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The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

PEOPLE'S PARTICIPATIONS ROLE IN WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT OF EAST AZARBAIJAN AND ARDABIL PROVINCES

Farhad Paknia1, Seyed Alireza Hosseinzadeh Tabrizi2, Farhad Almaspour3

ABSTRACT: During the past five decades, the trend of management based on the people participation has been weakened by considering new form of water resource management, and generally, the role of people participation in the drinking water supply of rural and urban areas according to technical & environmental requirements has thoroughly been changed. Thus, the people presence in this section of activities has been omitted and people participation was limited to the distribution of irrigation water and preserving of kanats and structures. Recently, new stage of People's participation system in the water resource management of the country has started with initiating financial public participation for construction of irrigation networks. Notwithstanding, this desirable process shows deep dependence of public interests to collective activities in the history of this country. Nevertheless, these changes in comparison with huge abilities of people as in the history of management based on collective cooperation in the water affaires has been displayed which to be very slight. Dependence to the potential capacities of people and stakeholders is a fact that global society and international conventions believe in that too, and regarding to this matter, vast activities are enforceable. Necessarily, research and knowledge of different dimensions of public participation specially recognizing its dimension in the history of public participation in the water section was one of inevitable principal activities for entrance to huge boundary of this subject. Through such a scientific recognition and with notice to planning and preparing of integrated system and construction of public participation, subject of public participation in water section could be completely sustained by dependence to deeps believes of people. According to the policy of Ministry of Energy based of combination of vast public potential abilities with public income resources in the construction of irrigation and drainage networks with decline target of projects construction time and assurance to their correct operation and finally managing the main section of public income resources to the economical infrastructures , East Azarbaijan water Corporation, during the second and third development , economical , social , cultural development 1 - BS in management/ People participations and Investment Office, East Azarbaijan Regional Water Authority (E.A.R.W.A), Tabriz-IRAN. Tel: +981 411 3382232, [email protected] 2 - MS in Hydraulic Structures,/ Subscriber Affairs and Surface Water Resources Users Office, E.A.R.W.A, Tabriz-Iran. Tel: +981 411 3382309 and +981 9144150241, [email protected] 3- MS in geographic information systems, / planning Office, E.A.R.W.A, Tabriz-IRAN. Tel: +981 411 3382306, [email protected]

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plans of Iran along with water resources development of two provinces succeeded to establish 133 water users cooperation's ( and 46 projects to cover 72595.575 hectares of land ) with 10900 water users. In addition, 21 projects of participation projects started operation in the half of this year. In this article, we briefly explain the most important activities which have been done, revealing the problems and difficulties about the public participation. Key words: E.A.R.W.A- Public participation - irrigation – public networks – water 1-INRTODUCTION In the recent decades, the integrated development by multilateral participation of all people in development plans has been experienced in some countries and this problem has brought useful results to these countries. For our country, the experiences of these countries are more useful than experiences of development countries such as American and European countries. If we study the history of mankind's life, we will notice that the man always has tried more for creating his special location in the environment; so that the first societies were created and in that society sense of participation for recreating society and living place were strengthened, and they had no the other resort in their thoughts except mutual cooperation and understanding with other societies. The direct and indirect participation of all people in the structure of society were completely apparent. Participation in rural society is more important, because distance between government organizations in the cities and beneficiaries of these polices in rural areas is more. To get an effective participation in development should be recognized and solved. Concept of participation is extensive and polyhedron and social and cultural concepts should necessarily be examined from expertise viewpoints. Specific solutions, acceptable and logical methods should be collected and selected by considering the cultural, social and economical specifications of each area. The necessity and the importance of people's participation in development plans are: 1. Participation is precondition of development. 2. Participation is a key element of planning. 3. Participation is guarantor of successfulness of government plans. 4. Participation is a basic stone of current affairs of society. Through participation, knowledge or belief of villagers about development plans and absorption of their helps may be obtained. 2-THE ROLE OF PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT: Generally collective participation of people makes the following three type of change in individuals, such as: 1. Change in individual's knowledge level: his or her information level and habit,

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2. Changing in her or his skills level: method of doing mental and physical pieces of work. 3. Change in his or her structures and views: behavior, intends and viewpoints of peoples about society problems. The scientists and researchers has summarized the role of villagers’ participation in socio-economic programs as following: 1. To make incentive and readiness in people for changing continuous socioeconomic and cultural situations and to accept plans and projects. 2. To make risking morale in villagers for encountering with problems and finding their solutions. 3. To raise decision- making power in people to designing plans and development projects for strengthening innovation sense. 4. To make changes for guarantying development plans by people’s participation in all planning phases. 5. To help to the regulation of power structure in society and to make changes in power distribution by giving ability to the people or to receive power with them. 6. To accelerate the trend of accomplishment of projects, save the time of accomplishment, and increase the quality of rural programs. 7. To help for logical exploitation of projects and projects. 8. To get more information about programs and problems of society and find solutions for them. 3- BARRIERS to VILLAGER’S PARTICIPATION: Villager’s participation needs the specific conditions and situations, if these conditions not be provided; in this case villager’s participation will encountered with serious barriers. For better understanding, here we present the following necessary bases: 3-1 The historical bases: one of the effective factors to attract villager’s participation in different development programs is the culture of participation and social morale of participants. This morale when will be appear that a historical root be exist and it has a long history in their life environment and villagers have experienced a sweet taste of cooperation sense. In these conditions, participation has logical and good results. In our country, there are a few cultural and religious bases for participating in social affairs such as building mosques, kanats, Caravanserai and the other public places. Furthermore, different production methods and social life have made the different types of participation with special formations. The formations like Boneh, Sahra, Haraseh etc are feasible samples of people’s participation formations. Social and economical changes and the other changes have altered the traditional forms of participation. As the result of that, social and economical relationships have also been changed. Nowadays, planning methods and organizing participation with proportion to the enhanced technology level is the main issue.

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3-2 The Political barriers: Planning system has a direct relationship with the governmental and official system of each country in the national, regional and local scales. If a society has a central government system or autocracy system, in this country participation system will not be profitable. The wide interfere of a minority group or a person in the political decision-making and managing affairs weakens democratic participation bases. So, condition of participation existence in the local and rural level is the existence of democratic and political system and also decentralized planning system. Furthermore, in order to establish a logical participation system at the villages, this system must be created in the socio-economic structure of the villages so that it could design a suitable participation status and then be accomplished. This work is a duty of experts and government individuals. Because sometimes pressures of political tribal groups and inter-group dependences could be an obstacle to attract participation of the majority of people and sometimes the existence of local powers and their enjoyment of a good socio-economic base at the village can be a serious obstacle to the participation and decision-making activities. There are a few specific ways to guide the people to have socio-economic cooperation that these are the duties of the governments. The governments must consider a priority to the cooperation sector in the economy of our country. One of the reasons of failure of economic and government system to attract people’s participation is political interference and ignoring the traditional methods. 3-3 Economic obstacles: Beside the internal conditions, participation needs external conditions that here the main conditions are socio-economic conditions. Participation mechanism must be achieved free from political unsafe economic competitions. Attracting people’s participation at the development and economic plans depends on the economic abilities of the peoples. Because of low incomes, the majority of the villagers of IRAN have no the ability of participation. In different countries such as India and Korea, the factor of economic poverty is one of the main barriers to the people’s participation. Furthermore, poverty of rural groups weakens effect of their efforts and also weakens their interference and participation in decision-making and their participation in the establishment of development plans. Participation trend may strengthen the economic base of the villagers. The role of the government is very important to reach this goal. The feasible sample of this participation policy can be found at the Samoel Andog’s Revolution in Kora republic that was designed to the participation of the villagers in order to increase revenues of villagers. The effect of this movement and preparation made deep changes at the villages of Korea republic so that in 1974 income amounts of majority of villager’s households became more than households of cities. 3-4 Cultural and Social Obstacles: Cultural and social factors are the other effective factors on people’s participation as a relational canal for socio-economic development. Generally, there are a few local pressure groups in the villages, these groups are agent of profits of powerful individuals that weakens local formations and seldom strengthens them. The choice of local leaders as local people agents is a suitable social factor to reach the participation. Production groups of volunteer societies, farmers groups and women associations are samples of the participation local organizations.

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4-THE SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC BASES TO REACH THE PARTICIPATION: Development process is a trend that the economic, social and cultural situations of rural and urban societies are improved by popular and government efforts. This implicated process of development includes two principal elements, one of which is people’s participation and their effort to improve their life level. By self-helping and local innovations; and the one is instruments provision and necessary techniques are provided by government. This bilateral cooperation of people and government makes development plans becomes effective. 4-1 The Cultural and Social Bases: Generally, participation is a type of interaction between values, goals, factors, activities etc. In fact the interaction between these elements is an interaction between the experience and the interpretation of participation. We must also examine the existence of social base. This base is a result of two following experiences and examinations. Generally principals of the participation to the people are following cases: -

Participation is a part of the cultural and social system and it originates from the society.

-

This participation is the result of popular power not individual power and people by using that can access to the social and economic security.

-

Participation is as a goal for the villagers not as an instrument.

4-2 The Result of Interaction between Two Experiences about the Participation: On the base of the participation between two experiences “to the government” and “to the people” conditions are provided that confronts people’s participation with problems. These conditions contain these specifications: -

Participation is a risk to the people.

-

Because the original plan is provided by the upper levels of the government, and people has no interference in the phase of the decision-making and planning, so people see themselves without power in the establishment of development programs.

5- PROCESS OF THE PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION: 5-1 Process of the Participation: Generally process of the participation starts with a phase of need sense and problem knowing and then a base and an incentive is provided to the popular activity. At first, this activity continues as an informal form and then as a formal form and finally the result of this popular activity is participation. The process of participation is composed of these following phases: 1. Need. 2. Problem knowing. 3. Incentive.

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4. Group formation. 5. Group organization. 6. Formal activity. 7. To reach the goals. 8. To examine the goals. 9. Satisfaction. 5-2 Conditions and Necessities of the Participation: Conditions and necessities of the participation that has a direct relationship to the participation process fulfilled in this following framework: 1. To know the goals of a problem, to know the problem and to have enough incentive to popular activity. 2. Interactive informing and interaction after establishing initial groups. 3. Membership, consultation, independence after forming organized groups. 5-3 Process of People’s Participation: Phases of the participation in different fields are following cases: 5-3-1 Phases Concern to the Participation Process: Planning is a dynamic, flexible work and the result of planning to design the targets, policies and methods of work. -

Organization: to part a work to the different parts, to leave the works and to make changes in a system that the results are controlled.

-

Promotion: it includes effective guidance, to make relationship and to provide incentives to participate.

-

Control: to control concerned activities in different phases of participation process.

5-3-2 Methods Concern to the Promotion to Participate: -

The interference and the examination: to be in an area and to help or consult with local people.

-

Mobilization and discussion: to make interests and information about framework and targets of plan.

-

Advertisement and effort: to advertise the information about plan.

-

People employment: to attract people supporting and helping and to base the local organizations as a protection tool.

-

Adjacency: continued interference, education and establishment of plans in order to develop areas.

-

Explain: to experiences.

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6- STRATEGIES AND ORGANIZING PROBLEMS PARTICIPATION: 6-1 Participation Strategies: there are a few important strategies of people’s participation such as: 1-Participation strategy as an investment: there is a specific difference between participation as an investment and as a target. Participation as an investment is people’s participation in order to help to each other, to provide financial resources to establish development plans and to arrive to the forecasted goals. In the participation strategy as a goal, people have the main role in decision-making about establishment of plans. 2- Participation strategy in development plans: development strategies are fulfilled by promotion, active employing and organizing the people to design polices and plans. 6-2 organizing the participation: certainly grouped organizations have a powerful tool to ease accessibility to the development and specially establishment of water resources development plans. To know the social and economic distinctive groups as a basic unit of development is very important. Organization is a precondition of any activities, so the relationship between the organization and the participation is a specific part and are presented these following cases: 6-2-1 The process of making group: this process means to arrange and it includes “research in the village”, “choice”, “distribution of responsibilities”, “to define duties”, “the examination of providing financial resources to establish plans” and planning. These groups, as an organization is a means to participation of people in the process of development and to establish plans. 6-2-2 the problems about organizing groups to participate: 1. Forming: to form the groups to participate in plans. 2. Membership: this is based on the common economic benefits. 3. Meetings of groups: these are the main spaces to transfer different opinions, to say the goals of plans, timing work plan and coordination and leadership. 4. Structure: group must have an internal structure so that by it to access to an organized base and by using that can get to the participation. 6-2-3 Agent and the main duties of participation: in order to have an effective people’s participation and an organized group to establishment of development plans needs an agent so that it can ease the process of participation. Certainly, a participation agent is an important factor in the process of participation. The main duties of participation agent are: -

To help examining of socio-economic of a region and the villages around that region with cooperating groups.

-

Leadership and to help to the people in economic activities, to improve production situation and socio-economic infrastructures and to plan and to help to the small groups to do economic activities.

-

To provide continuous promotion in order to do self-confident activities and to promote problem solving and decision- making inside groups.

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-

To provide a relationship between financial protective groups and to help educating of members of groups about participation easing.

-

To help the groups in order to move towards good efficiency.

7- SOLUTIONS OF PARTICIPATION: 7-1 General solutions of participation: some solutions of the villager’s participation are: -

To change planning system and moving towards decentralized planning system.

-

To promote public culture at the society and people by using tools and cultural values and general relationships.

-

To make interactive confidence between official organization chiefs and people.

-

Planners must notice to the injustice balancing policies, renewing of education system, justly distribution of possibilities and chances, popularizing social services in order to promote people’s participation.

-

By using possibilities of research and consulting organizations in order to know cultural, mental and social specifications and to examine the needs of rural and urban needs, the integrated and precise studies muse be done.

-

To arrange and organize personals in order to guiding participation by official organizations.

-

To do the cultural activities in order to omitting the existence organizational culture of governmental organizations on the base of dependences to the general benefits of government and to promote the culture of people’s participation.

7-2 Practical activities to achieve people’s participation: recognizing need and practical activities to fulfill participation affair depends it’s all the phases are specified with noticing to it’s needs and conditions and establishment activities must be collect with notice to the cultural and social structures and specifications of each areas. These activities are as following: 1. To know precisely cultures and economic activities. 2. To change thoughts of rural and urban people to life, work, production and future and specially the necessities of areas development. 3. To make people interest in projects and goals of development plans by short stories, texts, local poets. 4. To make story films for fulfilling activities and to broadcast them in different areas. 5. To know the special stakeholders. 6. To make competition between different groups of people is one of the social potentials to financial participation.

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7. To make primary and basic groups those basis elements to inform formal organizations and formations are provided. By these agencies, to get bank facilities and repay these facilities become formal. 8. The existence of a promotional organization is a basic element of fulfilling people’s participation by educating the beneficiaries and to have good relationship to them. 9. Finally, if all the villagers don’t participate in the process of plans design and establishment, their real needs and benefits aren’t provided. During recent decades, the activities that are said upper lines were experienced in the villages of functional boundary of Regional Water Authority of East Azarbaijan. This activity during a time more than a decade has brought new experiences to this authority specially created a good and continuous relationship between people and this authority and became a base to have a new movement. The effect of these activities is continuance of people’s participation in the national and large plans. 8- THE HISTORY OF PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION AND FORMATION OF WATER USER'S COOPERATIVE IN THE REGIONAL WATER AUTHORITY OF EAST AZARBAIJAN 8-1 functional framework: The activities that has been done in the beginning of formation and during activity years as a executive way to form people’s participation in the Regional Water Authority of East Azarbaijan has been in the following framework: 1. From the beginning of forming of discusses about people’s participation, in this organization using of services of experienced managers and experts that further to have believes to the discusses and affairs about people’s participation at the financial problems, they have had enough knowledge about people’s participation in the operating and planning of development plans and familiar managers as one of an effective parameters to inform people’s participation have been used in this organization. This subject has been examined in the establishment phases with more sensitivity. 2. After a decade, this reality is completely obvious in the functionality and report card of activities about people’s participation affairs of this organization that in a set of practical and theoretical activities, using of services of university professors, researchers around this area has been one of the most important activities and besides establishment activities and before starting these activities, to receive different opinions and viewpoints of researchers and thinkers has been as an important factor to determine activities about people’s participation. Because the sensitivity of social problems makes before doing any establishment activity, by using theoretical bases and to combine these bases with experiences, the best routes are determined and then selected. 3. To pass different explanation seminars, to have different meetings to political persons such as governors, deputy-governors, Islamic bureaus, agriculture managers, parliament agents, cooperation organization, planning and management

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organization, agent of banks in order to define different problems about people’s participation such as to define the cases of act and prescriptions to gain practical activities have been the most important activities of people’s participation to make coordination to charges. This important activity has been noticed as a necessary and precondition activity of people’s participation affairs before starting any establishment activity. Because of sensitivity of this subject and problem, the straight belief in this organization is that coordination to other offices and organizations has a basic role to continue people’s participation and this problem in different times has been experienced during establishment activities and it’s positive effects in the process of establishment activities has been proved and it’s beneficial results has been sensed. 8-2 Practical activities: 1. The first phase is before starting theoretical discussions (up to 1994): 2. In this phase, the attraction of people’s participation limited to the small plans of water supply to the agriculture and especially to the farmer’s participation to transfer lands of water structures establishment place without paying prices of lands that are located in the routes of plans establishment. 3. The second phase in the framework of people’s participation committee (since 1994 to 2002): 4. To provide the bases and to attempt to provide knowledge and belief to the managers and experts and the other agents about people’s participation by passing conferences with parliament agents, planning and management organization and the other political and official persons, to inform water user's Cooperatives by water authorities and general office of cooperation in the villages that covered by water resources development plans. 5. the third phase, practical activities to the field of common cooperation between water organization and Jehad-keshavarzi organization(from2002 to now) Functionality of People’s participation office in the part of water user's Cooperative in 12 yearly time distribution(94-2005) has been shown at the following table and changing some cooperation parameters have been shown at the diagrams 1 to3: Table-1: Functionality of People’s participation office in the part of water user's cooperative in 12 yearly time distribution (94-2005) Type of activities/Year

94-95

96-97-98

99-2000-2001

2002-2005

1994-2005

Number of plans

3

6

13

17

39

Number of cooperatives

15

24

13

81

133

Number of beneficiaries

2428

1956

1988

18736

25108

The are of lands covered (hectare) Amount of bank facilities(million rials)

5042

12219

4232

111912

72596

2798

41760

53090

627970

688620

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Diagram 1 : Number of participation plans 20

17 13

15 10 6 3

5 0

94-95

96-97-98

99-2000-2001 Year

2002-2005

Diagram 2: Number of beneficiaries 20000

18736

15000 10000 5000

2428

1956 1988

0 94-95

96-97-98

99-2000-2001 Year

2002-2005

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Diagram 3::Amount of bank facilities (Million rials) 700000 600000 500000 400000 300000 200000 100000 0

627970

2798

94-95

41760

53090

96-97-98

99-2000-2001

2002-2005

Year

It must be said that on the based of forecasted necessities in the legal points of water and agriculture of the third plan has provided a good opportunity to make relationship between the effective factors in the common affairs of irrigation and drainage network lands. Specially, a very relief role to people’s participation and to do social studies and to write and operation system in water resources development is considered by legal points 106, 107 and the report of consume optimization of agriculture part. About this problem, a common cooperation document in order to fulfill the forecasted legal duties in the cultural and socio-economic plans of the country was collected.

