC\'ANDPOI,(JY IN'PI,TJMENTA-I'ION

adniiicsdtecilv r!l.red to dE.le.loi6l procc$,hiv. t.nd.d upwald..."(1978:323). ?hc& d.vclopm.nts hav: tud ,. impacton policy .p'rov.l p@sd. R.dued ruooul (ducesthelcgjtinacyai dlcci.d!flicials,andgrcal.idircctPariicip:tionby in elections cirizcn ltoupr in @.lition bnilding oay ptolonarh.t pr@$- In sotu irsbner th.sc goups claiFgrcat.rlesltiDacytor th.mslvs thu lhcyaft willinglo artributelo thd. in oalicid [ov.mcnr po5irioni._Thcr. i5lilt|. qucariontlul in rec.nl ycaa public intcr csrgroupshivc Saineda gro$inga.c.ptanc.rslg8itifrat repElcnrativcs of significet potity" (B..ry, sithin ttr l9?7, 3). Thn trcnd loerd .x conniru.n.i.sor 'inteasG' may tatelongerin the ldded p.diciparionmcatuthrt buildirgsulpo for3 proposal pstir nay nor bc pdiblc !t dl. Vhat dc the vdioN typesof approvalpr@e*51 W. tend lo think orJy of thos 2! r6iatcd witl bsnbtuEs. cert inly msjonly cozlition buildini in law mahns is an inpor tur ryp. oaapprcv.l proc.$. Bur ih.!. aE orheF-$os 6sochr.d with hi.rarcli.s, p.o tcsion.ljsm, .incicncy, and dn.ct citiucr pdticipation. !.ch dcscflcsa bri.f diicssion. {.

Buildin!Mrjoririr in r L.gitlaiur.

{s th. nrostimliar approvd !roe$, ledslativen.jority bddins r.qui!6 th. lc6t de. icription lll. pre6 of 8:i.ing andh.ht.jninB supporttnrou8! scv.ral stag.rof lcsis, .tiye aciion is des.libed dd analyz.dh colndes book .nd dliclB (saci.f.En..t.-lt , worth notiig, hokvcr, tnat th. dlnod2ric atructurcr.qun.5 dai lesin.turcs a!$or zc orhcrapprovalproce$.s.Ofren,in fact,proposiban subj.cr.db a r@€.more. jered epprovr.lproc.s, b*imirg wjth lh. hgnhture brt eatndin8 ro lle bureauctacy )cesc oathe dbcletio. grat.d to 1
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An .Pprovii p!oc.$ rclyirs on . afrci.ncyor co$ .fa4rivc..$ it oaJ dtlr.nt orJ.r tld tho5. dbcB.d 3old. R.f.ienc. h.i. is to a panicuk critcrion to be appLi.d.ln its pur 6t fom,.mdqry codistsof ne d.s rh. obje,'rE { rn.loGI.o{ oru obtajilrs (Mld.6ky, rtE nuihh;;;; ;i obj.:o* tor : s#mcu mour or reur6i ' dominat.d 'tE I97l : 184). I! a pr@.$ by ltu tule oa.ffici.ocy, thoe with t!. iurho.ity lo $y 'yes o. "tro p!.@lbly hcr j6try t!.n .lprovar by rcr.lenc. lo th. cdteria ahoE. Typic.Iy, sh.d .lEci.ncy is d.nudcd. d :nilytiql syn m it d6ign d to achi.k tn. deii!.d soal. for exrdpl., son. fod of cost-ben.frtanalrrii or poSrm bud. eetlng,Atnou8h tfteselysteru m.y tc promptcdd r.lue.tr., &ron WUdahky,hons oth.6, w th:t t!.y 4 aot: A5ts.igndory(d d.idipion ofcon.b.n.lit udyris cannotdojqtlc. to rh. pdwe. rul asudptions .h{ !!d.rli. it or .o th. rney condition! lin'iti4 tc uslubcs. Tbc .$nprioor invola r.lu. judlrlroB lhrt x. not .lFyt Fcopiz.d !d, vntn E@! niz.d, d. not .6ilr tddl.d tn pncticc. fh. liEittne co.ditjoc ai!. pdtly out of th.6sunt.ion5 a.d p:ily out of*vcF coftpuutiond difficulti.tin cstinrtin! ccG {d 6p6iJry b...n6 Ordd:sky, a9 t t: l8 t),

aui it Ciiit.n pdi.ip.tion L h;c b tc3itimtins : co!.mn.nr p.osrd in 1 d.ndty. ruy trk nuy folfu. tndir.ct i!volv.n.n! ir eid to occur in .l..tioB, Gtiz.s vot? for th.t !.!.esnutiv. wio, in tum, r..ds th. .!c.tion for iB isu. co't.nt md actsfor citi' &s s ProtolL e prani.d- Ar not d .{|;4 diqritfact@., .€n disilluioM.n(. {i(n

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politi.al r.pr.lcrtarion ns td to dco..dr fo. oth.r foms ol involrn.nt. Mo!. dir.ct policy cotrtactcith decisionn!ke6 hd bedohccomonpilcc-for chpL, in snfts sd eUins tn.n, i. tBlifyins, in ddoNt ri.& in ft.lh8 qi lh.m- Th. dnd lobby. ing nn CapilolHi! by clti2.n grorpsha inc.o$cd dluaticaly in t1l. ldt 20 y.ds. Bul th6d eloupsluv. bmhe rc{vc ia t! secordor find {e! oaapproe.l ptd.$es .s ftn. Th.y no lons.! ccd. activily with rh. pesc ol lrw. And, in frcl, l.C rqun mcnLsior public involv.henl i! adnial.tFtiv. decisioffiarenot unoomon (in $ttins sl&dard6, isinS lic.dr, s.lccrirs sir.s,.lc-). Th.n on. alsoobery4 hcr.6.d at|.nrio! to diEct lcgislation pdticddly in th! w6t. In nis study of injtjativc, in C.lifomir, tu8en. C- ke conclu&s Inat "the idriaiiv. ha becooeso dccply rooted in tlle political cult@ of rh. shrc ',h.r no publk 6s!G id n.mo.y bls $g€lsrcd th.r il b. .lihiur.d - . a l d n o n ci rU kcl yi o o n ro d o so '(luiler andRlmey,19?8: I?0) .Ontheoth*h d, "tne Unil.d st.t s is on of rh. very Lr dcdeEtic courri.s rlul hls &vq had . rcfe! .ndm at rnemtiond level'(Burlcrdd Fia.y. l9?8: 64. ln sumq!6 geni.8 a proposalaptrovcd .ppeas Io be mo!. ch.llcnsir8 todly due to .n ind.e ir alenods for 8d.m.nr acrid, rh. gcarcr t.ctuicil @nd.nty oa ilsucs, sd rcdlccd pullic .onlidene in rop+$n'a$r istitutions, In particda, tide .pp.a to bc . tdd .uy f.om erclqiE r.li.@ o! tujonty co.tition buildinr rd hie@hical authority tor progre apprcvalh rll irs phaes;ud a icnd rowdd srel.r r.liance on pof.$iotulih, .fficiency. ud citiz4 prticipation. hlecningly,lhes wiU rr.n& natc it nor. d ncut in th. rutuc ro id.ntify who G rcspotuibL for approvine whlt Whalevcrrhc problchs asociaredwjrh approvalby a legidatuie or wirni! a hi.rarchy, on c&, itr h6r @s, idcntify r6ponsibility for tne dc.nion-

VI. THE EFF€CTOF INSTTTUTIONAL PROCESSES ON PROGRA[1 OEVELOPMENT S.pmtron ol pokedh6 uad on.liy b..n cikd s r principrl(hlri.tcNli.olour Polincd s*ted, bll it doesnot in f&1, desclibcour wor*ing sovemen!. Ripley ed F6!}lin, doa8 oth.s, rcfcr ro \?p&te ituiituiioo, slre d p6q6" in rh.ir d.lFis of rhe 4rndd6 @tional sorcrmenl (1940: l4)- th.jr d.criptio! .ppt6 d weUb $. 3lnt and lcal l.r?L ol g@Ifur t.nC q!n. Dtur.Iy to dc S.pzr.&d islilulis wroP fomal [email protected] 1ochdncl lolicy actiriti.s. EhpLs sithin lhe .xcdtiv. 6rdch .rc the deveLFndt of t\. budsel,ch.rse ol al !.Sislativ€propoeL, rha prpanrion ofnen86by th..x.dtiv. G.s., th.Skt 01l,1. Unj6 nesc), dd thc Mililg or mud &port. Exnpl* Mthin ih. l.sirlnliv. 6dch de oomilt.. heuirss, p!.Fn. lid of EporG, lclrduli.s ofl.sisLtion o! lt& ll@r, lloor pre.nuEs, dd @rtcme Th.$ i$titutiooal procaiE plolide fomrl deisior poinrs wNch s.wc d loci lor Polict.divitns. Th.y rh.r.for. hdt ro orgrnt {d dir.d rh. lto* or rh.s. .crivili.s ud thq provid. a public mcds fo! cooldf.tion. As..m.nts r..chad hy tho* tlindily |.bl€d in proetu d.rlo9@!r a dispLy.d in i$tihlionrr FocN5. ln f.ct, nosr law.naliIs p.oc66 .r. compoed oaa su@son ol asa.m.ntr lhit d. lna di plnycd bcrot ltu3d &d lrs.r audicnc.s(in rlc subcolMitte, comiu.., the fu! chhb.d,