Figure 1: Beneficiaries survey projects

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9- CONCLUSIONS The analysis that has been done in this paper shows that participation is a precondition to develop and without villager’s participation development will not be enquired. The investment of government about this problem is necessary and development of villages is not completely depend on the government investment and the subject of participation depends on the cultural and socio-economic conditions of villages is examined and then about that problem is decided (amount of government investment and villager’s participation). On the other hand, powerful backgrounds of participation existence between people has been experienced during the history with depending on the conditions of the time and different places of IRAN and its conditions has been changed by government system changes, but in spite of the existence of long-period history a systematic form of people’s participation has not been organized in different activities specially to its economic forms. The experience of people’s participation in the operation of ware resources like the other forms of people’s participation has been affected by different reasons and testimonies and during the history by the effects and interferences of modern managements, as the form of water resources management and a set of activities have been completely changed. Water resources management that has been changed to the today’s form according to the principals of water industry, there wasn’t in 50 years ago because during last half of century systems of beneficiaries of water resources have been depended on the activities that were organized by people and there weren’t today’s direct interfere in the water resources management. Although to make today’s form of water resources management was inevitable because of population growth, industrialization of cities and development of civilization, but the absence of people in decision-making and nonuse of people’s abilities in today’s water resources management cycle is the main weak point in the process of water resources management cycle. Many experiences of people’s participation in the last decades about the operation affairs of water resources and the effective and successful experiences from establishing the first and second plans of the cultural and socio-economic development and specially the experiences of note 6 and 76 of the second act of development plan to establish water resources development plans shows this fact that to notice and to design the main place of people’s participation has been the necessity of fundamental growth at the water resources management of the country and about this problem, it is necessary that by collecting and combining of past experiences and new finds, the new and accepted form of people’s participation organization in the third plan of cultural and socioeconomic development has been considered in the band A and article 106 and then be executed and this matter must be noticed in the fourth development plan as a title of band Te of the article 17 so that substance of development really be based. 10- SUGGESTIONS: 1. Forming a controlling and appraising core of the acts and the routine methods of people’s participation plans includes the Ministry of Energy experts, the Ministry of Jahad va Keshavarzi, the Ministry of Cooperation and consultant engineers in the development office of the Energy Ministry and to recognize the weak and power points and to provide performing outline of the fourth plan and to define

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the relationship between the Ministry of Energy, Ministry of Jahad va Keshavarzi and Ministry of Cooperation as following flowchart: 2. Applying the social studies in the Regional Water Authorities by using experienced humans and experts and finally to guide consultant engineers (to write master plans by the organization of management and planning). 3. Examining and appraising really performance of the active water user's Cooperatives and to recognize the problems in order to improve the exist conditions and to make necessary coordination in the Ministry of Energy – Cooperation and the Ministry of Agriculture in order to exert the common encouragement policies and to provide guaranty to the prices of agricultural products. 4. Planning of systematic educations by related organizations for cooperatives. 5. To use the experiences of successful countries especially Asian countries must be noticed and to transfer the knowledge and experiences by sending experts to these countries. 6. To say and explain the role of people’s participation as a fundamental part of development and its role to govern the social justice to the people by popular Medias.

Flowchart-1: Organizational relationship to inform water user's Formations.

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REFERENCES: 1. Maesoomi, Kaveh-Operation Authorities of Networks and People’s participation –Water and development Magazine of Energy Ministry-Number 2. 2. Sahebi, Sadeg- Operational Strategies to beneficial participation of beneficiaries. Water and development Magazine of Energy Ministry – Number 9. Autumn. 3. Okly, Piter and Marsden4. The methods of participation in rural development- the ministry of Jehad and Keshavarzi. 5. Farhad paknia – Regional Water Authority of East Azarbaijan and Ardabilpeople’s participation. 6. Tagavi,Neimatollah- Social Participation and Rural Development-

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The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

WHY BLUE PRINTS ON ACCOUNTABILITY OF WATER USER ASSOCIATIONS DO NOT WORK: ILLUSTRATIONS FROM SOUTH KAZAKHSTAN

Kai Wegerich1

ABSTRACT Since the collapse of the Soviet Union there have been two major changes in the agricultural sector in Kazakhstan. First agricultural production changed from centrally planned large scale state and collective farms to small scale private farms. Secondly, the water management of on-farm irrigation system was transferred from hydro-technical units to WUAs. The creation of WUAs in South Kazakhstan is based on blueprints, which promote equity and accountability. The paper critically evaluates the existing blue prints of WUAs. It is argued that even these blueprints do not live up to the spirit of equity and accountability of the organization to its members and between members. Examples of WUAs in South Kazakhstan are presented, which shows weak organizations, lack of accountability and farmers which are not empowered to change their own organization.

INTRODUCTION In Kazakhstan, during the Soviet period, agricultural production was structured in state and collective farms and on-farm water management was organized by specialized hydro-technical units of these farms. Land reforms divided the large scale farms. Irrigation management transfer (IMT) and the creation of Water User Associations (WUAs) seemed to be a promising solution to keep up the irrigation infrastructure and to take over water management and delivery to a vast number of small private farms. Fieldwork was conducted from October to December 2004. Within this period interviews were carried out with main stakeholders in international organizations working on training for newly independent farmers and WUAs, staff of district and province water management organizations in South Kazakhstan, as well as WUA staff and WUA members. The paper utilizes collected data from two districts in South Kazakhstan province, Turkestan and Makhtaaral.

1- Affiliation: Irrigation and Water Engineering group, Wageningen University, Nieuwe Kanaal 11, 6709 PA Wageningen, The Netherlands. Phone: +31 317 482750; Fax: +31 317 484759; e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

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The paper continues with a short background section on land and water reforms in Kazakhstan since independence. This is followed by a discussion of the current blueprints of WUA organizations, their accountability, their rights and responsibilities towards their members and vice versa. The next section presents the data of the assessment study of the WUAs in the two districts in South Kazakhstan. The last section concludes. BACKGROUND: MANAGEMENT

LAND

REFORMS,

IRRIGATION

AND

WATER

Even though Kazakhstan started its agricultural reforms in 1992 directly after independence, only the introduction of the Bankruptcy law (December 1998) let to a rapid expansion of private farms. By April 1999 already 84,766 peasant farms were established. The irrigation system in Kazakhstan was designed for large scale farms and mainly for one particular crop. The state and collective farms were responsible for the operation and maintenance of the on-farm water management infrastructure. Already during the Soviet Union period there were maintenance problems with the on-farm irrigation systems (Bucknall et al 2001, p.5). A TACIS report (1995) points out that often the most convenient method of irrigation for farm management was chosen. This implied low flow rates and long furrows (p.79). The irrigation system was a supply rather than a demand system. The report concludes, to establish a demand system is “either organizationally impossible […] or the capital cost of installing such a system would be prohibitive” (p.83). Nevertheless, in 1997 water tariffs were introduced for agricultural water users. The water charge is supposed to be calculated per cubic meter, but because the infrastructure was built for large scale collective farms and not for small private farms, water distribution is estimated rather than measured by cubic meter. Only since 2003 farmers can become legal members of WUAs. Even though the situation in the irrigation sector in Kazakhstan did not look promising in legal and organizational terms, the South Kazakhstan province bordering Uzbekistan has received special attention in the creation and establishment of WUAs since independence. In this province alone there are 80 WUAs, of which 27 are located in areas which are covered by rehabilitation projects of the World Bank and Asian Development Bank. This seems to suggest that the WUAs in the region had special support and follow international blueprints on organizational structures of WUAs. However, do these blueprints address sufficiently the question of equity and accountability of the WUA to its members. ARE WUAS ACCOUNTABLE, AND TO WHAT EXTENT? IS IT A MYTH? Accountability is defined as “the means by which individuals and organizations report to a recognized authority (or authorities) and are held responsible for their actions” (Edwards and Hulme, 1996 p.967). In the case of a WUA, it is reasoned that the staff is doubly accountable to the members through both electoral and financial channels. Current international recommendation is to separate the governing body and management body. Hence there is an electoral accountability channel to the governing body and a financial accountability channel to the management body. While internationally an egalitarian perspective of equity is recommended, by which each

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member has the same right and voting power, an IWMI/SICWC manual (2003) on how to establish WUAs in Central Asia recommends a proportional perspective, by which membership rights to vote in the WUA are connected to land size (p. 22). This proportional perspective on equity institutionalizes the inequity on the local level. One of the consequences could be that the weight of complain of a small holders counts less. It is still assumed that financially autonomous irrigation agencies, such as WUAs, provide better services, because WUAs are created to serve the interests of their members and non-members. The obligation of the members and non-members in a WUA is the prompt payment of water service fees (Hodgson 2003, Salman 1997). If members or non-members do not pay their fees or take more water, it is reasoned that gradual sanctions, starting with small fines, can be imposed (Ostrom 1990). In addition, if members or non-members damage the infrastructure they would have to compensate the organization for the destruction. On the other hand, what happens if the organization fails to provide the water service, either partially or completely? Ul Hassan and Nizamedinkhodjaeva (without date) argue that “if the quality and quantity of the service falls below the agreed standards, the users can, for example, hold part of the service fee payment as a fine.” (p.7) Taking into consideration that the service fee could be below the incurred losses, (in most cases this would be the case) then this option does not seem to be satisfying for the members. Instead of making the WUA accountable for not effectively controlling and therefore not being able to provide the service according to the contract, the standard recommendation is to create a dispute settlement committee within the governing body of the WUA. Even though the water rights and water charges are supposed to minimize inter-personal conflicts, the WUA turns again to its users, to let them find an agreement by themselves. Hence, disputes are not minimized, but they are only given a formal space. However, would a small landholder accuse a large landholder and press for compensation? Therefore subjecting him/herself to face repercussions on issues which are not related to water, such as having access to formal or informal credits, to other inputs or outputs, or risk loss of employment possibilities for him/herself or a family member? The blue print ignores the heterogeneity of the WUA members and their embedded status in a wider social and economic context. ARE THE WUAS IN SOUTH KAZAKHSTAN ACCOUNTABLE TO THEIR MEMBERS? Recent reports on WUAs in South Kazakhstan have emphasized that local authorities and senior officers of the former collective farms have hijacked the newly established WUAs. (Zimina 2003, Mott McDonald/DfID report 2003). This would imply that the WUA managers would not necessarily represent the interests of the farmers, but the interests of those at higher levels, or have their own benefit in mind. To substantiate the issue of non-accountability of WUAs to its members, data from Makhtaaral and Turkestan district in South Kazakhstan is presented. While in Turkestan district farmers could not elect the WUA heads, in Maktaraal district the WUA heads were elected by the WUA members. However, in Maktaraal farmers in the WUA K23 complained that they were not able to reelect a new head and that only the district administration could dismiss the current head. Neither in the Turkestan nor

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in the Maktaraal district was a separation between the governing and managing bodies. Even though, in Maktaraal district international projects provided training on the blue print of WUA organizational structures. In both districts farmers in complained that the staff of the WUA was only interested in fee collection. These complaints were even raised by the District Water Department in Maktaraal. Farmers complained that the system of water tariffs was not transparent. In different interviews with farmers in the K26 WUA, it became evident that the fees even vary within the same WUA. A farmer of the WUA K23 stated the “WUA staff does not do anything, just takes money. We do not ask what they do with it, we just give it”. Similar complaints were raised in Turkestan district. In all visited WUAs was evidence of tampering with the irrigation infrastructure. While in WUA K23 a farmer admitted that he broke a large piece out of the irrigation channel, in K26 the farmer complained that his outlets were blocked by a tail-end farmer. According to the interviewee, the farmer at the end of the channel was the former governor of Maktaraal district, who had 120 ha agricultural land. The interviewee stated that the large farmer pays a higher price for water and therefore receives all the water he needs. Hence, the farmer implied that the WUA staff blocked some of his off- takes, or accepted that his off-takes got blocked, so that the rich farmer could receive the water. The farmer himself, did not make any attempt at unblocking the off-takes himself, and did not feel that he could complain to the WUA. In Turekstan district the water situation was aggravated by farmers changing to more water intensive crops. In the Solnak village, during the period of the collective farm the main crops were grass, corn and grain, while today farmers plant cotton. As consequence the water demand of the district has increased, while the district water allocation continued (Solnak village governor). Farmers at the head and tail-end complained that they did not get enough water and that they do not get the water in time. A tail-end farmer complained that “even if I pay additional money for water, it does not mean that I will get the water in time. Maybe I will get the water with the next turn, maybe in the next season or the water department can pay the money back.” In one case a farmer received 3 out of 4 irrigation turns. At the time of the fourth turn, the WUA could not provide any water and therefore could not fulfill their side of the contract. The farmer lost his harvest and the WUA paid back the irrigation fee. The fee is quite low and paying back the fee did not prevent the farmer from going bankrupt. In the case where the WUA would have provided the water within the next turn the crops would have received the water too late and it would have had a negative effect on the production. In either case, the WUA did not fulfill the contract and did not take full responsibility for their mismanagement. CONCLUSION The case study of South Kazakhstan demonstrated the negative consequences of a rapid and ill planned withdrawal of the state and the consequences of weak blueprints. The presented cases of the WUAs in South Kazakhstan show that the created WUAs did not represent the interest of their members, but seem to utilize the WUA to generate income. In this sense the WUAs reflected more the interests of individual power holders and the WUA staff and not the whole farmer community. Either the former hierarchical

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structure or a high level of heterogeneity amongst the members seem to stabilize the system and make individual WUA members accept the situation. That farmers still pay fees could be related to two issues, first that the WUA staff has enough authority to enforce fee payment and second that the fee is low and therefore is minimal in relation to the total cost of farming. Hence, to pay fees could be seen as a formal obligation but which does not guarantee (sufficient) water delivery. The blue print of WUAs has shown significant weaknesses in terms of accountability. The question is, are these kinds of “accountability” mechanisms in a WUA sufficient, when the livelihood of a farmer depends on it? When participants of the WUA have to compensate for damages, but the WUA itself does not? This raises the question whether one has to understand the WUA as an accountable service provider or a facilitator? In case a WUA should be a service provider with meaningful contracts on water delivery, what could be a solution? To be fully accountable not a conflict committee is necessary but the WUA should compensate for its failure to deliver the service it contractually agreed upon.

REFERENCES 1. Bucknall, J., I. Klytchnikova, J. Lampietti, M. Lundell, M. Scatasta, M. Thurman. 2001. Irrigation in Central Asia: where to rehabilitate and why. World Bank Group. Washington. 2. Edwards, M. and D. Hulme. 1996. Too close for comfort? The impact of official aid on nongovernmental organizations. World Development. 24(6): 961-973. 3. Hodgson, S. 2003.Legislation on water users’ organizations: a comparative analysis. FAO Legislative Study 79. 4. IWMI/SICWC. 2003. How to establish a WUA: practical steps for social mobilizers. Tashkent. http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/centralasiawaterusers/files/pdf/WUA_eng.pdf 5. Mott MacDonald / Department for International Development (DfID). 2003. Privatisation/Transfer of Irrigation Management in Central Asia. Final Report 6. Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the commons – the evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press 7. Salman, S.M.A. 1997. The Legal Framework for Water Users' Associations: a comparative study. World Bank Technical Paper 360 8. TACIS. 1995. WARMAP project report IV: irrigated crop production system. 9. Ul Hassan, M. and N. Nizamedinkhodjaeva no date. Social Mobilization and Institutional Development Approach and Strategy. IWMI Tashkent. http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/centralasiawaterusers/files/pdf/SMID_StrategyEng.pdf 10. Zimina, L. 2003. Developing water management in South Kazakhstan. in S. O’Hara (ed). Drop by drop: water management in the southern Caucasus and Central Asia. LGI Fellowship Series. Budapest.

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The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

WAYS FORWARD TO USE GROUNDWATER BY SMALL AND MARGINAL FARMERS’ (EXPERIENCE, LESSONS AND OPPORTUNITIES)

A. K. Sikka1, A. K. Singh2

ABSTRACT Surface irrigation systems in terms of major and medium canals are spread allover. However, it has been debated that the unreliability of these systems in terms of adequacy and timings, affects severely to small and marginal farmers. On the other hand irrigation water from ground water is one of the most assured source on which one can rely. Considering the constraints such as small and fragmented land holdings, poor socio-economic conditions etc. restricts the groundwater use to enhance land productivity and ultimately any improvement in their livelihood. It has been always observed that whenever small/marginal farmers have got opportunities to invest quality inputs timely it directly results into enhanced productivity in comparison to medium and large farmers. Countries like India comprises of a large number of small and marginal farmers who are suffering by these constraints. One of the best solutions in this case has been experienced in India by encouraging small and marginal farmers to go for community tube wells. This has paid rich dividends in those areas which need to be widened in a sustainable manner to other areas also after understanding the experiences and lessons of existing arrangements. This paper tries to discuss some of the case studies where the concept of community tube well has been introduced and based on their experiences and lessons what could be the better opportunities that exists.

INTRODUCTION Rapid growth of population and industrialization are becoming major threat to agriculture sector as share of land and water decreasing day by day. On the other hand with decreasing investments and declining performance of many large and medium scale surface irrigation systems, interest has been developing in recent years for seeking new ways to improve land productivity and livelihoods of small and marginal farmers at global level. Considering the majority of the small and marginal farmers in developing countries, it is now very well realized that they can be key players in increasing global 1 - Director, ICAR research Complex for Eastern Region, WALMI Campus Phulwari Sharif, Patna – 801505, Bihar, India, Email: [email protected] 2- Senior Scientist (Soil Water Engineering), ICAR research Complex for Eastern Region, WALMI Campus Phulwari Sharif, Patna – 801505, Bihar, India, Email: [email protected]

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agricultural production and achieving food security. Water being one of the key input in crop production system, it has been observed that access of irrigation water is negligible if we talk about large and medium surface irrigation systems and faces financial constraints in case of groundwater exploration. This requires a major shuffle in existing irrigation strategies in a way that access of irrigation in crop production to small and marginal farmers may be made easy by keeping this commodity at the outset rather than trying to figure out how they can be incorporated in scheme of things. Besides achievement of green revolution and plenty of successful innovations in agriculture production system, smallholders live at or below the poverty level and are highly averse to risk; their very livelihoods are focused on keeping the margin for error as small as possible. (Pant N., 2004) At the same time they are considered to be capable of managing technologies efficiently provided they have access to affordable technologies that are easy to operate, maintain and repair. Small-scale systems and technologies are attractive since they put the operation, maintenance and management of systems directly in the hands of the individual farmers, thus eliminating any need for centralized control or management. Hence, small marginal holders can be more productive with their yields and efficient utilization of resources in comparison to their counterparts’ i.e. medium and large farmers. Considering the case of efficient application methods of irrigation water unfortunately, most existing modern irrigation techniques do not fit the plots of smallholders, and are far too expensive (in terms of capital or operational costs) to be affordable which hampers their agricultural yield substantially. These constraints forces most of the farming community to stick with the surface methods of irrigation though a range of efficient water application technologies, techniques and practices have been developed over the years on behalf of smallholders. However, many, if not most, technologies have been unsuccessful in their performance, application, dissemination or adoption. Attempts have been undertake to encourage farmers to adopt bush pumps, rope-andwasher pumps, rower pumps, treadle pumps, pitcher pot systems, drag-hose sprinklers, hydraulic ram pumps, microirrigation systems, windmills, water harvesting techniques and a host of other technologies with mixed success. While it may be that some of the technologies simply did not perform to expectations, there is a natural tendency to overemphasize the technology itself rather than pay attention to the process by which it is identified, modified, and disseminated. All too frequently the end customer -- the farmer – has been left out of the process altogether. As a result uptake of most appropriate irrigation technologies by small-scale farmers has been relatively poor. The post independence era after 1947 in India, saw greater importance to irrigation and the efforts undertaken resulted in achieving self sufficiency to feed the country’s population i.e. most famed “Green Revolution” in late sixties and seventies. After independence the total planned expenditure of nearly 10 per cent of the country was for development of water resources. This comprises of erection of large dams which were considered as “modern temples” of developing India, various major, medium and small surface irrigation systems and development of groundwater resources with the help of deep and shallow tube wells. As per records the irrigated area expanded from 22.6 million hectares in fifties to 59 million hectares in nineties, an increase of 161 percent in four decades. This increase was about 33 percent of the estimated potential. Roughly 42 percent of the net irrigated area in 1990 was from surface water sources whilst 51% was contributed from tanks, step wells, tube and other sources. Considering the trend of

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source wise irrigated area it can be observed that in recent past decades there is a decline in case of canals from 38.49 % (1970-71) to 30.21 % (1998-99) whereas ground water exploration from tube wells as source of irrigation has increased significantly from 14.34% (1970-71) to 35.63% (1998-99) (Anonymous. 2004). This trend is indicative of diversion of farming community towards reliable source of irrigation water reason being low project efficiencies, which is of the tune of only 40% or less which reflects poor management of surface irrigation systems. Though the use of groundwater has increased significantly (Ballabh et.al., 2003) but still small and marginal farmers are struggling to take advantage of this. Some of the major reasons: poor socio-economic status, small and fragmented land holding sizes, lacking technical know-how, little or no awareness of promotional schemes for installation of tube wells by GOs, poor state of electrification etc. Considering these aspects this paper, discusses the Vaishali district of Bihar state in India where a participatory approach has been adopted in form of Community Tubewell to provide opportunity even to small and marginal farmers in the area to have easy access of groundwater for irrigation uses. The views and elaboration further by authors are based on personal visit and interactions with concerned agencies and farming community involve and some basic information from secondary sources. CASE STUDY: COMMUNITY TUBE WELLS IN VAISHALI FORMATION OF VASFA AND ITS INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT

Vaishali falls in the northern part of Bihar having rich historical background. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy a very high percentage 86.4 per cent of the working population is engaged in the agricultural sector (1971 Census) as compared to 82.7 per cent in Bihar, and 69.7 per cent all India. The average size holding is small and fragmented. With respect to the availability of the Vaishali have rich reserve of ground water. According to the Geo-hydrological map of India, Vaishali falls in the high-yield region of unconsolidated alluvium. These formations are richest in ground water and are very congenial to tubewell technology, which can exploit water held in sandy aquifers only, and not in water bearing strata found in rock formations or consolidated formations. The late J C Mathur of the Indian Civil Service (ICS) was the brain behind the community tubewell. He started his career as the Sub-Divisional Officer, Vaishali, in the 30’s and was very much struck by the rich cultural heritage and poor economic conditions of the people of Vaishali region. During the late sixties, he was working as Additional Secretary in the Ministry of Agriculture and was closely associated with India Committee under the Freedom from Hunger Campaign. This provided the platform to do something for the poor farmers of Vaishali. He, therefore, prepared a detailed project report for the development of small farmers of the region and contacted Dewan for the execution of his scheme. Mathur offered Mr. K. D. Dewan the opportunity to settle at Vaishali and serve the cause of small farmers. Mr. Dewan a graduate in Agriculture had come to India after partition and settled down as a farmer in Nelokhedi near Karnal in Haryana. He had tremendous interest in social works and had done some commendable work in organizing farmers’ co-operatives in that area. Mr. Dewan was impressed by Mathur’s ideas and came to live in Vaishali in 1969 (Prassad

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K., 2000). He mobilized the farmers in the area and was successful in forming Vaishali Area Small Farmers’ Association (VASFA), which got registered as a voluntary organization in 1971. VASFA was recognized as the first pilot project of its kind in the country by the committee under Freedom from Hunger Campaign. It received a grant of Rs.4,00,000 from the government of Norway. Out of it, Rs.2,00,000 were kept in fixed deposit in the loaning bank (Central Bank of India) as security, and other half is used as a revolving fund for the developmental works of VASFA, particularly for construction of tubewells. The main objective of VASFA was to organize small farmers for multifarious agricultural activities, and to manage loans for group tubewells, agricultural machines, godowns, and plant protection apparatus etc. It worked in collaboration with People’s Action for Development India (PADI), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India and Central Bank of India. The association was divided into three zones – viz, Vaishali, Madarna and Bibipur. The executive committee of VASFA consisted of a President and three Vice-Presidents (representing three zones) elected by all members for one year and three years, respectively, a Treasurer, who is a representative of PADI, and a General Secretary who is nominated for six years jointly by PADI and ‘Vaishali Sangh’ ( Vaishali Sangh was a voluntary organization, aiming at cultural and economic development of Vaishali region formed in the early forties with the effort of late Mr. J C Mathur when he was serving as commissioner at Muzaffarpur). Mr. Deewan worked with VASFA as a PADI employee for seven years, but resigned in 1978 as a PADI official and was associated with VASFA as its General Secretary since then. Upto 1983 VASFA managed to organize 36 community tubewell groups (16 in Vaishali, 7 in Madarana and 13 groups in Bibipur) in 16 villages of Vaishali and Muzaffarpur district of Bihar, covering a membership of 650. INSTALLATION OF COMMUNITY TUBEWELL

In the area surrounded for the community tubewell work, the officials of INADP (IndoNorwegian Agricultural Development Project) and VASFA approach the small and marginal farmers and persuade them to obtain the benefits of a joint tubewell. The first step in this direction is the formation of groups of small and marginal farmers. Generally farmers having land over 5 acres are not included. However, sometimes their inclusion is unavoidable, on account of the location of their land. The members of the group should have contiguous land so that it could be commanded by a joint tubewell. One of the member-farmers in each group has to donate 0.02 acres of the land for installation of the tubewell. The group members elect one of them as group leader. Each farmer furnishes a copy of the official record of the total land owned by him and enters in an agreement to abide by the terms and conditions set by VASFA and INADP (IndoNorwegian Agricultural Development Project). The papers are then submitted to the loaning bank (Central Bank of India), and the necessary amount is withdrawn from the revolving fund for the construction of the tubewell cabin, installation of pump set, energisation, and construction of field channels. After the completion of these works, the total cost is distributed among the group members in proportion to the area of their land under the tubewell command. The members at this stage enter into a direct agreement with the bank, according to which the amount is treated as a term loan borrowed by the individual farmer from the bank. Each farmer is required to pay his loan with interest in five years in six-monthly installments. There is also a provision to recover the loan from one-tenth of the crop of the farmers.

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MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNITY TUBEWELLS

The management of each tube well was the joint responsibility of group farmers and the group leader. The water charges for members and non-members were fixed different. Initially most of the community tubewell had electricity motor but with non-availability and irregular supply of electricity nearly all the tubewell changed to diesel operated engines. Presently, the charges for members are Rs. 9/hr plus diesel and for nonmembers it is Rs. 18/hr plus diesel. The members who want to irrigate their lands which are outside the demarcated command area initially are charged as non-member. In regard with the water distribution of water, members are preferred first then nonmembers. For giving water, the time duration is allocated to members in proportion to their land. Sometimes the time duration is fixed on a weekly basis, at other times it is decided by mutual agreement and convenience of the group members. The method for collecting the water charges, in majority of the cases it has been observed that, members pay after the crop selling/crop maturation, and the nonmembers pay either on a monthly basis or at the time of taking the water. Sometimes the members also pay on a monthly basis. Conflicts did arise in some cases, either over the distribution of water, caused generally because of electric failures and rostering of electricity/scarcity of diesel, or over the operation and maintenance of the tubewell and upkeep of field channels etc but it was reported that conflicts are resolved in the groups somehow. The most common method used for resolution of conflicts is to call a group meeting and thrash out the problem to a workable solution. The second most common method is to involve the VASFA and INADP officials in the meetings and thirdly a particular member can be warned for cancellation of his membership by the rest of the members. PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS Some of the major problems associated in smooth working of community tubewells have been short supply of electricity, either due to electric failure or because of rostering of electric supply, acute shortage of diesel during the peak season, timely maintenance of mechanical defects in the tubewells, non-payment dues in time by the farmers in some cases, lack in maintenance of proper records and accounts on irrigation, initially when groups were formed some influential farmers also came in groups they managed to get the tubewells installed in their land and also became group leaders and create problems committing all kinds of irregularities and trying to deprive the other group members of the association, in few places caste barriers came into picture where high caste and low caste people had reservation in working together. Timely recovery of bank loan does became a common problem as recovery of loan was not stressed in the initial stages this was to give farmers ample time to maximize their agricultural production and to repay the loan when they become prosperous. However, this initial complacency has made the farmer indulgent, non-appreciative of the role of the bank. In this way the loan were treated as a free gift in some cases, and does not care to repay it.

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IMPACT OF COMMUNITY TUBEWELLS Besides these problems as stated above community tube wells have done good job to bring wider group of farming community to work together. Specially incase of resource poor farmers who are not able to enjoy the benefit of owning a tube well. In this way the movement started by VASFA and INADP have not only helped small and marginal farmers to get access to irrigation water but have also helped these farmers get individual bank loans for meeting their various other agricultural requirements or provide them a subsidiary source of income – i.e., diary development etc. The poor farmers are thus helped to get rid of the clutches of money-lenders. Considering one of the major concerns of the policy makers in recent years which have been to percolate the benefits of the various schemes to the rural poor judging from this angle, the experiment of community tube wells in Vaishali has been extremely successful. CONCLUSION On the basis of out study it can be recommended that community tube wells are bound to be successful subject to proper kind of leadership/awareness campaign & technical know-how is facilitated amongst wider group of farming community besides taking care of formation of tube well groups. This attempt also facilitate conjunctive use of rain, ground and surface water besides bringing improvement in the local environment which directly or indirectly helps the livelihood of the people in the area through increased yield, better health, employment opportunity etc. At other hand on social front this attempt brings different set (based on holding sizes and caste) of rural community together. REFERENCES 1. Anonymous. 2004. Agricultural Statistics at a Glance. 2004. Accessed on internet at http://agricoop.nic.in/Agristatistics.htm on 21/12/2006. 2. Ballabh Vishwa and Kameshwar Choudhary. 2003. Groundwater and Agriculture Production: A Comparative Study of Eastern UP, Bihar and West Bengal’, IWMITATA Water Policy Programme, Anand. 3. Prassad Kamta. 2000. Study on status, impact and determinants of farmers’ participation in irrigation management. Sponsored by Planning Commission Gov. of India. Institute for Resource Management and Economic development Delhi – 110092. Published on Nov. 2000. Accessed on internet at http:// planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/irmed/irm_cont.pdf on 21st Dec. 2006. 4. Pant Niranjan. 2004. Trends in Groundwater Irrigation in Eastern and Western UP. Paper published in Economic and Political Weekly July 31, 2004. Accessed on net on 16/12/2006 at http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/iwmitata/files/pdf/EPW/EPW02.pdf.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION POLICY UNDER THE INDONESIAN WATER RESOURCES LAW

Soeprapto Budisantoso1

ABSTRACT Indonesian Water Resources Law issued in 2004 provide a benchmark for water resources management and development, and therefore for irrigation, policy in Indonesia. The irrigation sector affects the livelihood of Indonesian farmers, and influence nation’s food production. In accordance to the law, irrigation management be held by the government, and irrigation service fee is free within the government’s built and operated irrigation systems. However, due to limited government’s financial, material, and human resources, farmers and other beneficiaries participation in term of contribution is encouraged. The law also determines local government participation, in term of obligation, to share government’s responsibility on the base of administration boundary and the areas of irrigation systems. This policy was a form of adjustment to former policy on Irrigation issued in 2001, in which irrigation management to be handed over to farmers, and irrigation service fee is an obligation collected by farmers to finance the purpose, and government’s participation, in term of contribution, is encouraged to help farmers. However, under the new participation policy, farmers may be assigned to manage the irrigation system on behalf of the government, on condition that farmers are capable and willing to contribute 50 percent of management cost of the proposed system. Keywords: PIM, Indonesian Water Law, Irrigation

1- Former Head of Utilities Management Service, Water Resources Management Services, South Sulawesi Province, Republic of Indonesia, Jl. AP Petta Rani no 88, Makassar, 90222. Phone: 62-411-440322, Fax: 62-411-458438, email: [email protected].

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INTRODUCTION 1.A. IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Indonesian Water Resources Law issued in 2004 (Law No 7/2004) determine policy and strategy related to irrigation development and management in Indonesia. It is because of irrigation affects the livelihood of many low income Indonesian farmers and the country food production, according to the law, the irrigation development and management is under the government authority and responsibility. However, due to the decentralization and participation policy aiming at sustainable irrigation management, the law distributes the authority, and therefore responsibility, of irrigation development and management to the regional governments (provinces and districts/municipalities) and also to the beneficiaries (farmers). The delineation of the responsibility is as tabulated in Table 1. The foregoing table shows the necessity of support by other stakeholders to perform the development and management, indicates the participatory policy of irrigation development and management of the Republic of Indonesia. The standard of government built irrigation system is shown in a schematic diagram as in Figure 1.

Primary canal

Weir

Secondary Canal

Tertiary Canal

Tertiary Canal

Tertiary Canal

Tertiary Systems

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Indonesian Irrigation System Lay Out

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Table 1. Policy and strategy of Indonesian Irrigation Development and Management under Water Resources Law No 7/2004 Program

Government financed Irrigation Development

Activity

Upgrading and Construction of New and Expansion of Primary and Secondary Irrigation Canals

Category of the systems

Responsibility by

Supported by

(obligation)

(contribution)

Within the district/ Municipality

District/Municipality Government

Farmers, Provincial, and Central Government

Inter-district Irrigation Systems

Provincial Government

Farmers, District, and Central Government

Inter-province Irrigation Systems

Central

Farmers, District and Provincial Government

Government

Within the district/ District/Municipality Government

Farmers, Provincial, and Central Government

Provincial Government

Farmers, District, and Central Government

Central Government

Farmers, District and Provincial Government

Structural Development

Government

Farmers

Canal Development and System OM

Farmers

Government

municipality

Government financed Irrigation Management

Operation, Maintenance, and Rehabilitation of Primary and Secondary Irrigation Canals

Less than 1,000 ha Inter-district and 1,000 – 3,000 ha Irrigation Systems Inter-province and over 3,000 ha Irrigation Systems

Irrigation Development and Management

Tertiary System within Government financed Irrigation System

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary within the private/village financed irrigation system

Private/Village

1.B. PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT.

The participatory irrigation development and management, is defined as participation of beneficiaries and other stakeholders in the whole process of development and management not limited in the planning and decision making process but also in financing, implementing, and providing other resources as inputs to the irrigation development and management, in terms of obligation as well as contribution. Under the foregoing policy and strategy, the institutional development, empowerment, and capacity building of the stakeholders to be reached by the following activities: 1. Incorporation of the stakeholders in the planning , design, and implementation of irrigation development (construction and upgrading) and management (operation, maintenance, and rehabilitation),

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2. Participation in financing and providing resources, as obligation as well as contribution, in construction, operation and maintenance. In case of farmer’s participation, it is as obligation in the tertiary systems and as contribution in primary and secondary systems. 3. Provision or assistance of organizational and institutional assets such as office space and equipment, transportation facilities, and production facilities, i.e., from central government to regional government, or from government to farmers. IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN INDONESIA 1.C. The objectives: The main objective of irrigation development and management is to support the agricultural development aims to increase the income and welfare of the rural population, farmers in particular. Improvement of farmer’s income by increasing the agricultural production will reduce number of rural population under poverty line (37.3 million, 2003), improve welfare, and increase agricultural sector contribution to the GDP. The 2003 data show number of land owner farmers engaged in rice cultivation is 17.56 million household with average land ownership size of paddy field is 0.44 Ha/household. The income per capita of the country is IDR 7.1 million (721 USD). Agricultural sector, together with forestry and fishery, contribute 16.6.% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), while mining and quarrying sector contribute 10.7 %, trading, hotels, and restaurant 16.3 %, industries and manufactures 24.6 % and others sectors 31.8 %. Another purpose of agricultural development supported by irrigation is securing food availability for the increasing population of the country. Total number of Indonesian population by the year of 2003 is approximately 215 million and the latest population growth rate is 1.5 % per year. Indonesian mainly consumes rice, which contributes to supply 67% of calories and 64 % of proteins per capita per year. In 2003, total production of paddy is 56 million ton (dried un-husked paddy). The incremental rate of paddy production is 1.14 % per year. Java Island produces 54.18 % of the total production, with production rate of 5.23 ton/ha. Paddy production is the largest output of food crop, followed by cassava (18.5 million ton), maize (10.9 million ton), peanuts (0.78 million ton) and soybean (0.67 million ton). It was partly because of the foregoing purpose and condition that under the new Indonesian Water Resources Law, government assume responsibility of irrigation development and management, and therefore, farmers within the government built irrigation system are free from paying the irrigation service fee. The extent of government responsibility and obligation shown in the following Table 2.

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Table 2. Classification of Paddy Fields Condition of Paddy Field Developped By Administration Irrigated Paddy Fields Governement Central Provincial District Village Rainfed Paddy Fields Total Paddy Fields

Area (Ha) Ratio (%) 2.206.000 29 1.098.000 14 2.701.000 35 560.000 7 1.135.000 15 100 7.700.000

1.D. FORMER POLICIES ON PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION

The participatory irrigation development and management factually has been embedded within the traditional culture of the nation. The traditional model varies with the region and ethnic groups, but one of the most famous was Subak System in Island of Bali, in which farmers develop their own “water government” with strong set of democratic laws and guidelines to be observed by its members, connecting the social and cultural obligation with their beliefs and religion. The irrigation systems, categorized as village financed irrigation systems, scale varies from 10 to 800 ha, was built with heavy contents of appropriate technology in the planning of canal lay-out, and in the structural design and construction. It was in early 1900 when Dutch Administration started to develop large scale irrigation schemes in Indonesia for the benefit of their trading company VOC (Dutch East Indian Company). Then, after the proclamation of independence in 1945, the irrigation development was escalated under the Indonesian New Order Government started in 1966. The development, with top down approach and the spirit of government build everything, subsided beneficiaries participation. The tertiary irrigation system development which had been the responsibility of farmers was taken over by the government. Under the situation where farmers’ participation was neglected, farmers became passive, powerless, yet demanding, which in turn became the cause of difficulties in operation and maintenance and high cost in government expenditures in irrigation. Realizing the future difficulties when farmer’s participation in irrigation development and management was diminishing, Indonesian Government, in cooperation with various donor countries such as Japan (JICA and JIBIC), USAID, World Bank, ADB, GON, etc, started to plan and implement various models of institutional development, empowerment, and capacity building, in promoting farmers and beneficiary’s participation. It was started in early 1980’s when irrigation design team was not only consisting of engineers and economist, but also sociologist and anthropologist studying the existing and the required farmers and stakeholders institutions and improving farmers’ capacity and participation in the irrigation development. In assisting the study team speaking to farmers and implementing the socio-engineering prepared by the team, the service of NGO became necessary. Under the centralized New Order Government (1965-1998), it was formulated that Central Government develop the irrigation system, while Regional and Local

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Government conduct the irrigation management, i.e., operation maintenance and small rehabilitation, under Central Government inappropriate financial support. The beneficiaries participation was developed by beneficiaries pay principle in which farmers, organized in Water Users Association (WUA), were to pay the government collected irrigation service fee (ISF) to gradually reduce government burden on providing cost of irrigation management. In general the ISF collection rate was small. Moreover, although in some regions the ISF collection rate is appropriately high, the outcome was not satisfactory for the regional government used the collected ISF for purposes other than irrigation management. As a result Central Government burden on irrigation management cost were remain high, irrigation system maintenance were inadequate and suffer from serious degradation, and farmers were reluctantly pay for the ISF. When the decentralization law was enacted to promote local government participation, irrigation management was placed under the responsibility of local government. Because of the limited local government budget capacity, local government collected ISF became the backbone to support of the irrigation management cost. However, because of reasons discussed in the foregoing paragraphs, collection of ISF was inadequate, and irrigation system degradation was increasing. Under the National Water Resources Policy Reform leading to strengthen private sector involvement supported by World Bank and Asian Development Bank it was concluded that beneficiaries pay and manage policy will be a possible solution to overcome the irrigation management problems. Under the reform, Indonesian Government Regulation on Irrigation issued in 2001 promoted farmers to be the responsible institution for irrigation management, and an irrigation management hand-over from government to farmer’s organization meeting the hand-over criteria shall be conducted. The farmers collected ISF, will be the backbone to support the irrigation management cost with government assistance, as government participation in term of contribution. To support the 2001 Irrigation Management Policy, the following steps was required: x Formation and revitalization of farmers’ Water User Association (WUA) in tertiary systems, federation of water users association (FWUA) in secondary systems, and main water user’s organization (MWUA) in primary systems, in a democratic and participative way. x Formation of Irrigation Commission, stakeholders’ forum authorized to determine irrigation plan, policy, and financing within the framework of participatory approach in District Level and Provincial Level, respectively. x Capacity development and empowerment of the aforementioned institutions by training (organization, administration, operation and maintenance, finance, cooperatives, farming, etc), comparative study, and by provision of appropriate legal status, power, and regulations supporting the institutions, and by provision of technical and financial assistance whenever necessary. Capacity development and empowerment of the WUA/FWUA/MWUA by incorporation in the planning and design activities, and also in the implementation of irrigation development (construction and upgrading) and hand over the management

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(operation, maintenance, and rehabilitation) related to the area represented by the farmer groups. 1.E. ADJUSTMENT OF THE 2001 IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT POLICY.

In contrary of the hand over irrigation management policy to the farmers group stipulated in the Government Regulation no 77/ 2001, the Water Resources Law no7/ 2004 stated that irrigation management of primary and secondary system remain under the government responsibility, including the cost responsibility, whereas the farmers group responsible for the management and cost of the tertiary system. The other adjustment is that farmers were not required to pay for the ISF to the government, except for organizational levee in the tertiary system collected by farmers. The policy was verified by the issuance of Government Regulation no 20 in 2006 on Irrigation as a replacement to the former Government Regulation no 77/2001. The purpose of the adjustment was to remove the irrigation management burden from the farmer’s shoulders, particularly the financial burden that will possibly become more expensive if the farmers group as private institution holding the irrigation management determines the profitable irrigation service fee. Beneficiaries pay principle was considered inappropriate applied to the farmers since Indonesian farmers were normally poor, considering the land ownership size of only 0.44 ha/farmer household. However, in promoting the farmers participation particularly in the area where farmers are capable, a ministerial decree was prepared to guide that in addition of farmers shared responsibility in tertiary system irrigation management, farmers were allowed, under their own willing and proposition, to manage on behalf of the responsible government, the secondary and primary systems, on condition that farmers are willing and capable to contribute 50% of the management cost of the system they want to manage. CONCLUSION Participation of stakeholders, i.e., regional and local government and farmers group, in irrigation development and management, requires not only incorporation of the stakeholders in the decision making and implementation of the process, but also allocation or mobilization of their input and resources in kind of manpower, materials, equipment and finance, may be in the form of obligation because of the law, and/or in the form of contribution based on their capability and willing. The foregoing steps were obtained through empowerment of the related irrigation development and management institution and Water Users Associations (WUAs). The on going policy on irrigation management supported by Indonesian Water Resources Law and the new Government Regulation on Irrigation was dedicated to remove the irrigation management burden and cost from farmers shoulder, however when farmers are capable, under farmers willing farmers may conduct the management of the irrigation system on behalf of the responsible government on condition that farmer can afford to contribute 50% of the management cost of the system.