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Ti. display4?ically .ljci.r 3upporto. opposition,.rd th. 4rem.t ir thc. ditplry.d ir a diff.rnt r.n. oi .dju.n.ntt ac dld. to gm.r noc suPpd. Ir ir fr.qucntly ri. c& tlut pop6.ls dc f.d rortin.ry tuo itrlitunonrl ltrces3 ?ith litde or rc ncAriv. r?.db.ck. Bur 6. rry .nn.nc. or s@ivc dGpLy poinE nay influ.nc. pbs6 dcalopm.nt. Th. rinonil polcy fomulrtor sdl look aldd ro fo.es lik.ly ro bc .f.ckd by . propod ,.d cllcoht. shcn md if th* forcB wfl c acr-Adjustn.nts nry b. tud. in th. prcpqd, d.p.ndins on thes m:lyticar projerjois T!.odo!.,. t qi ii conc.d.d .bout th. l.$.ning of idfl!.rc. o, *.." proces6.h pilticd.r, hc bclicv.stirt Congr*sfiasd.les,t.d mkh ofits powlrb ".O*riontln. Execrtiv.. fie reic6 to policy wir.hou hw dd identifiesirtcrst sroupljbelrlisn !

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lt tinei.$ sioup [b. o]isf, I r.ndcii formaliimimposible.Ir iopins ksitinst bv conr.dinggov.dfrcnt ftom . nonlillic td . mechanistic innitutioa.lr impai^ th. s.tf.coEcctiv.n.$ol podtivclrp by thev.!y n.xibilty of its broadporici.sdd rv rn . o d sa i n i rs,.dopuon,ar d:ncr ( FciEL5ror isi' pFh.- ' incpr oc .s .r .Il to adninis&atior,lj.n inpansth! v.ry proc.s of rdhinist{tion irs.li by d.legatins nat.ials-poticid th.i {c.o! l.*s (Lowi, 1969:96-9'7J tn a enp, wlu. tlwi B a.guingir tr\:t tlr. instilutjonar precses hlvc cohc ro b. !o o. t nor. tha pro fod! ftd for ratilying cithcr tn. specidcn€ds of sp€ial inrrd set or pdnt. or brrcly vi5iblcn 6 by wiich thee fle& *il beE t. t!Ei! i.gumnr ir int.(6ri.g in i|l om r'git, but it .Bo nis rhe inpordt isr. oa.tE cootiuins relaito$:lp b.!w??n poucy ud ins.ituiion,l proe3s. tr thc lal&. fd to .ccomodac tn foo.r. ti.n on. frry .rp.cr efod. Thar i!, if t[. fom.l srru.rd. imp.d.s nrh.r rh:n f.ciIlrt.s progd d.clopm.nl, onc @y .x!.cr dedhdr aor clagc- Ofco!&, bwi id.trrifi.s th. inl..sting ttuition n ahich i.rtiturionil proa .ss dc ..o ..cododrtiv. to 1 pLlnlstic scr of policy proess. h app.d rld r.fod ir noG dimcult ro a.hicv. und.! th.s. ciicmndc.i

OEVELOPMENT VII. CRO55,INsTITI]TIONAL'ROGRAM EtrLn *e rcqek-dthe3ourcsfor policypropG4,notins lh. *r.Fl poBibitri6 fron *ithi. dd ourid. go€mlnt. Th. @y poUcyrctivities dsocia&d witn prcsd d.' reLopn.nt Groblcf, id.nttficillon, i!t.i6t oqalzadon, fodulaliotoa lropos,L, sttk' approv:l) tur b. pdtl.lg.t d ir bt a dh6t linlds codbintlion of public ed 'rg priEt. .cto6. Stni.nl of pubtic potcy hv. found ii wnn to sP.ar of llas cmbtt : qonss \ubsokffi..tr' (Ft.hs,l9t5) (Gl.r. t96a).'?oljcy{tking $bt3e$ (rs6, Drvidlon. l9?4; '*hi,lp."l'; 1977). ttd "@ry llttl. rri{sl.s" ic,ifiit"Jij9), ''isu o.r@rb (tt clo. t978), Atthoush.I wd th.e lab.L .o aLt 'o.r6iditc d""n ra-a onUh,doB oi pohcy pdnipdts, a.w trud. diltincdod combiMtioc. Molt wr concnt to t.ord th. inporiad ob*flrdon thll Elly .nong -+"Urici policy i\cr e @'..d by n.t*orkr o( Pubucomci:ls dd pdnta dt*n| ntfi.' lhtn $Lty by ictitunon l hiB Ouc.kEtic 4!no.t, ltsid:tift @mitt 5) HughH..loj , howv.r, dd dsringliO b.r@.. |ll. PoLcyrrixgL or $bgoElm.nt ud whrt h. ..ii'q

t.,\- 7a5 tol-lcY aND POLICYllvllLtNloNl.{l loN asexpcrtsdehitedloderdoP Proi' Soverm€nt, liendh6led to moreProfe*ionaljsm e6s to de,l Nith hisily conplex dd lecnnicalPloblens Oneot the redoG $!t 8ovin ;Nent \6 s:eM signincanrly rhelsi deade! ti. inotasein expcrts, 'spcci€lv 'r oisovetue.t andlesinain?bra.chd 1neexccutive Imero iddaliz*iono:l$u5 C. Naliontrlizalidnand nrtiorsi" progrds ro deal\irh probleft that affsci My fh{e ( a trend to iGnul2t {ith en.!gy,en' Ameri.msin 2I parlsoi dL. coutry; ior eJmpl€,pFbl.6 a$ociatcd viromenl, and thc econony. Thn tend hd led 10a nole ccntralizeddeci5ion'mking rystem,3srhe fecer?l eoverrnent plddpts staleandlocd sovernnent in vdious deas oI dedirion-h.Iing responsibillie s A]!., issucsatebecodjng no re inlsrn dtiond in lne havea si8' that aclionsrakerby oihergor?rnmd$or orgaizarioa,suchasOPEC, scnss policy look abroad nake6 have 10 nificdl imp.c! on the Amdricd Potcy Proo.$-T!8. .!d srecuktrabolt ine effect olint.rnatiolzlactioa sd raclionsto Ancricm doncy andEfnciency 0, MorcEvaluarion icvsl ofi or acrualy decline,soYcment *d1 focuson tlc efid.nry ed ef_ A resources lectivens$ of preseDipro3ramsFther dd fomulate new oncs.tt ha aleady become evidentt\al 1l!5 rrend sdl doninatc loLty na*ing h tne nerr fulur. 6 cosl_bencfit !mi-vsi5and oth- ne rhodsoi proBrm elrlLalio. become. nom.l pa.t of lhe Poliry efionstiai, aswehave pro.e$.lnere is.lso anelfon ro beno* conPrehennve, discused,pronis. noc llun dty delivei. In addilion to o-lheshentio.cd in thjs chapter,thgrelrcnds wi! donhad po[cy fodation actnities in t!. luture. lV. ca or y speculale{1):t sffscls ticy wll haveon lll.sc pro.e$es-\ihal is cntain ir $ar lalge$calechdses in the Ane.icm Politjcalsys len hale altercdthoseacririties i$ocialed wtu rhe inFoltanl poucy fomalion phac of t-Lepolicy proces.