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REFFERENCES 1. Government of Indonesia, 2004, Republic of Indonesia’s Law No.7 Year 2004 on Water Resources, Directorate of Water Resources and Irrigation, Ministry of National Development/National Planning Agency, The Law, 55, The Explanation, 55, Indonesia. 2. Government of Indonesia, 2001, Government Regulation no.77 on Irrigation, Directorate General of Water Resources, Ministry of Public Works, Indonesia. 3. Government of Indonesia, 2006, Government Regulation no.20 on Irrigation, Directorate General of Water Resources, Ministry of Public Works, Indonesia. 4. Government of Indonesia, 2005, Draft Ministry of Public Work Decree on Participatory Irrigation Management, Directorate General of Water Resources, Ministry of Public Works, Indonesia.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

EXPERIENCES OF BULK WATER ALLOCATION IN LARGE SCALE IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

Mohamed Aheeyar1

ABSTRACT Irrigation Management Turnover (IMT) was introduced in major and medium scale irrigation scheme in Sri Lanka in early 1990s. After over a decade of experiences it has been found that, Water Users Associations (WUAs) have failed to mobilize adequate amount of resources toward system operation and maintenance (O&M) leading to inefficient water use and deterioration of irrigation infrastructure. The concept of Bulk Water Allocation (BWA) was introduced in 2002 and pilot tested in the Mahaweli System-H to find out a methodology, which can be used as a complete solution for water management problems in large-scale irrigation schemes. Under the BWA quantity of water to be issued for a particular distributary canal (DC) and consequently for a particular user for the cultivation practices in a given season is fixed before commencement of the season. The concept provided the volumetric impression of water use and incentive to utilize the water in an efficient manner. The research findings show that, water productivity, cropping intensity and extent of cultivation in dry season has increased significantly after implementation of BWA while using less amount of water to cultivate one unit of land has reduced. Farmer perception on BWA is also very positive in terms of increase in productivity and income. BWA concept has been seen as a strategy to achieve the expected objectives of IMT. Adequate supply of water with reliability and timeliness has improved the farmers’ confidence in water issues which has been a great incentive to motivate farmers to shift from traditional high water consuming, low return rice cultivation to less water consumptive, high return cash crops. Decentralized partial O&M cost recovery adopted with BWA has been successful in achieving targeted collection compared to past failed attempts of centralized water charges.

1- Research Associate, Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute, PO Box 1522 Colombo, Sri Lanka. Email: [email protected], Tel: +94112698539, Fax:+94112692423

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1. INTRODUCTION Allocation of finance for sustainable operation and maintenance (O&M) of irrigation systems has been decreasing over the years due to budgetary and fiscal constraints although irrigation systems have been expanding and improving in Sri Lanka after gaining independence in 1948. Failure to make necessary policy changes to generate and allocate sufficient funds to properly operate and maintain the irrigation systems has been one of the main concerns of policy makers to avert the deterioration of irrigation infrastructure and increase the efficiency of water use in irrigated agriculture in order to meet competing demand for water between different sectors. Participatory irrigation management (PIM) policy was adopted in major irrigation systems in Sri Lanka in late 1980s as a measure of government cost reduction in operation and maintenance (O&M and improve the performance of the systems. However, after couple of decades of experience in PIM, it has been found that, WUAs have failed to mobilize adequate amount of resources toward O&M, and some of the maintenance responsibilities have become 'no body's' business and there is a serious under investment in irrigation system maintenance (Aheeyar, 1997, Samad and Vermillion, 1999). The situation has lead to not only poor irrigation performances but also deterioration of irrigation infrastructure than expected life period and leading to premature rehabilitation of the entire scheme. Mahaweli H area is the first of the downstream area benefited by Mahaweli river diversion project. The system H has the longest history of settlement in the country and was relatively highly occupied before the Mahaweli water was diverted. System H contains about 60 percent of irrigable land with well-drained Reddish Brown Earth (RBE) soils, which require more water for the cultivation of low land rice. The total irrigation extent in the system H is around 31,500 ha allocated among equal number of farmers at the rate of one hectare per farmer. The cropping pattern in the system H is generally rice crop for entire extent during wet season and rice and Other Field Crops (OFCs) for 50 percent of total extent during dry season. Therefore annual cropping intensity rarely reaches over 150 percent in system H, which is lowest, compared to other parts of Mahaweli development area. Therefore water management is crucially important in Mahaweli system H for the successful cultivation especially during dry season. At the same time lack of a financial allocation for O&M due to fiscal constraints lead to poor performance of irrigation systems, which aggravated the problem of water scarcity and of proper management of limited available water. Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (MASL) implemented various special water management packages in Mahaweli H area time to time to meet the challenge of water scarcity and to improve the water use efficiency. The concept of Bulk Water Allocation (BWA) was introduced and pilot tested by Mahaweli Restructuring and Rehabilitation Project (MRRP) in Mahaweli system-H to find out a methodology, which can be used as a complete solution for water management problems in major irrigation schemes (Gunaratna, 2004). Under the BWA, quantity of water to be issued for a particular user and consequently to the distributory canal for cultivation practices in a given season is fixed before commencement of the season. Therefore, particular user has a legal water right and has to actively participate in water management and also provided incentive to save the water. A maintenance fund has been set up at DC level with farmer contribution in order to conduct the self-

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management of canal system. Under this initiative in Mahaweli System it was expected to develop Mahaweli H to as a ‘model demonstration system’ in terms of both irrigation management and commercialized agricultural production system. The programme was implemented as a package which included rehabilitation of the system, IMT, allocation of water on pre fixed quantities at each seasons, capacity building of farmers and officials, institutional development and establishment of forward and backward linkages. The concept was seen as a strategy to achieve the expected objectives of IMT and increases the water use efficiency and water productivity. The project started in 2001 dry season, on pilot basis in selected locations and later it has become a broad subject in Mahaweli H area with the improvements made in subsequent seasons. The other main features of the BWA is farmers have to pay a O&M fee of Rs 250 per ha per season to the respective WUAs which is to be used for the sustainable O&M of the turned over distibutory system. Farmers have to manage the crop with the agreed quota of water and the irrigation agency has the responsibility of supplying the promised amount of water. The failure to supply of agreed quota and consequent crop failure has to be compensated in double by the agency and the demand for additional amount of water by farmers will be charged. 2. OBJECTIVES The major objective of the study is to assess the impacts of participatory irrigation management adopted through implantation of BWA concept on the performance of water distribution and agricultural production. 3. RESEARCH METHODS 3.1. STUDY SITES

Mahaweli H system is divided into nine blocks for the purpose of administration, in which two blocks were selected randomly for the detailed survey, namely Galnewa and Madatugama blocks. Two WUAs from each block selected randomly to represent head and tail areas of branch canals. 3.2. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK

The study is based on the information and data collected from literature, secondary data maintained by MASL, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and structured questionnaire survey. Necessary data was also collected from WUAs records. A multi stage stratified random sampling technique was adopted in selecting sample farmers considering the head and tail differences of the system and the selected canals. The total sample size was 120. The main quantitative parameters used for the assessment are,

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i) Cropping intensity= Area cultivated in the dry season  Area cultivated in the wet season *100 Cultivable area ii) Tank Water duty (m)= Actual quantity of irrigation water used (m3) Actual extent cultivated (m2) iii) Land and water productivity Land productivity is defined as value of output obtained from a unit of cultivated area while water productivity is the value of output received from a unit of irrigation water supplied. Land Productivity ($/ha)

=

Total Value of Pr oduction ($) Total Cultivated area (ha )

Water Productivity ($/m3)

=

Total Value of Pr oduction ($) Diverted Irrigation sup ply(m3)

Standard Gross value of Production (SVGP) is used to measure value of production. SVGP is standardized estimates of production calculated using international price of rice (major crop cultivated under irrigated condition). Pi )Pw Pb

SVGP =

( ¦ AiYi

Ai

-

Area of crop i

Yi

-

Yield of crop i

Pi

-

Price of Crop i

Pb

-

Price of base crop (Rice)

Pw

-

Price of base crop traded at world price

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1. WATER SUPPLY PERFORMANCE 4.1.1. Gross water quota/ seasonal water duty at block level

Data was analyzed to find out the performance of water duty before vs after BWA in Mahaweli H area. The block level water duty gives an overall idea of the efficiency of the whole system in providing water to save crop needs.

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Figure 1 illustrates the trend of tank water duty over the years in dry seasons, indicating the improvement in tank water duty after year 2002. As Mathmaluwa (2003) pointed out, lowering of tank water duty is a combined effect of restricted water quota delivered under BWA, cultivation of low water requiring crops, effective water management under IMT and rehabilitation of irrigation system before turnover. Performance achieved in water duty is a result of the efficiency in water distribution and in utilization of water at secondary and tertiary level by WUAs and water supply performance in primary canal system by the irrigation agency. Therefore the study analyzes the data of main canal water duties of Mahaweli H to find out the trend of water duty in the main canals, where canal maintenance and water distribution is mainly handed by MASL. The average main canal water duty during dry seasons in the past 5 years prior to the implementation of BWA is 4.85ft, while the average value after BWA is 3.43ft. The main reasons for the lowered main canal water duty are reduced conveyance losses due to rehabilitation of canal system and strict management practices adopted in water supply after BWA as perceived by irrigation officials.

7

600

6

500

Duty

400

4 300 3 200

2

100

1 0

R/F Rainfall (mm)

Water Duty (ft)

5

0 90

92

94

96

98

00

02

04

Year

Figure 1. Average water duty in past dry seasons and rainfall pattern

4.1.2. Percentage of land extent cultivated in dry season

Area cultivated during the past dry seasons in Mahaweli H area before BWA was far below than planned extent in Mahaweli development programme and in many years it had been below 50 percent of total cultivable land. However, the extent cultivated in dry seasons after 2002 was over 60 percent of total land and shows an increasing trend except in year 2004 which affected by severe drought prevailed in the country. Figure 2 illustrates the percent of land extent cultivated in past dry seasons. The achieved performances is basically an outcome of the water saving of wet season due to strict water management policies adopted with the implementation of BWA and more farmers shifting to less water consuming crops.

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The aim of the BWA programme is to reach 100 percent extent of cultivation in the dry seasons, but it is yet to be realized. The extent cultivated in 2005 dry season has reached to about 93 percent of total extent, which is a remarkable achievement compared to past seasons.

Pre BWA

100

Post BWA

90

Extent (ha)

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

00

01

02

03

04

05

Year

Figure 2. Percentage of land extend cultivated in past dry seasons

4.1.3. Cropping intensity

Annual cropping intensity (CI) for past 10 years of Mahaweli H area was examined to understand the change of CI over the years. The findings are shown in figure 3. The figure indicates the gradual increase of cropping intensity after implementation of BWA in 2002. One of the reasons for the lower CI before 2002 might be deteriorated state of infrastructure prior to rehabilitation. According to farmers and officials higher CI was achieved not only due to rehabilitation of the scheme, but also with cultivating less water consuming crops and efficient use of water in both seasons.

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Pre BWA

Post BWA

y = 1.4213x + 50.788 R2 = 0.581

100 90

Yeld (bu/ac)

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

00

01

02

03

04

Year

Figure 3. Changes in cropping intensity in Mahaweli H area

4.2. PERFORMANCE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY 4.2.1. Changes in crop yield

The major crop cultivated in Mahaweli H system is rice both in wet and dry seasons. Therefore, the change in rice yield was observed to understand the trend of yield over the years. The findings are illustrated in figure 4. The figure clearly shows an increase of yield in dry seasons is very prominent after year 2002. The similar results are observed in the wet season yield data too. Though yield is an outcome of multiple factors such as variety improvement, access to extension, use of straw/organic fertilizers and timely cultural practices, the WUA leaders perceived that systematic water management and reliable supply is one of the main reasons for the increase in rice yield in both seasons. According to TEAMS (2003), the yield level was low before BWA programme and some tail end farmers received much lower yield during before BWA.

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y = 1.4213x + 50.788 2 R = 0.581 100

Pre BWA

90

Post BWA

80 70 60

Yeld

50 40 30 20 10 0 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04

Year Figure 4. Changes in rice yield in Mahaweli H –dry seasons

4.2.4. Land and water productivity

Land and water productivity values are calculated in terms of gross value of output obtained per hectare of land and per cubic meter of irrigation water respectively. Rice is the major crop in the Maheweli H system in wet seasons. Although there is a small extent of land under OFCs during wet seasons, due to non-availability of reliable data on yield and price of OFCs, the valuation was limited to rice cultivation. The international price of rice was calculated at 2005 constant US dollars. Productivity values were estimated from 1999/2000 to 2004/2005 wet season. To avoid the effect of price fluctuation of rice in local and world market the average prices are used for the reference period (1999-2005). The findings on land and water productivity are illustrated in figure 5. The figure shows that land productivity has not increased much over the time compared to pre vs post BWA. However water productivity values are showing an increasing trend after BWA indicating the performances in water distribution.

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1400

0.16

1200

0.14

0.08 600

0.06

400

SVGP $

0.1

800

3

0.12

1000 SVGP $

Land Productivity Water Productivity

0.04

200

0.02

0

0 99/00

00/01

01/02

02/03

03/04

04/05

Year

Figure 5. changes in land and water productivity Table 1 highlights the summary of the findings of the irrigation system performances achieved with the implementation of BWA. The results show that there is a tremendous increase on the performances of the area irrigated per unit of water, extent under non rice crops and percentage area cultivated during dry seasons. Table 1. Summary of selected performance parameters Performance before BWA (1996-2000)

Performance after BWA (2001-2005)

Percent change

Performance parameters Wet season

Dry season

Wet season

Dry season

Wet season

Dry season

1.

Tank water duty (m)

1.18

1.50

0.889

0.94

-24.6

-37.3

2.

Area irrigated per unit of water (ha/MCM)

88.9

81.39

119.36

119.96

+34.26

+47.38

3.

Water productivity (wet season) (US$/m3)

0.1

-

0.13

-

+30

-

4.

Land productivity(wet season (US$/ha)

1087.5

-

1148.9

-

+5.6

-

5.

Rice yield (t/ha)

5.03

3.98

5.21

4.49

+3.6

+12.7

6.

Extent under non rice crops (ha)

865.75

5854

1041.75

8971

+20.3

+53.2

7.

% of land extent cultivated in dry season

-

42.45

-

64.63

-

+52.2

8.

Annual cropping intensity

148.25

164.11

+10.7

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4.3. FARMER PERFORMANCE INDEX

Pingali et-al (1990) has developed an index called farmer performance index, which was defined as the ratio of farmer yield to the location specific yield potential. The indictor provides an idea of farmers' ability to exploit the yield potential in the given circumstances. According to Deputy Resident Project Manager (Agriculture) of Mahaweli H, the potential paddy yield of the Mahweli H area is 6 metric tones per hectare. The performance index has been calculated separately for the rice farmers both in head end and tail end of branch canals and both wet and dry seasons. Farmer performance index developed for 2005 dry season is illustrated in figure 6. According to these findings, on average farmers have achieved 93% (5580kg/ha) and 80% (4796kg/ha) of the technical efficiency in paddy cultivation during wet and dry seasons respectively in year 2004/2005. The findings also suggest that about 31% of farmers during wet season both in head and tail end areas and 15 of the farmers during dry season were able to exceed the yield potential. About 55% and 38% of farmers achieved the technical efficiency of 85-110 during wet and dry respectively.

Head Tail Average 140

Performance Index

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1

3

5

7

9

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41

Farmer No.

Figure 6. Farmer performance index for head end tail areas (dry season-2005) 4.3. FARMER PERCEPTIONS ON IRRIGATION SYSTEMS PERFORMANCE REALIZED AFTER BWA

Almost all the farmers were in favor of the performances realized from BWA compared to water management practices implemented in the past. The main benefit of BWA is farmers’ know how about the water quota they are expected to get in the season in advance which has helped them to plan for cropping system and cultivation practices accordingly. About 95 percent of farmers perceived that they always or usually get their fair share of water while only 5 percent mentioned that they sometime get their fair share of water.

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The perceptions on impacts of BWA on crop yield, income from agriculture and profitability of agriculture are positive for large proportion of farmers. About 50 percent of farmers perceived that, income and profitability of agriculture has increased after implementation of BWA. WUA leaders of all selected location perceived that, correct amount of water supply has lead to significant yield increase in paddy cultivation. Increase of income has achieved by farmers during both seasons via increase in extent of cultivation and cultivation of high value crops. The achieved benefits from BWA programme have motivated framers to contribute more toward irrigation system O&M. The survey findings shows that O&M fee is regularly paid by 92 percent of farmers in head end areas and 100 percent farmers in tail end areas, showing the enormous concerns of farmers in sustainable O&M of irrigation system 5. CONCLUDING REMARKS BWA programme has resulted in improving water supply performance and agricultural production performance. Performance of water supply after BWA has improved considerably in terms of gross water quota allocated during both wet and dry seasons at block levels. The block level water duty has reduced at the average of 24.6 percent and 37.3 percent respectively during wet and dry seasons. Extent cultivated during dry seasons after BWA has increased at the average of 52 percent, with an increase of annual cropping intensity by 10.7 percent. Area irrigated per unit of water had increased by 34 percent and water productivity values has risen by 30 percent after BWA programme. Extent under less water consuming, high value cash crops has shown a 52 percent increase with the implementation of BWA. The approach and methodology adopted for the implementation of BWA programme in Mahaweli H area provides good lesson of experiences for rest of the major irrigation schemes, which are having suitable infrastructure and experiencing water allocation problems. In addition to the hardware aspects of development by MRRP, the software parts of development activities including institutional development, private sector involvement in forward purchase arrangements and collaborative supports received from other government agencies are noteworthy features of this water management programme. Comprehensive devolution policy for the irrigation sector with clear arrangement for roles and responsibilities and assured water supply provide tangible benefits which can encourage farmers to invest in the long term sustainability of their irrigation infrastructure. Allocation and sharing of responsibilities should be with clear policy demarcations on who is responsible for the specified activities and who can be made accountable if these activities do not take place. The irrigation management transfer should widen up the focus beyond mere cost recovery but in helping and creating an environment to generate the necessary development impulses for increasing agricultural productivity, marketing linkages, scale of production and farmers income.

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REFERENCES 1. Aheeyar, M.M.M. 1997. “Participatory Irrigation Management and Sustainability of Irrigation Infrastructure: A case of Irrigation management turnover in Sri Lanka,” Proceedings of the International conference on Large scale Water Resources Development in Developing countries: New Dimensions of problems and prospects, October 20th-23rd, Kathmandu, Nepal. 2. Gunaratne, B. 2003. Bulk Water Allocation Concept for Improving Water Productivity- A Pilot Study in Mahaweli System H. In R.P. De Silva (ed), Water Resources Research in Sri Lanka, Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya. 3. Mathmaluwa. S, 2003. The Effect of Irrigation Management Transfer on the productivity of an Irrigation system. A study on the Madatugama block of Mahaweli system H. Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree of Master of Science in soil and Water, Waganingen University, The Netherlands. 4. Pingali, P.L., Moya, P.F. and Velasco, L.E. 1990. The Post Green revolution Blues in Asia Rice Production. International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines. 5. Samad, M. and D. Vermillion. 1999. Assessment of Participatory Management of Irrigation Schemes in Sri Lanka: Partial Reforms, Partial Benefits. Research Report No. 34, International Water Management Institute, Colombo. 6. Teams, 2003. An Independent Audit to Evaluate the performance of Madatugama block in system H under MRRP programme, Report submitted to Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka, T.B. Jayah Mawatha, Colombo 10 (unpublished Report).

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

TRADITIONAL WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS AND MANAGEMENT IN WADI HADHRAMOU YEMEN

Dr. Mohamed Al-Hebshi1 & Eng. Saleh Ahmed Bin Rabaa2

ABSTRACT Wadi Hadhramout, a key area for agricultural production, is located in Southern East of Yemen . Yemeni civilization had prospered in an area where water is the most limiting factor. Traditional methods of water resources control, storage and delivery including soil erosion prevention, rainwater harvesting, and irrigation and drinking water-delivery structures, some of which have survived for many centuries. This indigenous knowledge has neither been well documented nor scientifically analyzed in order to utilize it for supporting the sustainable development of rain-fed runoff and spate irrigated farming. In some areas the water management and water rights are known as the Habits (ALAADAT) which other areas sometimes use these habits to solve unprecedented problems in water management and water rights in these areas. A long experience in water harvesting and management as well as the maintenance of the irrigation structures systems are nearly to be disappeared and no record is known for this experience. During the period 1970 - 1990 of the Communist Regime in the Southern Governorate, the agricultural land was taken from its owners and distributed to others, thus participated in the negligence of the traditions. After the Unity the lands were returned to its owner. Also after the unity water acompanying oil add other problems. It is of most important to find out the water management experienced in the water harvesting agricultural areas and test the possibilities to get lesson from it to improve water harvesting.

1 - INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND Wadi Hadhramout, a key area for agricultural production, is located in Southern East of Yemen, and physically isolated by mountains and desert. Yemeni civilization had prospered in an area where water is the most limiting factor. Water harvesting and 1 - Faculty of Agricultural Sana’a University; Republic of Yemen. [email protected] or [email protected] Tel: 00967-77177011 2- Civil Engineer , MB ASCE - Director General - Local Water Supply and Sanitation Corporation Hadhramout Governorate Wadi & Deseret Regions Fox: +967 71575411 email: [email protected] Phone: +967 77165411 mobile: +967 5 400375 Res:. + 967 5 405788 Off.

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conservation have been developed and practiced for many centuries. Due to its location and the large differences in elevation and features of its mountainous area the Republic of Yemen (ROY) intercepts varying amounts of rainfall. Since early history, farmers have realized that agriculture is only possible by replenishing the plant available soilwater from limited and difficult to control water resources. Often, crop production is not possible under solely rain-fed condition and therefore runoff water harvesting and conservation are crucial for successful cropping. Traditional methods of water resources control, storage and delivery including soil erosion prevention, rainwater harvesting, and irrigation and drinking water-delivery structures, some of which have survived for many centuries. These structures, being long lasting, indicate that advanced procedures had been followed in their design and construction. With their traditional knowledge, the farmers of ancient Yemen must have understood and analyzed data relating to rainfall, runoff, soils and climatic conditions associated with land and water resources management. This indigenous knowledge has neither been well documented nor scientifically analyzed in order to utilize it for supporting the sustainable development of rain-fed runoff and spate irrigated farming The Wadis from upstream wadi Hadhramout are: 1 - Wadi Doaan ( Wadi Laiman ,Wadi Laiser , and Hajrain ) 2 - Wadi Alain ( Sudbeh , Hourah , Almokhainig ) 3 - Wadi Amed ( Amed , Horaidhah , Aandel ) 4 - Wadi Rakhyah 5 - Wadi Hainen 6 - Wadi Sur ( Shibam ) 7- Wadi Bin Ali . 8 - Wadi Aedim In some areas the water management and water rights are known as the Habits (ALAADAT) which are not documented from which other areas sometimes use these habits to solve unprecedented problems in water management and water rights in these areas . Some (Aadats) habits Known in Wadi Hadhramout are known as Follow from upstream Wadi Hadhramout :- 1-Aadat Alhajrain, 2-Aadat Gabdhain 3- Aadat Sudbeh, 4- Aadat Aandal, 5- Aadat Ghailan ,6 - Aadat Jomaileh,7- Aadat Shibam 2- THE PROBLEM: A long experience in water harvesting and management as well as the maintenance of the irrigation structures systems are nearly to be disappeared and no record is known for this experience. During the period 1970 - 1990 of the Communist Regime in the Southern Governorate, the agricultural land was taken from its owners and distributed to others, thus participated in the negligence of the traditions if not add new problems. After the Unity the lands were returned back to its owners. A new problem started with the oil production in Masilah (1993) when the oil produced acompany the water. As the irrigation systems and the agricultural activities in this area is very old the agricultural lands became widely distributed and rarely one land owner own (0.2) hectare in one place, more over due to cultural complication, it is very difficult to give up the land. The lands are spate irrigated excellent land. The ground water is available and the mean activities of the people is cultivation. It is required to test an unprecedented relationship for irrigation with ground water in scattered land ownership.

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3 – METHODOLGY This study has been reached by reviewing the literature in hand about Wadi Hadhramout, with field visits by the authors and personal experience and observations. Consultancy works done by authors in Wadi Hadhramout and other Yemen regions. 4 – WATER RESOURCES IN WADI HADHRAMOUT 4 – a - Surface Water 4-a-1- Rain water: The rain source is mostly the isolated cumulative clouds, this phenomena caused the rain fall on different isolated places which caused floods in some branches of wadi Hadhramout while other branches are dry. If it happened the clouds and then the rain spread over different branches simultaneously the floods from different branches accumulate and caused sever damage as it happened in the seventies. Wadi Hadhramout catchment area receives main annual rainfall of a density ranges between 50 mm and 300 mm, the catchment lays over mountains in the west and far north west ,desert in northwest and wadi course and tributaries in the north and south plateau . The catchment area is the largest in the Arab Peninsula.

The Wadi characteristic is unic in the world. In all wet or dry water courses the size of the wadi course at the beginning of the wadi is narrow and enlarged to the maximum size at the end which is not the case in wadi Hadhramout A long the wadi course there are many tributaries / branches counted more than fifty just down stream of Tarim Town.

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4 - a - 2 – Floods The rain source is mostly the isolated cumulative clouds, this phenomena caused the floods in some branches of wadi Hadhramout while the others are dry. If it happened the clouds and then the rain spread over different branches the floods from different branches accumulate and caused sever damage as it happened in the seventies.

Spate irrigation is an ancient form of water management, involving the diversion of flashy spate floods running off from mountainous catchments, using simple deflectors of bunds constructed from sand, stones and brushwood on the beds of normally dry wadis. Flood flows, usually flowing for only a few hours with appreciable discharges, and wit recession flows lasting for only one day to a few days, are channeled through short steep canals to bonded basins, which are flooded to depths of 0.75 m or more. Subsistence crops, often cereals, are planted only after irrigation has occurred. Crops are grown from one or more irrigations using residual moisture stored in the deep alluvial soils formed from the sediments deposited from previous irrigations. This type of agriculture is very risk-prone and requires high levels of co-operation between farmers to divert and manage the distribution of flood flows. The Hadhramis community had ran the system, until the period 1970 - 1990 of the Communist Regime in the Southern Governorate, the agricultural land was taken from its owners and distributed to others, thus participated in the negligence of the traditional system since then spate irrigation system in Hadhramout is started degradation, the damage to the irrigation infrastructure are from absent of maintenances and poverty has increased. Most households in spate-irrigated areas are poor, with a per capita income generally less and in some cases far less, than US$1 per day.1 Estimated net household revenues derived for some spate-irrigated systems 1 Traditional intakes are constructed from locally 1- Al- Hebshi Mohamed Abdul-Rahman Hashm, THE CYCLE OF POVERTY IN YEMEN, Sana’a, 2004

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available materials. Large embankments (diversion bunds) are constructed with animal powered scraper boards, but this type of equipment cannot easily handle coarse gravel and cobbles. Diversion bunds are found on lower reaches of wadis, where the bed slopes, bed material sediment sizes and the flood peak discharges, are all lower than at the mountain fronts.1

Aqm Earthen diversion bund constructed cross a wadi bed. Also used to describe traditional diversion spurs

The Average annual surface flow in Wadi Hadhramout is shown in the following table2:

In Wadi Hadhramout branches the wadi flood is intercepted to divert the flood water for irrigation using various types of diversion structures through canals to the fields. Some structures such as drop structures, weirs, control structures.

1- www.metameta.nl/spate irrigation systems. 2- Tahir, T., "Water Harvesting Techniques in Yemen and Their Prospects in the Scaes Environment of Yemen" Water Harvesting Conference, Khartoum, Sudan, 19-20, Aug., 2003.

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Farmer improved spate irrigation structures in the Hadramawt in Yemen Diversion Weir with a stepped downstream face

4 – b - 1 – GROUND WATER Since early times the farmers in wadi Hadhramout used to draw the ground water using labours and animals. Since early 50 s the mechanical engines started in wadi Hadhramout to be used to drew ground water for irrigation and for drinking purposes. A major groundwater aquifer was recently discovered in the eastern part of the country with an estimated storage of 360 billion m3 1 . Table 1 explains deferent aquifers of Hadramout area, Aquifers Depth, Water by Millions Barrel In square mile.

1- LAHLOU ABDELHADI, WATER RESOURCES OF 11 WATERSHEDS IN NORTH YEMEN, 3rd International Conference on Wadi Hydrology, 12-15 December 2005, Sanaa, Yemen, [email protected]

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Groundwater Map –Yemen

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Table (1) Typical Rock Formations In Masila Block Hadramout 1 No.

Aquifers

Aquifers Depth By Mater

1

Jeza

0 – 120

2

Umm Eradhuma

180 – 270

3

Sharwayn

25 –50

4

Mukalla

300 – 600

5

Fartaq

40 – 55

6

Harshiyat

700 – 900

7

Qishn

Water by Millions Barrel In a squire Mail

Water Quality

Un-Know

Potable

640

Potable

742

Potable

96

Water & Oil

4 – b – 2 – DISPOSAL OF THE WATER ACCOMPANYING MASILAA OIL Canadian Occidental Petroleum Ltd. (Canoxy), major operators in the HadhramoutMasila block region of Yemen in 1992, retain Komex International Ltd (Komex) to provide an assessment of the ground water resources in the area. Komex year long study determine the existence of two previously unexplored major deep aquifers. Draw from this study suggest that these aquifers, which exist at over 800 m depth in most of the study area, offer excellent potential for good quality groundwater for potable supply and industrial or agricultural purposes. Initial estimates suggest that annuapotential safe yields from the aquifer could exceed several hundreds of millions of cubic meters, if properly developed. Canoxy has retained Stanley International Consultants Ltd (Stanley) to conduct a study on the potential impacts of disposing of the produced Qishn water into the Harshiyat formation in the N.W Masila Block, Yemen. The study should, in particular, address the concern that disposal operations may impact the overlying Mukalla aquifer& the others, which contains potable water. For instance in table 2, when the oil is sold, a country appears to grow richer, even though depreciation of the natural capital - soils, and water - may create future losses several times greater than the present gain.2 5 – THE WATER RESOURSES DEVELOPMENT Before the unity in 1990, the water recourse devin two opposite directions, In the north part of the country developing project concentrating on the wadi and flood control project and the exploitation of the ground water was left to the privet sector, while in the south the Government concentrate on the ground water exploitation neglecting the floods the wadi development although land reclamation projects were implemented depending on ground water. The privet sector was out of the equation in this field.

1- Canadian Occidental Petroleum, HYDROGEOLOCAL ASSESSMENT OF PRODUCED WATER DISPOSAL, Yemen Masila Project, April 1994, (p 48) 2- Dr Mohamed A. Al- Hebshi, Eng. Saleh Ahmed Bin Rabaa, Disposal of the Water Accompanying Masila Oil in Yemen, International Conference On Soil & Groundwater Contamination & Clean-up in Arid Countries, Sultan Qaboos, University, Oman, 20 – 23 January 2003

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In early 1990 after the unity the situation was in the north part the ground water was exploited and in many regions it reached grave situation. and in the south the land ownership started and all the gained developed land became gradually desert. And the wadis flood structures need heavy rehabilitation and maintenance while most of the people did not know how such structures used to be maintained.

Table (2) the Cost of Injection & Opportunity Costs of Masila Water Disposal Total Cost

Opportunity Costs

Cost of Injection

Quantity Per Year

Injection Rate (BWPD.000)ƅ

Years

1029300

343100

686200

17155

47

1994

3153600

1051200

2102400

52560

144

1995

4730400

1576800

3153600

78840

216

1996

5825400

1941800

3883600

97090

266

1997

6942300

2314100

4628200

115705

317

1998

7402200

2467400

4934800

123370

338

1999

7840200

2613400

5226800

130670

358

2000

8081100

2693700

5387400

134685

369

2001

8256300

2752100

5504200

137605

377

2002

8015400

2671800

5343600

133590

366

2003

5256000

1752000

3504000

87600

240

2004

3766800

1255600

2511200

62780

172

2005

3438300

1146100

2292200

57305

157

2006

2868900

956300

1912600

47815

131

2007

2737500

912500

1825000

45625

125

2008

2387100

795700

1591400

39785

109

2009

1598700

532900

1065800

26645

73

2010

1554900

518300

1036600

25915

71

2011

1029300

343100

686200

17155

47

2012

1- Per day * by 365 Injection per Year 2- Estimated Cost of injection by 40 YR Per Barrel 3- Opportunity cost per Barrel of Water is estimated by 20 YR

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6 – CONJUNCTIVE USE OF FLOOD AND GROUND WATER The conjungtive use of flood and ground water was not experienced widely in wadi Hadhramout. There is an old saying farmers used to say if the rain does not come we will draw water from the ground using the humans and the animals (˜̶̶͂́ ͉ ̻ ˣ˼̱̒ ̳ˑ) The practice of using ground water and flood is widely experienced in Tihama region West of Yemen as the wadis flood is controlled by modern permanent structures which is not the case in Wadi Hadhramout. 7 – CONCLUSIONS Soil and water management in spate systems is vital for three reasons. The first is the soils are largely induced by human activity. They are built up from the sediments transported with the spate flows that settle when water is bunds on bunds fields. The water holding capacity and fertility of these soils is usually excellent, but soil management is required to counter land rise, maintain fertility, and in some areas to avoid soil crusting and compaction. The second reason is the importance of moisture conservation in crop production. In spate systems irrigation before planting provides the main source of crop moisture. Conserving this moisture is essential to crop production. Good moisture conservation can have an impact on production often greater than improvements to the water diversion systems. The third is the positive and lasting impact by developing successful partnerships built on mutual trust and respect with farmers, land owners and the local communities where they work and live to gather peacefully. The lands are spate irrigated of excellent soil. The ground water is Al-Hebshi &. Rabaa available and the mean activities of the people is cultivation . It is required to test an unprecedented relationship for irrigation with ground water in scattered land ownership taking into consideration the possibility of flood irrigation as conjunctive use of ground and flood water. The Water Company the oil production from a deep aquifer and it is effects in environment is scurries problem in Yemen. 8- REFERNCES: 1- Al- Hebshi Mohamed Abdul-Rahman Hashm, THE CYCLE OF POVERTY IN YEMEN, Sana’a, 2004 2- Al- Hebshi Mohamed A., Eng. Saleh Ahmed Bin Rabaa, Disposal of the Water Accompanying Masila Oil in Yemen, International Conference On Soil & Groundwater Contamination & Clean-up in Arid Countries, Sultan Qaboos, University, Oman, 20 – 23 January 2003 3- CANADIAN OCCIDENTAL PETROLEUM, Hydrological Assessment of Produced Water Disposal Yemen Masila Project (April 1994) 4- CANADIAN OCCIDENTAL PETROLEUM. Yemen Masila Project Water Treatment Disposal options (April 1994) 5- David Brooks, "Oil and Water Can Mix", LEDS, Vol. 8 No. 4, Oct. 1997, Canada

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6- LAHLOU ABDELHADI, WATER RESOURCES OF 11 WATERSHEDS IN NORTH YEMEN, 3rd International Conference on Wadi Hydrology, 12-15 December 2005, Sanaa, Yemen, [email protected] 7- Tahir, T., "Water Harvesting Techniques in Yemen and Their Prospects in the Scaes Environment of Yemen" Water Harvesting Conference, Khartoum, Sudan, 19-20, Aug., 2003 8- www.metameta.nl/spate irrigation systems

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

OBSTACLES TO FARMERS PARTICIPATION IN IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE MANAGEMENT IN IRAN

Dr. M. Fekri Ershad1

ABSTRACT Experiences of 1950’s and 1960's revealed the importance of public participation in success of development programs of developing countries. Based on new visions, a prerequisite of rural sustainable development is active, conscious and voluntary participation of farmer in the process of decision-making, planning and management of all programs. This sort of participation in decision making and handling of social affairs is both an effective factor on development and a product of development process. Promoting farmers participation in management of irrigation networks merely consist a part of social interaction between different social groups, i.e. government and villagers. Therefore, before dealing with participation issue, one should first deal with social interaction of a given society. Since these interactions and their historical changes differ among different societies, applying the successful models for participation of a given country, would not necessarily lead to success in another country. Throughout the history, Iran has had always a despotic government, and all social rights were exclusively determined by the government, and therefore all responsibilities and public issues were to be dealt by the government. Since people had no objective social rights, they felt no responsibility in front of the government. The result is a distorted view of government-nation relationship in which the nation considered itself as the servant of the government. This distorted attitude is still vastly spread among our people-specially farmers, and its perpetuation is the main obstacle in front of their active participation in management of rural issues. The prerequisite of farmer’s active participation including participation in management of irrigation network is the change in this distorted attitude of state-nation relationship. Achieving such a change requires education and promotion of a new attitude towards participation, which is a long patience-demanding process. Keyword: Farmers participation, despotism, absolutism, social interaction, private ownership, democracy, social status

1- Tehran Univercity- IDRO-Valieasr Building-Jam e Jam Str. Valiasr ave. Tel: 009821-23862132 Fax: 009821-23862288; E-mail: [email protected]

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I- INTRODUCTION The experiences during these two decades, 1950’s and 1960’s shows although the governments were effective in the growth of agriculture in the developing countries including Iran by establishing large water conveyance and water supply structures, the lack of farmer attendance in irrigation networks’ management and planning caused several problems which were effective in the failure of the governmental growth and development plans of the developing countries. The experiences of these years made it clear that the governmental organizations and the staffs are not interested in consulting and cooperating with local communities and always behave imperiously with them. Actually, the governmental agencies believed that farmers were not able to recognize their own good. So in order to insert the new ideas and methods, they must be persuaded to follow the expert’s social and technical recommendations. This attitude is clearly against the modern aspects of growth and development. The new views consider active, awareness and voluntary attendance of public in the procedure of decision making, planning, executing and managing as one of the conditions for sustainable development plan. So in order to approach the rural development and productivity promotion on social and water resources depend on cooperation of all the authorities (public and government). Thus the lack of farmers’ participation in the rural affairs, (among them irrigation networks management) was known as one of the reasons for the failure of the development plans, consequently the concept of participation became the most important pre-condition for the growth and development plans which should be paid attention. But the lack of farmers’ participation in growth and development faced the authorities by the following question: Why the farmers don’t have a tendency toward participation in their own community affairs. The problem has been cleared now. What is the Reason for the Lack of Framers’ participation in the rural Development plans?

What remained was to find the solution: How can we persuade the farmers to be active in the development plans?