REFERENCES Anddson,l.E. (1975).t!61,cPoL} dtlns.Fra.c.r,NcaYork. Bachncn,P.,dd laatz, lt. i I91a).?oectdndPorqr: fhaoryord lardde Oxford UniverityP!e$,Ne? Yor\. B.tt!, l. (1917)-Lobblinc tor ,ha P.oplr. lrin@ton Univ.$ty Pr.$, Priid.ton, Nt, 8rcd1,R. A. i 1978).Tnc puzzl.of polidcal!.nicipationin AE ii,.d.ln TheNewAmer. ien PalaticatSyten, tr. K:aclEd.). Anditu lnr.tpris. I$titut., Vastilsro[ DC. Budc!, D-, lnd tuucy, A. ( Ed!.). (1973).A.let ndutu: A conparuti,e srud! at Prdcn eandtl.d). AFenc.nEnterpri$Institutc,{ashbston,DC. ct.r, D. (196.41. Po!a.jn krar,ri,JrdrRandonlioue, NawYork. Cobb,R. rv., ard Eld.r, C-D. ( r91Z).Pc.ti.ipcnor th An.ncan Pal*ict: rhe Dtnanict ot,43rnda:3!'?drnr. ,jJlrn& Badon, Bodon. Lrcnson,M. A. ( I 97 I ). Tic U,-Politnt ol Air Po unon. ! an^sHopki.J ?&s. Bartinorc. D.hl. R. A. ( I 956). ,{ ,+e/d.? ro D'u,.u rid ?:re,,r. Univc*ity or Chic,go!rcs,

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Drvi&on, R. H. t ro7?t. 3,.rkins uP tJlor'tdv wdsld " An imDosiDl'drdr rn P ' k B rt d i) P n '3 ( N ' v L.tirknq R.l..qond P u b t i.P o r' . / ,s w' lc h r. d I G Ir P'orr.E' Hor. N'w Yorl De*.v. J. (r917). r[. Purr:c 'il P'sEur' Ncw Yorl Do'oid. r. r 196) ). D,' PDridtro/?ou./ rr.7:h. ?otnirt ol Eq@rt- BobheM'rnl Indi:mpolis lN Dy..7,ll97 F-.nln. ,. L ( lgti). rr: ?ortrn-.dl?r,as. lrziom Soue u'Y York oI th' C..r. H. !, ( 1963) R.gi6n:r ud utbt pLmitE In hrtu ticfrI En'r'top'dk D- L sils (Eit-). Mtmi|ld, N.w Yott. ,to.idl Sdraa wnsni M c (r9a3) Frcft o'r.bd: Etntt ia sd'tlq?- R'ull'ds' ud C.dh. H.. Lon,lon Paut, dd K4 H roi BooLs N'w Yort cnJr,rh, E.llcro) fh. IhDot'. o I D!na.a.\ ' r#oo H.do H.{1963, I!L' n. is o rriln d I h . . v u n . a h b lilh m. ^ t li t r" iv - / t d ' n : e r ,.lirid, Srrr?z- Artc.ion EncrPrn. Innituk, wdhi! on DC IN iobb+M.niI. tdiina9'lr!. oe|, e.'".'.tt.m.t, D. B. (r91a). fh. cd.t.n Dubury' Nodh 6[ PubU. lotict (t917r. th. Sn't, An Infioduclio^ to t6n t. C. O-

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Lo*i-i.1.lte6s). rh, E"d alL,r.rori', N6noi N.{Yo'kMlrh.r. D.{19?3).R.gul hg tnccoalindsrrvrF.d.irl coalmid' h':rth ud rarctv ud tu.f&. ninins pou.y dcvclopm.nt.UnpunBhcdPh D disctbtion Univ'uitv ol Pitsbusia M.vtrihu. D P-(1969).M,:in!n F.dtibk xun'|'4ttmtha Frc'PES N'* Yo* R;ro.d. E. S-11969)-D.ao.r.ctinth. z:atiai:t'tir. 5..t Orto.d UoY'aitv Pt's' Rirlry, 8'. B-. .nd Frinrlin, C- ( l9AO).Consr.s th. trt .!iart, .nd PdEc Poi.t. DoB.Y.gom.sood,lL schrni.hn.idc..E E. (1960) lX? S.riJov.r'iai f?opl' llolt, Nes York 1ruhrn. D. 3. (la: lJ. n. Cov.En.ntdrAo.e'. KnoPl N.L Yo{ wildr'fk! A.tlcTr) fh. R.\oi Agdhi lhz Eset BnrcBook l{rqYo'k