Then the experts seriously started investigating on the effective factors to attract farmers’ participation in the development plans and encouraging them to participate in the rural affairs. II- PARTICIPATION AND SOCIAL INTERACTION The new development ideas, concern human power as the most important effective factor in the sustainable development and call it as “the human capital”. This capital will flourish and help the development procedure when it has the right to make decision freely. Stiglitz announced “the effective factor in the sustainable development is public participation in the affairs. This kind of participation should be based on responsibility feeling and free dialogue “in the International Conference on Democracy, Market Economy and Development” which was held in Seoul, in 1999. Public participation in making decision and administrating the community affairs is both effective factor in

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development and the result of development procedure. Actually there is a mutual causality between participation in the community affairs and the sustainable development. Farmers’ participation attraction in the irrigation networks management means to transfer some of the responsibilities from a community sector (government) to another one (farmers) which actually cover a part of socio-economy interaction of different community groups. Thus before discussing about this issue, we should investigating and specifying the social interaction of certain social groups of the community. The experiences show without concerning the social interactions of social groups and their historical changes can not be sure about the success of participation plans. As far as the interaction of social groups and the historical changes in different societies haven’t been the same, so taking the pattern from the methods of those successful countries may be fail in another country. For the same reason, it is necessary the selected methods of participation attraction in each country should be fit with the trend of historical changes of social interaction in that country. For this purpose we should investigate on historical relationship of the government and the public to know the willingness or unwillingness of the public to participate in the community decision making and consequently determine the degree of their responsibility acceptance. III- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE GOVERNMENT AND THE PUBLIC RELATIONSHIP IN IRAN I would like to mention to the historical background of the government and the public relationship, in order to explain the obstacles of farmers’ participation in execution responsibilities acceptance in Iran- among them irrigation and drainage networks management and finally give some recommendations to defeat these obstacles. Iran is a vast country , located in a dry and semi-dry region where the rural communities are mostly far from each other. Most of these rural communities are located in the dry regions. Actually they didn’t have considerable surplus production in the past. The scattering state of rural communities and the scares of surplus product haven’t let to establish an independent and powerful feudalism. Actually, only an active military force could collect the surplus product of those scattered villages and turned it to a powerful central government; and this active military force could mostly be prepared by the tribes. All these governments have been despotism ones during the history of Iran. Before continuing the discussion I would like to point out the difference between absolutism (as it was organized in Europe) and the despotism (as it was dominated in eastern countries among them Iran). In absolutism, private ownership ( specially land ownership ) was respected and secured, while in despotism, the private ownership wasn’t secure and most lands belonged to the government and land ownership wasn’t an unclaimed right, but was a privilege which was granted by the government. “Francois Bernier” the special physician of Orang Zib Mongol was written in his itinerary “king himself was the only owner of all the lands.” During the past, a large part of agricultural lands always belonged to the government and the government transferred them to the people. Actually the agricultural lands ownership was not a right, it was a privilege which was granted to government's agents and any time they wished they would take them back. Of course there was some piece of lands which belonged to land lords, but even those lands could be expropriate very

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easily. Even the wealth of people and their social status needed the approval of the government. From the view point of sociology, although the absolute government depends upon influential of social classes of the society and the existence and legitimacy of the government would be on the hands of influential social classes and their satisfaction, the high social classes of the society and their wealth were indebted to the king of the despotic government. In Iran, the will of the despotic king didn’t have any restriction. Although there were some regulations in Iran, but there was no written legal criteria. The specialty about the despotic government was: “lack of equality in front of laws”. Caloshkin, the Russian permanent delegate during Nader Shah, (1741) wrote: “the king successively changes the ministers, governors and commandeer their properties on behalf of him. I can say I have never seen even one of the commanders to be secured after losing his status.” The most recent despotic government of Iran was Ghajar dynasty. Lord Croson pointed out “king can do what ever he wants and his words are as law… he can depose or assign all the ministers, officers, employees and judges. The life and death of all the members of royal family and all the civil and military personnel without any trial were in his hands. The properties of those who were executed would be granted to the king. In order to get a high position in the government, depend on the cost you should pay some bribery and gift." The main differences of despotism and absolutism can be summarized as follow.

Absolutism

Despotism

1- Law oriented

1- Law disoriented

2- Although the king has absolute right in legislation, there are some main rules which should be fallow.

2- The king is free to do what he wants without concerning any rules.

3- Privet property, especially land property has been respected and is secured.

3- Land property is not a right; it is a privilege which is granted to the people.

4- The government is relevant to high social class of society.

4- The high social class of society is relevant to the government.

As far as the whole rights of the society have been in the hands of despotic government during the past history of Iran, all the responsibilities and public tasks had been undertook by the government. In other words, because the people didn’t have any rights, so they didn’t feel any responsibility in front of government.

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IV_ PUBLIC ALIENATION FROM GOVERNMENT IN IRAN The result which has been concerned from what have been discussed was the alienation of the social classes from government. This kind of public alienation from government has been continued up to now, in spite of changes after constitutional revolution (1906). This historical alienation has caused an inverted understanding from the relation between the nation and the government in Iran. In European countries, the government is elected by the nation as an employee of the public to serve the society since industrial revolution and establishing democracy. While the continuation of despotic government in Iran has drawn an inverted vision from the relation between the nation and the government in the public’s mind. In other words, as far as the central government has been the only owner of the public’s wealth, the people have been stipendiary, servant and peasant of the government under certain hierarchy. This kind of inverted understanding from the relationship between the nation and the government has been remained in the mind of the majority of the people in our country yet. Still the people think of the role of government as governor and ruler. The farmers’ expectation from the government as a supporter and benefactor have been increased specially after revolution and caused to strengthen the same inverted understanding from the relationship between the nation and the government. The continuation of the same understanding is the main obstacle of active participation of the farmers in the rural affairs, especially in development affairs and responsibility acceptance. Although because of limited area, population density and urban living significant in the cities, the people have more or less believed in order to manage the complicated affairs of the city all the people should participate and work together. But this belief has not been justified in the rural communities yet, still the farmers haven’t accepted that they have to perform and participate in a part of services which have been executed by the government and some of the government agencies so far. V-PRECONDITION OF FARMERS’ ACTIVE PARTICIPATION IN THE RURAL AFFAIRS Participation in the irrigation networks management, as the preconditions of farmers' active participation in the rural affairs, requires attaining the new attitude of the relation of the government and the public and inverting those imaginations which have been existed so far. As far as this new attitude has been based on democracy, the separation of farmers' participation procedure and the expansion of democracy cause to make transient decision and policies which is just wasting time and manpower. We shouldn’t expect the procedure of participation attraction to be faster than the procedure of democracy expansion. At most the procedure of participation can be forwarded in step with democracy in the society. Regarding the causality of these two issues, it should be mentioned in order to stabilize the public participation in the community affairs- among them farmers’ participation in the irrigation networks management should be patient and take steps slowly but making the farmers participate in the irrigation networks management without feeling deeply the necessity and benefits of participation will be a kind of unsustainable participation which will be broken up by any changes in the government existing policy. It is impossible to make the farmers participate in the rural

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affairs administration either by force or granting some financial privileges. The only way to encourage the farmer to participate in the rural affairs is to make them understand the necessity and the benefits of cooperation and participation in decision making. VI-TRADITIONAL COOPERATION MODERN SOCIETIES

AND

PARTICIPATION

IN

THE

However from many years before the cooperation and participation in the rural affairs have been dominated in the country, the land reform performance in 1963 changed the infrastructure of rural community and this kind of traditional cooperation has gradually paled. Some new phenomena have entered in the economical and social life of the village since 1960 decade, after performing land reform where the most important one was the attendance of government and the relevant agencies. From that time we have been the evidence of gradual weakening of traditional cooperation patterns in the rural area, because in many cases the governmental plans for rural development were dissimilar with the pattern of farmers’ traditional cooperation. Whenever we talk about farmers’ participation in irrigation and drainage networks and the relevant problems, some opinions have been paid attention to the rural communities and revival of this traditional cooperation structure as the solution to the problem of farmers’ participation attraction in the modern establishment management of irrigation and drainage networks. But it should be paid attention the active participation in modern irrigation networks administration is different from the traditional cooperation, because solving these days problems whit traditional methods are impossible. In traditional cooperation, there are a limited individuals belong to rather homogeneous communities who are cooperated together in the frame of individual or relationship, which cooperation and participation means consciously acceptance of continues cooperation with other members of the society and responsibility acceptance in order to access to the group objectives in nowadays large and inhomogeneous communities. Actually consciously acceptance is the most important phenomenon of participation. People should consciously feel the necessity and benefits of participation and use their energies for a common objective without any obligation. For this purpose the issue of participation should have harmony with their benefits and interests; besides people should be in decision making as well. The meaning of cooperation in the participation procedure is much more expanded one. When a person accepts a certain task, it is not necessary to perform that job, actually he promises not to disagree with. But cooperation needs a kind of action and interaction which asks necessarily for collaboration. In order to create such an interaction it is necessary the people do not feel that participation arrangement will be a threat against their benefits and social status and finally responsibility acceptance means unity with the people on the one hand and the project success on the other hand. In order to create such feeling the benefits of participation should be higher than the costs. Here are some examples for participation and cooperation attraction of farmers which have been applied by the higher level authorities by establishing rural cooperatives, equity centers, cultural centers and other similar semi-governmental institutions.

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In this trend the people are ignored, in other words the relation between the government staffs and the farmers are as commanders and obedient and instead of leaving the farmers in the different levels of participation decision makings, their tasks are applied to them. So by this method the independency of farmers to the government will be increased. The most suitable form of participation in the society affairs is to establish executive agencies by the public intention on behalf of their clients. The municipalities can be the most important ones in the modern communities. Farmers’ participation attraction should be performed by such executive institutions which are established by the farmers' intention. Only this kind of participation can help the growth and sustainable development of the rural areas. We can’t expect, the farmers undertake the management of repair, maintenance and water distribution in the main canals besides the difficult job they have in agricultural affairs. Actually one of the problems of framers participation attraction is the interference of these activities in the irrigation networks management. There should be a mediator service institution to undertake the executive management of the modern irrigation and drainage networks on behalf of farmers in order to overcome this problem. For this purpose we can hire the qualified manpower in order to establish private service agencies to operate the installments and the irrigation and drainage networks. The present governmental organizations will be replaced by these agencies as the farmers’ executive organization. Establishment of this type of professional agency shouldn’t be the way is happened today. In order to secure the success of this method, we should create a kind of motive in farmers as the first stage to appear voluntarily as applicant for those services. It is obvious the governmental organizations can also be very effective in technical supervision and establishment of professional agencies of private sector. Encouraging the farmers to step forward in this line, we should dominate the culture and the new view of participation in villages before. But besides the farmers, the authorities in rural affairs should expand the horizon of their view about participation and shouldn’t limit theirs just on farmers’ financial one. It is valuable to motion to the view of one of the executive authorities of one of the water conveyance projects about a questionnaire which was provided for gathering the farmers’ opinions and intentions to participation. “The questions are to be placed in a form, so that the participation does not seem as a voluntary subject. During the interview, the farmers are to made ready for accept the participation” As you notice in the above phrase, participation has been concerned as an obligation, not a voluntary affair. VII- CONCLUSION At the end, once again it should be emphasized that the most important thing which should be done to attract the farmers to participate in irrigation and drainage management is to train and promote the participation culture; of course it takes time and asks for patience.

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The new understanding of participation has been trained in many countries these days. There should be also some training agencies in different level to train and promote participation especially in the rural communities in Iran. This procedure takes time and need patient to progress step by step. REFERENCES 1- The Social History of Iran, M. Ravandi. 2- The Story of Civilization, Will and Ariel Durant. 3- Opposition of The Government and The Nation, M.A Homayon Katozian. 4- Irrigation Management Transfer, Why & How?, Sayyed A. Heydarian.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

ICWC OF CENTRAL ASIA AS INCTITUTE OF REGIONAL WATER SECURITY

Rysbekov Yusup1

ABSTRACT As is known, water use from trans-boundary rivers of Central Asia (CA) has a huge conflict potential. Issues related to equitable water allocation between the regional states and their mutually beneficial use are kept in view of the Heads of CA States. In the beginning of 1990s the CA Governments have signed the Agreement about cooperation in area of regional water resources’ use and protection (Alma-Ata, 1992). According to this Agreement, the Interstate Commission for Water Coordination (ICWC) of CA established, and earlier accepted legal acts regarding regional water management remain in force, in particularly – interstate water distribution is based on Water Use and Protection Master-Plans (WUPMP) developed in 1980s for the Amudarya and Syrdarya river basins. Establishment of ICWC was an important step towards keeping “statusquo” in regional water management. ICWC decisions are fulfilled through its executive authorities – Basin Water Organization (BWO) “Amudarya” and BWO “Syrdarya”. ICWC determines water policy in the region and its major direction. According to the Agreement 1992: a) ICWC is responsible for general governance of the regional water management system; b) high officials of main water departments of CA countries are the members of ICWC; c) ICWC meetings are held on the quarterly basis in one of the state-founders; d) ICWC Decisions are accepted on consensus’ basis; e) ICWC member has a right of “veto”, thus ensuring high protection of national interests. ICWC acts as political institute of regional water safety, and its activity allowed avoid regional water conflicts predicted by western analysts.

1- Dr. Yusup Khaidarovich Rysbekov, Assistant Director Scientific-Information Center of Interstate Coordination Water Commission (SIC ICWC) of Central Asia. 11, Karasu-4, Tashkent, 700187, Republic of Uzbekistan; Tel. (998 712) 651659; Fax: (998 71) 1665097 E-mails: ,

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1. POST-SOVIET PERIOD: POLITICAL PROCESSES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON REGIONAL WATER RELATIONS IN CENTRAL ASIA 1.1. NATIONAL INTERESTS OF THE CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES IN THE INTERSTATE WATER RELATIONS’ SPHERE AND REGIONAL WATER SECURITY

In the beginning of 1990s geopolitics has changed cardinally, and a system of the international relations became more unstable. The developing realities have caused not only choice’s freedom of the further development ways by new subjects of world politics, but also exclusive complexity of this choice. At the same time, the Cold War’s ending has given mankind chance in another way to look at the world and occurring processes on the Earth. One of advantages of new international relations’ system became by the majority of the states a fact’s recognition that the safety depends as a whole on joint efforts. Said fairly concerning new independent states of Central Asia (CA) - Republic of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Republic of Uzbekistan, each of which has the tasks on protection of national interests, external-politics aspects of which are closely bound with problems of regional and global security. The categories “national interests” and “national security” are closely connected, include various kinds (political, legal, economic and others, in their interrelation and dynamics) and carry system character. Though in general security system the national security is a subsystem of global and regional security, the concept “national security” is key concept in the security of various levels. The global and regional security does not exist in the abstract kind, and they are derivative of national safety - both in a historical context, and by way of stability and opportunities of its maintenance. Taking into account that the essence of national security is national interests’ protection in various spheres of social-political life, problems of trans-boundary water resources (TWR) use in CA should be considered through a prism of national interests’ protection. Last years ecological security is included in the national security system of the states as one of its key components. In system of ecological security the problems, connected to the water factor, occupy the special place, among which fresh waters’ deficiency is key. On the data of the World Water Council, to the 2050s about 2/3 world population will have a problem of fresh water’s deficiency. According to the World Meteorological Organization/UNESCO estimation, 97.5% of World water resources are salty and 2.5% - fresh. From fresh waters 2.24% are inaccessible or are remote (polar ice, glaciers, and deep underground waters). Only 0.26% of total world waters are accessible fresh waters, which are a potential source of possible international and local conflicts. As a consequence many analysts and experts count that correlation connection between ecological crisis situations in different areas of the World and conflicts on this basic is present, in XXI century the struggle for natural resources will become aggravated, and predict on the future specific wars – “water”, “grain” and others “eco-wars” [2, 9, 11, 13, 15; etc]. “Nature resources’ deficiency becomes... by reason of a confrontation, conflicts and wars.... A major kind of natural resources becomes water.... That we could buy for earlier money, it is necessary pay in blood” – so one of experts estimates the water relations’ prospects in the world [12]. “If in ɏɏ century petroleum was called as liquid gold, in ɏɏI century such definition will be given to fresh water. And the same

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as the petroleum brought the limited prosperity to the certain areas last hundred years and caused wars and conflicts, its place will be occupied by freshwater” [10]. In these forecasts the growing value of the fresh water resources is truth, but their deficiency as the conflicts’ reason carries probable character and depends on decisive persons’ skill to develop compromise national and interstate water politics. 1.2. DEVELOPING WATER SITUATION IN CENTRAL ASIA

Water situation in the Aral Sea Basin (ASB) can be estimated as rather difficult. From beginning of the 1990s water problems of the ASB became as factors of regional, and sharpest problems (for example, Aral Sea accident) - and global security. The most part of ASB waters are formed in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan (upstream countries), and Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan are the basic water consumers. By different estimations, Afghanistan uses now 1.5-2.0km3/year, in North Afghanistan (Amu Darya upstream: Kokcha, Kunduz rivers etc.), is formed about 8-10km3/year of water. About 25% of the ASB river flow is formed in Kyrgyzstan, and 80% Amudarya flow and practically all flow of the Zeravshan river is formed in Tajikistan. Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan are interested to develop water-power engineering. On Turkmen territory there are more than half of Tuyamuyun reservoir, which delivers water for Republic of Karakalpakstan and Khorezm province (Uzbekistan), head constructions and other infrastructure of the Amu-Bukhara machine canal (ABMC) and Karshi main canal (KMC). ABMC and KMC submit water for Bukhara, Navoi, Kashkadarya provinces of Uzbekistan. In Kyrgyzstan there are basic water sources of the Syrdarya river basin, Sokh, Andizhan, Kassansai reservoirs, which are constructed for maintenance by water of the Uzbek irrigated lands. Water delivery for Dzhizak, Syrdarya (to lesser degree - Tashkent) provinces depends substantially from Kairakkum hydrounit’s work regime, which located in Tajikistan. Samarkand, Navoi, Kashkadarya and Dzhizak provinces of Uzbekistan use water from Zerafshan river, flow formation zone of which is in Tajikistan. More than 90% of water resources, used by Uzbekistan, are formed in Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. Water delivery for Southern Kazakhstan (Shymkent province) carried out by interstate canals in Uzbekistan (located in Syrdarya and Tashkent provinces), for Syrdarya river downstream, including Northern Aral Sea, depends on work regime of the Toktogul (Kyrgyzstan), Kayrakkum (Tajikistan), Charvak (Uzbekistan) reservoirs. As a whole, basic national interests of the upstream countries (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan) are connected to development of hydropower capacities, and downstream countries (Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan) - to water use for irrigation needs. In opinion of many experts and analysts, in water use from trans-boundary rivers of CA the significant conflict potential is made, and water problems are occupied leading place among alarms’ hierarchy for the future of the Central Asian region (CAR). Depending on developing political situation the regional water problems can become the factors of union or reintegration of the Central Asian states.

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1.3. POLITICAL AND LEGAL BASES MANAGEMENT IN CENTRAL ASIA

OF

TRANS-BOUNDARY

WATER

Basic directions of regional water politics are determined by the decisions of the CA States’ Heads. The basic political-legal documents, in which the key principles of the regional water relations are determined, are following: - Interstate Agreement (ISA), 1992 [5], -

Decisions of the CA States’ Heads, 1993, according to which the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (IFAS) is created. Within Independence IFAS has accepted a number of important political decisions in sphere of the regional water resources use.

- ISA, 1993 [6], -

Concept (1993) of the CA States on problems of Aral Sea Basin (ASB), which has incorporated rules, which are entered to IWRM theory in modern understanding [3],

-

Decision (1994) of the CA States’ Heads and Russia Government, by which the First ASB-Program (ASBP-1) is confirmed [4],

- ISA, 1996 [8], -

Declaration and Statement of the CA States’ Heads (Nukus, 1995; Issykkul, 1995; Almaty, 1997; Tashkent, 1998, 2001; Ashgabat, 1999; Dushanbe, 2002; etc.), according which the politics of sustainable water-ecological management in CAR is determined,

- ISA, 1998 [7], -

ASBP-2, prepared on behalf of the CA States’ Heads and approved by them, is accepted in Dushanbe (2002). ASBP-2 is the key political document, which reflects the basic problems of the ASB in water and nature protection spheres [14].

Among the listed above documents the Agreements 1992, 1993, 1996 and 1998 are international legal acts, according to which trans-boundary WRM (TWRM) is carried out. Agreement 1993 is the more political document, which establishes the general approaches to the joint management of water and other natural resources in CA for improvement of socio-economic and ecologic situation in CAR. The questions of TWRM in CA are a subject of consideration of other regional political structures also, in particular, such as the “Organization for Central Asian Cooperation” – OCAC (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, since 2004 - and Russia), the “Euro-Asian Economic Community” – EAEC (Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan) etc. For example, in frameworks of EAEC 26 Agreements should be accepted which are signed by the OCAC members, from them 8 Agreements concern to the water and hydropower regulation in CAR. According to classification of Global Water Partnership, one of active and consecutive conductors of IWRM ideas, first two main elements of the favorable conditions for implementation of IWRM principles are: a) Political decisions (“water politics”); b) Legislative basis (“water politics in the law’s form”). Analysis shows, that coordinated by the CA States’ Heads the political support and decisions on realization of radical

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reforms in water sector of CAR (“regional water politics”) are available. Business with development of international-legal bases of TWRM in CA is a little bit more difficultly. In particular, last years the certain efforts on development new water legislation are undertaken, however this work goes rather slowly. For instance, the ASBP-2 has 14 Priorities, from which first is called "Development of the coordinated mechanisms of the water resources complex management in the Aral Sea Basin". More than 10 ISAdrafts should be prepared according to the Priority #1 of the ASBP-2. 2. ICWC OF CENTRAL ASIA: ROOTS, CREATION, ACTIVITY 2.1. TASHKENT STATEMENT 1991 AND ALMA-ATA AGREEMENT 1992

ICWC of Central Asia is created according to the Agreement 1992, and it all researches know practically. However history of this Agreement’s preparation and signing is less known for many experts, and for some reasons it not mentioned. Long terms of preparation of a line of the regional Agreements’ drafts are one of reasons of this phenomenon. As mentioned above, more than 10 regional ISA’s drafts should be prepared according to the Priority #1 of the ASBP-2, on much from them terms of preparation have expired in 2004, 2005. Some Agreements’ draft (on Syrdarya, Water quality, Databases etc.) have a history 7-8 years and began to prepare long before acceptance of the ASBP-2, but any of them is not ready for signing by Parties. At the same time, history of ICWC creation is unique and instructive in many respects. After self-liquidation of Union SSR, first persons of National Water Agencies of Central Asia and Kazakhstan1 sign a Statement (Tashkent, October 12, 1991) [17]. It is represented very useful to result this Statement completely, which is a starting point and beginning a process of ICWC creation2: STATEMENT Of Chiefs of Water authorities of republics of Central Asia and Kazakhstan (Tashkent, October 12, 1991) We, Chiefs of Water authorities of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, as the professionals, estimating inevitability of a difficult situation in connection by increasing water deficiency and aggravation of ecological intensity in the Aral Sea Basin, were based on a historical generality of the peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, their equal rights and responsibility for maintenance of rational water resources’ use in region, believe necessary: 1. To recognize exclusive feature of the closed water basin, what is the Aral Sea region, and necessity of acceptance by everything the measures for prevention of negative consequences connected from it drying. 1- In the Soviet special geopolitics territory of the present 5 posts-Soviet republics of Central Asia were called as Middle (Central) Asia and Kazakhstan 2- Translation is informal.

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2. To recognize indissoluble dependence and interrelation of interests of all republics in the decision of questions of sharing water resources Aral Sea Basin as single unit on common for all republics principles and fair regulation of their consumption in view of interests of all peoples living in region. 3. To count expedient, in conditions of infringement of former economic connections, association of working and potential capacities for sharing use, to continue study of opportunities for long-term cooperation, prospects development programs’ development, and creation of joint organizational structures for coordination. 4. To carry out development and correction of inter-republican water limits and water use on years and separate sources in view of guaranteed water maintenance of Prearalie and Aral Sea. 5. To recognize that a preservation of relative balance, water maintenance of the Amudarya and Syrdarya rivers’ downstream through an establishment of the certain water share of each republic are a prime-turn task for Prearalye problems’ decision. 6. To provide an exchange of the complete information about water use, water infrastructure, legal and other documents determining the status of water as a resource and the order established in republics on its use. 7. To not accept unilateral actions having a negative consequence for other republics. 8. All dispute questions to permit with participation of the Chiefs of the republics’ interested organizations and representative of the disinterested party. Only our incorporated and coordinated actions can promote the effective decision of regional water problems in conditions of growing ecological intensity. State Committee on Water Resources of Kazakh SSR, Chairman

N.Kipshakbayev

Ministry of Water Resources of Kyrgyzstan, Minister

V.Melnichenko

Ministry of Water Resources of Tajikistan, Minister

A.Nurov

Ministry of Water Resources of Uzbekistan, Minister

R.Giniyatullin

Ministry of Water Resources of Turkmen SSR, First Deputy Minister A.Awezov 1. Is printed in Russian, on two sheets, with the right of translation on state languages of all republics, which authorities have signed present Statement, and for publication. 2. First (original) copy with signatures is kept in Ministry of Water Resources of Republic of Uzbekistan, others participants have a photocopy. 3. Is signed in Ministry of Water Resources of Republic of Uzbekistan. This Statement is a starting point of ICWC creation. The period from time of fastening of idea ant its realization deserves the special attention, as on the question “why drafts of regional Agreements long prepare”, in a number of cases the examples are resulted, when a process of preparation and conclusion of the international Agreements on water resources (India and Pakistan etc.) proceeded by decades. Only 130 days (From October

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12, 1991 till February 18, 1992, less than 4 months) were required for preparation of the appropriate documents and realization of idea of ICWC creation, namely – for signing of the Agreement 1992 in Alma-Ata. Agreement 1992 "About cooperation in sphere of a joint management of use and protection of water resources of interstate sources" was signed also by the first persons of National Water Agencies of CA republics, but already – on behalf of independent States as the Agreement’s Parties. This historical Agreement was signed by Ministers: from Republic of Kazakhstan – N.Kipshakbayev, from Kyrgyz Republic – M.Zulpuyew, from Republic of Tajikistan – A.Nurov, from Turkmenistan – A.Ilamanov, from Republic of Uzbekistan – R.Giniyatullin. According to the Agreement 1992, the ICWC of CA established, and earlier accepted legal acts regarding regional water management remain in force. Establishment of ICWC was an important step towards keeping “status-quo” in regional water management. ICWC decisions are fulfilled through its executive authorities – Basin Water Organization (BWO) “Amudarya” and BWO “Syrdarya”. ICWC determines water policy in the region and its major direction. According to the Agreement 1992: a) ICWC is responsible for general governance of the regional water management system; b) high officials of main water departments of CA countries are the members of ICWC; c) ICWC meetings are held on the quarterly basis in one of the state-founders; d) ICWC Decisions are accepted on consensus’ basis; e) ICWC member has a right of “veto”, thus ensuring high protection of national interests. Political importance of the Agreement 1992 is confirmed by the Interstate Agreement 1993, which was signed by the CA States’ Presidents in Kyzyl-Orda. In particular, in the Agreement 1993 is said, that the Parties count necessary: “to form on a parity basis Interstate Council on problems of the Aral Sea Basin and at it: … for Coordination Water Commission working according to the Agreement, signed February 18, 1992 in Alma-Ata”. 2.2. ICWC OF CENTRAL ASIA: ACTIVITY AND SOME PROBLEMS

The Rules “About the Interstate Commission for Water Coordination of Central Asia” are accepted December 5, 1992 (Tashkent), according to which SIC ICWC [16]: -

Determines uniform water politics in region and develops its basic directions,

-

Develops and confirms water limits for each State of CAR,

-

Develops and carries out the regional ecological programs,

-

Develops recommendations to Governments of the Parties on uniform price politics in sphere of regional water resources use,

-

Promotes development of corporate communications,

-

Coordinates water economic activity of regional scale,

-

Creates uniform information system on water/land use, organizes their monitoring,

-

Coordinates joint scientific-research activity etc.

ICWC decisions are carried out by its executive bodies:

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-

Basin Water Organization (BWO) “Amudarya” (basic tasks, as a whole: submission of established water limits to each state in Amudarya river basin, operation of hydraulic engineering structures of interstate importance, which are on its balance),

-

BWO “Syrdarya” (basic tasks, as a whole: submission of established water limits to each state in Syrdarya river basin, operation of hydraulic engineering structures of interstate importance, which are on its balance),

-

Secretariat (basic tasks, as a whole: maintenance of the ICWC decisions, financial control, international communications),

-

Scientific-Information Centre (scientific-information maintenance of ICWC),

-

Control-Metrological Centre (metrological devices and equipment).

ICWC executive bodies have status of the international organizations [1]. ICWC has wide rights and acts as institute of maintenance of regional water security in Central Asia. ICWC activity has allowed to save status-quo in TWRM and to avoid the water conflicts in Central Asia predicted by western analysts. ICWC should act as the main political institute of maintenance of regional water security. As well as the national security, water security includes many aspects, in particular - political, legal, economic, social, educational, technological, personnel etc. In this context the following existing problems require serious attention: -

Development of the regional Agreements’ drafts on water resources. The legal base stipulated ASBP-2 should be developed and this process should be sped up;

-

Absence of monitoring of the signed Agreements’ performance. Last years a line of rules of the working Agreements (is especial - Agreement 1998) are not observed;

-

Strengthening of potential and powers of the ICWC executive bodies. So, now both BWO do not supervise many water structure of interstate importance;

-

Interchange of information on water resources. Now it is on unsatisfactory level, there is no close coordination with national hydro-meteorological bodies;

-

Water quality management. While the ICWC activity is limited to management of trans-boundary water quantity;

-

Absence of economic mechanisms of damage’s compensation caused other Party. Now they are not developed;

-

Absence of public participation at preparation of the regional Agreements’ drafts and at acceptance of the ICWC decisions on water-ecological problems; etc.

CONCLUSION Sustainable development of the CA States is impossible without solving the problems of regional TWRM, which boil down, if expressed in one phrase, to “mismatch of interests between upper and lower reaches of the trans-boundary rivers”, and the TWRM principles, reflected in agreements of the CA States’ Heads, may be formulated as “long-term mutually beneficial strategy of equitable and reasonable use of TWR”. For

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realization of political will and decisions of the CA States’ Heads in this sphere of the interstate relations, first of all, legal bases of TWRM of region should be necessarily developed. In regional scale IWRM introduction is possible at desire of the Parties to use voluntary mechanisms of the resolution of conflict interests, not resorting to legal tools. At the same time, the legal bases of conflicts resolution will allow carry out national actions within legal field’s limits. Strong international-legal base of TWRM of region is also factor of restraint of emotions and excludes pointlessness of disputes. As is known, acceptance of the responsible political decisions requires clearness and definiteness. There is a good expression: “to act professionally competently is, first of all, to remember constantly about political criteria”. So the ICWC founders acted, so the ICWC members should act for maintenance of regional water security in Central Asia. And in this matter it is not necessary to follow always western samples.

REFERENCES 1. Agreement between Governments of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan “About the status of the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea and its organizations”, Tashkent, 1997. 2. Aleksandrov I. XXI century: hydro-resources and armed conflicts. // “Foreign Military Review”, 1998, # 9 – pp. 2-5. 3. Concept of the CA States on problems of the Aral Sea Basin, Tashkent, 1993. 4. Decision of the CA States’ Heads and Russia Government on the “Program of concrete actions on improvement of ecological conditions in Aral Sea Basin on nearest 3-5 years in view of socio-economic development of region" (ASBP-1), Nukus, 1994. 5. Interstate Agreement between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan "About cooperation in sphere of a joint management of use and protection of water resources of interstate sources", Alma-Ata, 1992. 6. Interstate Agreement between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan “About joint actions on decision of the Aral Sea’s problems…", Kyzyl-Orda, 1993. 7. Interstate Agreement between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan “About Syrdarya river basins’ water-power resources use”, Bishkek, 1998. Tajikistan has joined to the Agreement in 1999. 8. Interstate Agreement between Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan “About cooperation on water-economy questions”, Chardzhou, 1996. 9. Kotov L. Negotiation with Bangladesh about Ganges’ water distribution. //ITARTASS, series “ȺɆ”, 25.07.1995 – pp. 9-11. 10. Kuram D.Kh. Vision 2050. //Water security in the world and region. – Tashkent: Information collection of SIC ICWC, # 1 (14), April 2001 - with 5-9 (with 7). 11. Palaria A. Restless waters of Euphrates. // “Compass”, 1996, # 26 – pp. 31-34. 12. Peters P. Future conflicts’ culture. // "Parameters", Winter 1995/96, 11 p.

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13. Priscoli J.D. International conflicts connected concerning trans-boundary water resources. // Legal collection # 2 (9) – Tashkent: SIC ICWC, 2001 – pp. 157-180. 14. “Program of concrete actions on improvement of ecological and socio-economic conditions in the Aral Sea Basin for the period 2003-2010” (ASBP-2). – Dushanbe, IFAS, 2003 – 110 p. 15. Putilov S. The planet is threatened “with grain wars”. //“Novosti razvedki i contrrazvedki”, 1996, # 24 – p.14. 16. Rules about “Interstate Commission for Water Coordination in Central Asia”, Tashkent, 1992. 17. Statement of Chiefs of Water authorities of republics of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, Tashkent, 1991.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

STRUCTURAL BARRIERS FOR FARMERS' PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Ali Ghasemi1

ABSTRACT Scaling up sustainable welfare of human is, no doubt, possible in development process and through mainstreaming of socio-ecological issues and alleviation of poverty within the “global context”. The development process tends to changing and reforming the structures, and focuses on differential change in the fields of economy, culture and nature, however, leading to the creation of many tensions which should be recognized and controlled. Many socioecological uncertainties and deficiencies have posed impacts on different development strategies adopted during the past years. Authorities believe that empowering the target beneficiaries and creating active NGOs, followed by gradual transfer of related commitments to competent people-oriented are accounted for the initial steps in structure reforming and managing improvement processes. Investigation on participatory and farmers-based irrigation management has revealed noticeable lack of a native pattern, for which, evaluation on the reasons of success in the successful pilot as Qazvin towards removing cultural and legal obstacles and the process of extending the development program of people's participations stand and lead to "solidarity" in methodology of irrigation management transfer. This essay highlights the following cases: x Factors and elements of weaknesses in administration and managing structure x Management rules and regulations involved in the area of agricultural water Then a new scope will be presented on separation of water resources management and their utilization towards formulation of the Integrated Water Law and structural reforming of water management. It presents many applicable suggestions on method of organization, irrigation management transfer process, and promotion of productivity. At last, a new operating pattern for water supply (basin) and consumption (network) in 1- M.Sc. in Irrigation Structures, and Managing Director of Qazvin Irrigation Management Co. (QIM), & Initiator and Executive of Qazvin Participatory Irrigation Management Project. Address: Shahid Bahonar Bulvd., Qazvin, Iran. Tel: +98281-2233-187, Email: [email protected]

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hydraulic establishments is proposed under the title of Integrated Water management System «Inversed» tree-shape. Key words: Water management, Water uses management, Inversed tree-shape model, Empowerment, People's participation 1. INTRUDUCTION Huge investments are annually spent over supply and consumption of water at global scale. Such endeavors have crucial aspects in arid and semi-arid areas (as Iran) and it seems that In future, water issues remark for fundamental constraints in human society and possibly causes unwanted tensions or conflictions. Many developing countries, have so far adopted unilateral governance in studies and implication of water and agricultural development schemes. They, usually, ignore socioeconomic settings of rural communities during developmental planning. Such managerial system would eventually result in regeneration and survival of the former lord-peasant system leading to wider "nation-state" context, which nullifies people's impact on decision-making process. The consequences of this status lowers the productivity indices and generates critical challenges as: poor efficiency in modern networks' operation; pre-matured depreciation of hydraulic structures; lack of continued plan for maintenance; poor adoption of wise planting and irrigation policies; and lower farming yield per hectare under irrigation- drainage condition. Upon the managerial view as "Re-engineering" expressed by Michel Hummer (1990), it is inevitable to emphasize on basic change and new attitudes and eradicate traditional methodologies. Under re-engineering scope, science, arts, theory and practice are interlinked to encourage beneficiaries' participation and to meet their basic requirements. Obstacles and restrictions hampering farmers' participation can be identified through "Group Communication" and are gradually eliminated by launching integrated participation system and transferring managerial commitments. Enacting progressive codes and conducts, and merging parallel organizations would shed light on interrelations and pave the way for multi-dimensional participation of farmers in running and maintaining hydraulic establishments.

2. METHODOLOGIES The ongoing administrative culture and institutional set-up in water management and utilization are assumed as key variables to affect on decision-making and farmers communications. Various surveys demonstrate a strictly manager-oriented nature in governmental organizations, while in certain cases, the more "participation" intervenes, the more positive impacts are observed. Followings are success stories at global scales with impressive impacts and change in the process of service delivery and optimum running of hydraulic systems:

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-

Participatory Approach Program (PAP) in Philippine’s National Irrigation Administration model (NIA)

-

Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) in Turkey

-

Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) in Qazvin Irrigation Management Co. (QIM) in Iran

Often, attracting consumers' attention to follow development program, is accompanied by financial mechanism and encouragement. Emphasis on this aspect and derivation of new approaches for saving beneficiaries' cost and time in line with development of human communications and observation of cultural remarks, can greatly enhance participatory management and its objectives. Locally-adopted and genuine approaches act as practical principles in participation development schemes. Incorporation of local clients in re-engineering of water management and the nature and quality of services rendered by the private institutions, shall effectively mobilize development process and scaling up productivity in agriculture sector. In order to analyze public system and the sub-cultural impacts on prevailing relations between government and people, and to collect information on institutional set-up and their terms of reference, certain field surveys and direct studies were conducted on legal instruments and existing data in water sector. Moreover, proposing key insights and evaluating impacts and performance of policymaking and implementing centers were taken into account via unstructured observation (UO) without attention to structure of existing administrational system. 3. DEVELOPMENT AND BARRIERS PARTICIPATION Experts recognize that in a large system for supplying, conveying, distributing and utilization of water, climatic, environmental, economic and social perspectives are greatly inter-linked. Hence it calls for scientific investigation and management of such system as a holistic entity with following two operational areas: a. Upstream geographical area including water basis, hydraulic structures, electrical and mechanical sectors of reservoir dams which are widely managed by absolute public management system. b. Downstream geographical area including water conveying tunnel regulating and deviation dams, irrigation-drainage networks and farm inlets which are either operated under public, participatory or private management systems. It seems that inception of IMT process under such complex status is only practical through boosting participatory management of the extremely end of the networks i.e. distributor channels. Provision of socio-technical requirement will provide reliable bed for expansion of people's participation in hydraulic segments and upon willing and request of the target clients. "Management Commitment" remarks for real success of the change–oriented plans and for development of participatory interventions. This principle is considered as an impetus and effective factor in every reforming and

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changing initiative. Financial planning and regulation is also recognized as another critical stage for expedition of an overall participation process. Improvement and empowerment of managerial structure of target farmers may also be realized via involvement of the work forces (IWF). This process becomes operational through creation and enhancement of NGOs followed by gradual IMT fulfillment. At present, people's participation in water utilization management and IMT process does not comply with scientific and practical criteria, leading to lack of organized short and longterm development schemes in participatory management. Moreover, ongoing measures are either hort-run and fragmented in nature, and are mainly operated for coping transient problems and possible enjoyment of credits from national or international resources. Consequently, such attempts, together with other tasks towards privatization including various examinations, studies researches and guidelines, could never pave the way for development of participatory management. Perhaps, the reasons behind failure of farmers' involvement in irrigation commitment lie within the legal gaps, parallel institutions, and lack of decisive will for strengthening creativities. Aside from legal and structural inconsistencies, there exist certain key socio-cultural challenges in the way of IMT planning and new communications development. 3.1. LAW IN GOVERNMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF WATER AND INCONSISTENCIES

In 1943, a legal status for determination of governmental rights in water sector was developed by establishment of the autonomous National Irrigation Institute (approved in 1943) as the first step for organized studying and implementing of water-soil projects. Water law and its nationalization process were also realized in line with facilitation and expedition of projects execution in hydraulic systems and free occupation of related lands under networks construction, followed by legal stabilization of governmental water. Foregoing legislation and other regulations could never create a viable bed for meeting social perspectives in national water management system. Later, removal of this inconsistency failed even upon formulation of the law for equitable distribution of water (1982) and its executive code (1996). Despite the rank of I.R. Iran among the top global dam-constructing countries, it seems no outstanding progression in irrigation management system. In this regard, the law of stabilization of agricultural water change (1990) and its segments as follows, have to be well-evaluated and interpreted: i) Traditional networks – equal to 1 % of guaranteed price of agri-crops. ii) Combined networks - equal to 2% of guaranteed price of agri-crops. iii) Modern networks - equal to 3% of guaranteed price of agri-crops. Enacting certain parts of water rules and regulations has also encountered challenges in promotion of capabilities and exploitation of the resources. The operational inconsistencies in ongoing regulations have always caused dissatisfaction of the users against executive bodies including MOE, National Water Resources Management, Regional Water Corporations, and Provincial Directorates for Water Affairs, and Provincial Irrigation Utilization Companies. However, under any circumstances where socio-economic status justifies, legislation should be frequently renewed and updated. For instance, the Law for equitable distribution of water assumed as a progressive mechanism and could affect on better interaction between the farmers and public institutions specifically in general water management, whereas the same Law, and its executive codes, has gradually lost its applicability. Followings are certain legal parts left idle or faced to limited performance:

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Table1. Act for equitable water distribution ratified by Iranian Islamic Consultative Parliament in 1982 Article No.

Description

Duration

I

Removal of occupations in natural rivers, streams, channels, and ponds

Unlimited

IV

Prevention and stopping the unauthorized wells

"

XII

Installation of metering devices on existing wells

-

XXI

Transfer of agri-water distribution and fee-charging to local users

Unlimited

IXXX

Controlling and monitoring on water consumption rate

IXXX

Shifting the responsibilities for creation and utilization of tertiary and quarternary channels

IXXXV

Prohibiting any change in water intake or creating new water conduits

Unlimited

Table2. Operational regulation for optimum consumption of agri-water approved by the ministerial cabinet in 1996 Article No. V

Description Formation of appropriate utilization systems empowering the local leadership on water issues

Enforceable in and

2 years

VII

Issuance of due certificates for optimum agri-water consumption

-

XVI

Installation of water meter for volumetric discharge of wells

2 years

Table3. The 3rd National Development Plan ratified by the Parliament in 2000 Article No.

Description

Enforceable in

106

Creation of Water Users Associations (WUAs)

5 years

107

Creation of water and soil utilization organizations

5 years

107

Issuance of Agri-water Document

Unlimited

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3.2. NON-GOVERNMENT DEVELOPMENT, REGULATIONS AND CHALLENGES

Government focuses on Article 44 of National Constitution to plan for entrusting certain affairs to the people. This Article recognizes the national economy under 3 different sectors i.e., governmental, cooperative and private, with wider commitments and involvement for non-governmental sectors. Initial legal mechanisms for organization and registration of NGOs can be assumed in the Law of Trade (1932) as the underlying structure for promotion of commercial and production affairs in ongoing private and non-governmental sectors. Along this path, certain other regulations were also devoted to development of non-governmental management and economy, in particular, strengthening agri-based corporation. with the following frameworks: Law of Agrarian Reforms (1961), i Law of Production, i Cooperatives and Land Consolidation (1970), i Rural Cooperation Authority (1971), i Law of Agricultural Corporation (1973), i Law of Labor and Business Association (1990) , and i Law for Development of Cooperation Sector (1971). The primary measure for improvement of existing water networks utilization, accounts for creation of irrigation-drainage utilization companies. The trilateral agreement (1990) between the Ministries of Energy, Agriculture and Head of MPO, led to establishment of 17 companies at provincial level (1991) which recognized allocation of 49% water shares for the two foregoing Ministries and 51% for local users and beneficiaries (that never realized). Presently, Water Resources Management Co. deserves 51% water shares whereas, the rest lies within affiliated firms linked to Ministry of Energy. Though, power of decision-making in management systems is always affected by 3 general elements i.e., "Institutional status", "Management aspects and merits" and "Economic capabilities". However, lack of well-organized and direct relation between the NGOs' management domains underlies their poor productivity. This barrier is assumed effective enough and grows as legal gap in developing countries. Consequent of this interaction is materialized in the fundamental equation as one member=one vote, whereby for many NGOs’ managers, power originates from ownership scale i.e. wealth (economic power=one vote). However, private firms and NGOs were, more or less, established but disappeared at certain places and periods. Today, their share in GDP is negligible with inefficient role in formation of farmers-government interactions. Followings are key reasons underlying such ineffectiveness:

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Table4. Different organizations and their specifications No. Type of Organization 1

Special corporation

2

Limited liability

3

Agri-based corporation

4

Rural Cooperatives

5

Production cooperative

6

Water Users' Association

7

Corporate association

Capabilities

Risks and Deficits

+ Free competition

-Preference of leadership profits

+ capital impacts

-Tremendous fixed and circulating capitals

+ Free competition

-Preference of leadership profits

+ capital impacts

-Tremendous Fixed and circulating capitals

+ Specialties

- Inappropriate background before the farmers

+ Govt. support

+National participation + Govt. support

+National participation + Govt. support

+Members’ common benefits + Govt. support

- Demolition of registered agri-based corporations - Lack of ownership influence into management - Poor technical and executive experiences - Lack of ownership influence into management - At least 1000 ha. Land possession compulsory - Lack of ownership influence into management - Only one union in every province

+ Soft regulation

- New and unknown operation

+Many members' interests

- Unclear legal position

In the proposed model, "Federation" accounts for the governing body over the corporate Associations at provincial level which, in turn, undergoes National Federation domain as the highest apex supervised by ILO. It is anticipated that ILO shall extend needed support and mobilization to the national federation. 3.3. DEFICITS OF THE INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE

Connoisseurs believe that the heavy government would obstacle the sustainable development. This is a key instruction for analysis of the related organizations and their performance in the areas of water, agriculture and environment. During the past years, various models were experienced on the utilization of hydraulic structures e.g. reservoir or deviation dams, tunnels, conveying canals and other irrigation systems. Generating water management systems based on water catchment basin, geographical and political divisions, or entrusting the responsibility to regional or provincial water organizations, are the main public management models in water sector. These models are characterized by development of water resources while demonstrating different definitions and operations in management and consumption patterns. Regional water organizations and/ or provincial authorities have the key commitments in

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government-based water management system. This arrangement in combination with national hierarchical divisions, including provinces, districts, countries and villages, and with serious impacts on social, political and economic sectors, has created a traditional and non-organized management system in water sector. Blurred and poor structure of water and agriculture management is the central factor that hinders operation and performance of the public sectors in mobilizing beneficiaries' participation. Unfortunately, there are inter-mingled borders between management and operation of water and agriculture. On the other hand, it doesn’t seem sharp distinction between water resources and their consumption, nor clear obligation yet identified for water providers and users plus lack of proportional balance realized in the areas of decision-building and decision-making. 3.4. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHALLENGES

Complexities and differential interactions in socio-economic and techno-engineering fields of water and agricultural management represent multi-lateral relations with positive or negative impacts. Farmers' inter-relation as well as communication of rural elites and groups with executive institutions could either promote or weaken this system. Various constraints so far detected in the process of people's participation in public and community sectors, have also been identified as other challenges. Moreover, there exist other socio-cultural bottlenecks in the various processes of NGOs development, either for local users, farming units, farming groups, farming blocks, water users' unions and/or for their apex federation. Making proper ground for promotion of participation, inherited from conventional subcultures as election of local water-distributors and formulation of multi-century petitions on permanent or seasonal rivers, have all shared in consolidation of Water Users' Associations followed by Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) to the local beneficiaries. 3.5. MISCELLANEOUS BARRIERS

Other barriers might also be considered in the development process of non-government sector including lack of transparency and synergy in public institutions, poor executive mechanism in operation, inadequate plan for reforming the system, deficit support to farmer's empowerment schemes, imbalance of funds and costs, limitation of entrusted responsibilities, and lack of needed incentives for holding new commitments. Despite the numerous researches and studies made in the areas of utilization system and people's participation of irrigation-drainage systems, examinations are designed as centralized trend with no local and operational perspectives. Hence, unilateral resolution of governmental obstacles in decision-making processes and implementing of nonprocess-oriented programs were taken into account with no focus on people's participation. This means that beneficiaries are not briefed on the requirements and impacts of IMT process in future.

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Negligence of training programs for empowering the associations towards programming, organizing and solution of technical and legal problems geared in water management system, and the way for interaction and perception of how to distribute responsibilities between associations and government, are assumed as other inconsistencies. There are other uncertainties as; lack of regulatory codes for outlining needed guidelines in government sector and for its better interaction with local users; poor policy-making and transparent action-plan in formulating appropriate agreements; and inadequate coordination in development of self-running ground, would hinder the real motivations for shaping participatory management and people's mobilization towards holding new commitments. Moreover, owing to poor development of IMT initiative, changing the national or local managers and authorities has sometimes changed the scenario, or in cases, led to abruption of transfer process, too. 4. CONCLUTION Productivity is know as a knowledge for sound exploitation of resources, human forces, skills, technology and information, and for gaining the best outputs and "Integarated management in consumption". Good productivity and provision of prompt means for NGOs management, particularly in water distribution and for beneficiaries' affairs, would realize their satisfaction. It seems, upon proper designation and operation of an integrated management system comprising of two components i.e. network utilization management (Water Supply in the Catchment basin), and observation of water consumers' priorities, many challenges can be eradicated with remarkable leaps towards higher productivity. However, integrated management system basically regards other perspectives and features in "socio-technical management of surface and sub-surface water" which resembles a tree-like model and concentrates on water as the critical element of productivity in agriculture for maximum reduction of users' costs and times. The IMT initiative has started with setting and development of water user's organizations followed by training qualified managers and renovation of managerial structures in basic establishments. Legislation of government and NGOs’ codes and conducts, as well as gradual transfer of networks management entail due change and reform of regulations in monitoring and in executive bodies at local and national scales. certain recommendations for more clarification are as the following: 4.1. FORMULATION OF "INTEGRATED WATER LAW"

For the sake of sustainability and transparency, the task calls for adoption of comprehensive laws and regulation to form related organizations and transfer of irrigation management (IMT) in favor of the local clients. This holistic law would outline all stakeholders and their commitments towards improved proceeding of the initiative through extension of participation-focused culture and empowerment of the target beneficiaries. The law would clarify terms of reference, for the executive water authorities issues:

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Table5. Topics and contents of the proposed "Integrated Water Law Chapter I: Generals Section Description

Remarks

1

Introduction

Background and justifications

2

Terminologies

Looking up the national and historical encyclopedia Chapter II: General Regulations

Section Description

Remarks

1

Studies on water resources

Details and aspects

2

Water basins

General divisions and specifications

3

Artificial infiltration & recharge

Water catchment’s conservation

4

Flood plains and traditional streams

Coordination with related institutions

5

Water resources conservation

Surface and sub-surface water

6

Quarries

Ways of aggregate utilization

7

River bed and banks

Description of scientific methods for location of beds and banks

8

Violation and offences

In coordination with Judicial power

9

Beneficiaries affairs

TOR and operational guidelines

10

Investment

Local and external investment

11

Codes and conducts

Live institutions, executive codes and conducts

12

Water allocation

Micro and Macro Allocations

13

Water rate

Details on total cost Chapter III: Headquarters

Section Sectors

Remarks

1

Ministry of Energy

Office of the Minister

2

Dept. of Water Resources

Mission and Vision

3

Dept. of Water Use

Mission and Vision

4

Company of Water Resources Management

"

5

National Water and Sewage Company

"

6

National Irrigation-Drainage Company

"

Chapter IV: Provincial Executive Bodies 1

Provincial water management authority

Vision and Mission

2

Provincial water and Sewage Authority

Vision and Mission

3

Provincial irrigation and drainage company Vision and Mission Chapter V: Development of People's Participation

Section Description

Remarks

1

General aspects and definitions

History, operational trend

2

WUAs mission

Bylaws, ToR

3

Central federation at provincial level

"

4

National Union of WUAs

"

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4.2. REFORMATION OF WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Ratification of the "IWL", hopefully leads to duty distinction of water supply and demand divisions, which in turn, paves the way for enhanced water management system. To this end, following structure is proposed for the system concerned:

Diagram1. Proposed Water Management System

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4.3. WATER RATE

At present, water rate is calculated upon percentage of agri-crops price, however, it does not match general costs for supply and distribution of agricultural water. Based on investigations, this unconformity has significantly affected the irrigation performance, which means the real and natural value of water deserves negligible impact on productivity. Hence, it is suggested to calculate the water rate on the basis of projects' operation total costs and their hydraulic structure.

4.4. INTEGRATED WATER MANAGEMENT (IWM)

Integrated Water Management is closely involved in water supply under natural conditions, and in its distribution through technical codes and socio-cultural structures. Obviously, under such status, manifold utilization system and its negative impacts, tend to suppress any improvement management and creativity. Therefore, it is rational to appeal for replacement of the manifold and dispersive management by an integrated management system on all water establishments. To this end, the following inversed tree-shaped model is proposed to run for a 2-year trial in pilot regions: Management of water reserves

Water basin (Tree's root)

Management of deviation and conveyance

Water conveying Canal

Water Utilization management

Water Distribution Canals (Tree’s Branch)

Diagram2. Integrated Water Management Inversed tree-shaped model (I)

To make this model operational, we can mobilize the existing irrigation-drainage companies or create companies for water establishments operation. This model comprises of management for utilization, supervision of all segments (basin and network) under integrated manner. These companies would bear vision and mission in water supply (basin) as the model roots, and in utilization sector (network) as the branches of the inversed tree-shaped model. As far as institutional chart is concerned, utilization management will enjoy

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autonomous operation and recognition by other managerial structures as regional or provincial organizations for water resources management with no direct intervention in it. Consequently, the foregoing model, if becomes operational, shall lead to the following achievements: x Policy-making and macro-allocation of basin's water: (absolutely) by government; x Integrated planning and management on the system: (just) by utilizing companies; x Launching utilization management and improvement of water management: (only) by Water Users' Associations.

5. REFRENCES 1. Archives of the Irrigation-Drainage management Co. Qazvin province. 2. Bayani P , ofrecio , Participatory Development and Management : A Cornerstone of Philippine Irrigation Program , Tsukuba Asian Seminar , Japan , NOV 80014 (2005) 3. Dennis kinlaw, 1995, the practice of empowerment; Marking the Most of human competence, England. 4. Ghasemi, Ali. (2005). Participative Management in Qazvin plain , icid , china 5. Green, B, and Barry, j, "the participation Solution, Management Review. November 36-39 " 1985 6. Hatami, Abbas (2002), Change-oriented Organizations and Development-focused companies, Hamed publication, Zanjan, I.R. Iran 7. Heydarian, Ahmad (2004), "An analysis on domestic experience in IMT", Goharane-Kavir, Irrigation-Drainage Co. of Tehran, I.R. Ira. 8. Kinla, Denis, "Human Resource Development", translated by Dr. Nejad Parizi (2004), Modiran publication. 9. Lectures and essays of conference« Participation System » , (2000) Ministry of Oil Publication , Iran 10. Maxvel Maltz (1985), "Psychology of Subjective Picture", translated by Mehdi Qarachedaghi, Nobahar publication, Tehran, I.R. Iran. 11. Mohsenian, mahdi, Proceedings on Participation Approach (2001), Human Communication, Soroush publication, Tehran, I.R. Iran. 12. Rabbani, Masoud-Rezaie, Kamran-Maanavizadeh, Neda and Ebadian, Mahmoud (2006), "Pure production", RWTUV Co. Iran, Atena publication. 13. Shafiabadi, Abdollah (1987), "Techniques and Approaches in Consultancy" Rose publication, Tehran.

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The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

FARMERS' TENDENCIES TOWARD PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

Nasren Afshar1, Kiumars Zarafshani 2

ABSTRACT In most developing countries, irrigation management is heavily dominated by the public sector. However, government operated irrigation schemes are poorly maintained with steadily deteriorating infrastructure. A current solution to this dilemma is participatory irrigation management (PIM). This participatory approach seeks to share the burden of irrigation operation and maintenance cost with the beneficiaries. For any participatory approach to be effective, qualitative studies are needed to assess how beneficiaries think about the outcome of such projects. Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative study was to assess farmers' tendencies towards participatory irrigation management among members of Sarabbas and Sefidbarg Water Users Association (WUA in Kermanshah province. Using focus group techniques among 103 members, results indicated that farmers have somewhat weak tendencies toward PIM. They felt that farmers can not share the cost of irrigation facilities and the current facilities are out-of-date. Further, they were not interested to install water meters and applying for loan was against their religious beliefs. Although farmers were willing to solve water problems among themselves, but they believed irrigation operation and maintenance should be the responsibility of government agencies. INTRODUCTION Almost 40% of the world's food crops are produced by irrigated agriculture. Thus, the performance of irrigated and drainage is critical to the food supply and to farmers' income, as well as to the environment. The ultimate goals in managing irrigation water are efficiency, equity and sustainability (Sun, 2000). Efficiency has been achieved if every drop of water has been properly allocated and used without any waste. The goal of equity means that water is fairly distributed among users. Some farmers may have an advantage over others. Those at the head of a canal have an advantage over those living downstream, as they have first access to water. Influential farmers may have better 1- Graduate Student, Department of Agricultural Extention and Education, College of Agriculture Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran, TEL: (0831) 8323732 2- Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extention and Education,College of Agriculture, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran ,TEL: (0831) 8323732

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access to water than poor farmers. In some cases, ideals of efficiency and equity may be in conflict. The goal of sustainability, therefore means that the users of today should maintain the quality and quantity of water resources for the use of future generations (Sun, 2000). Managing irrigation so as to achieve efficiency, equity and sustainability is very difficult. Market mechanisms are not enough and high prices for water when it is scarcest mean that low-income users may lose their access to water. Unrestricted use if prices are low may lead to pollution, water-logging and over-use of groundwater. Given the special characteristics of irrigation water, there is a good reason for government to intervene, and even directly manage irrigation systems. However, when a centralized agency is in charge of planning and operating an irrigation system, the result is often too much bureaucracy. Moreover, too much money is spent on staff salaries and as a result, the cost of water is high with poor irrigation service, and yet the users are unwilling to pay their irrigation fees. The result is a vicious circle of high costs, poor services and low payment of fees, leading to inadequate funding and further deterioration of services. One way out of this difficult situation is the participatory approach to irrigation management. Increased farmer participation in irrigation is part of a world-wide trend of devolution in natural resource management. Experience shows that farmers all over the world are potential managers who, when properly organized, are able to manage their own affairs. Participatory irrigation management (PIM) is increasingly viewed as a means to improve the performance of irrigation investments. Beginning in the 1980s, there have been large-scale programs to turn over irrigation management from government agencies to organized water user groups in a number of countries, such as the Philippines, Indonesia, Senegal, Madagascar, Colombia, and Mexico. The idea that farmers should participate in irrigation management has grown in Iran since the mid-1980s. The premise is that when farmers are clearly the owners of the physical system, so that the maintenance costs are their own responsibility, they will have a strong incentive to protect the physical integrity of the system to reduce their overall costs. Moreover, PIM has been driven by the need for a higher return from the massive funds invested in irrigation, which plays a major role in increasing agricultural production. However, in western part of Iran, these irrigation systems exist in isolation with limited participation of farmers. The purpose of this qualitative study was to shed light on farmers' perception towards participatory irrigation management in Kermanshah province. PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to assess farmers' perceptions toward participatory irrigation management. Specifically, the study sought to identify PIM issues fram farmers using nominal group technique. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: This qualitative effort used a focus group approach to meet the objectives of the study. Interview questions for focus group leaders were designed to gain an understanding of the issues facing farmers, as experienced by each of the respective groups of individuals

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composing the focus group. Farmers were asked to respond to four open-ended questions regarding their perceptions toward participatory irrigation management. The questions were: 1) what do you think about participatory irrigation management? 2) what do you think the major obstacles are in operating and maintaining irrigation systems? 3) What are the problems with installing measuring devices? 4) Would you apply for a loan in order to develop irrigation systems? Focus group were composed of farmer (n = 103). The nominal group technique (Delbecq, Van de Van & Gustafson,1975) was used to facilitate the identification of problems facing participatory irrigation management among farmers, followed by discussion sessions. The nominal group technique is done only when group consensus regarding the prioritization of issues is important to the overall research or planning project. The nominal group technique can be used as an alternative to both the focus group and Delphi techniques. It presents more structure than the focus group, but still takes advantage of the synergy created b group participants. As its name suggests, the nominal group technique is only "nominally" a group, since the ranking are provided on an individual basis. Focused group sessions ranged from 3-5 hours in length and were facilitated by researchers. At the conclusion of each session, notes were transcribed and summarized into tables with frequencies and percentages. RESULTS: The first research question assessed farmers' perceptions toward participatory irrigation management. As shown in table1, the majority of farmers (43.7%) perceived PIM as creating extra burden or obligation on farmers. However, 21.3% of participants perceived PIM as autonomy among users. Moreover, 25.2% of farmers believed PIM is not possible since water users don't get along well with each other and it would create communication problems among farmers.

Table 1. What do you think about PIM? Answer

Frequency

Percentage

Develops financial obligation for farmers

45

43.7

Not possible considering current communication problems among users

26

25.2

Provides autonomy among users

22

21.3

Develops sense of responsibility

6

5.8

Government agencies are unable to manage irrigation systems.

4

3.9

The second research question assessed major obstacles in operating and maintaining irrigation systems as perceived by farmers. Results indicated (table 2), the majority of farmers believed the irrigation facilities are out of date and a frequent electricity shortage creates more problems for farmers.

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Table 2. what do you think the major obstacles are in operating and maintaining irrigation systems? Answer

Frequency

Percentage

Irrigation facilities are out -of- date

54

52

Frequent electricity shortage

25

24

Irrigation facilities have no problems

18

17

I have no knowledge of facilities maintenance

6

5.8

The third research question asked farmers to what extend installing measuring devices cause problems. As shown in Table 3 the majority of users were against such installation due to high cost and complicated maintenance problems.

Table 3. what are the problems with installing measuring devices? Answer

Frequency

Percentage

The majority of users are not willing to install measuring devices

44

42.7

Too expensive

26

25.2

Complicated maintenance problems

11

10.6

It should became mandatory

6

5.8

Unreliable water resources

2

1.9

I have no knowledge of install measuring devices

5

4.8

It doesn't help much

3

2.9

Having to pay water fee limits installing measuring devices

3

2.9

There is no problem installing measuring devices

3

2.9

Finally, the fourth research question assessed farmers' willingness to apply for loans in order to develop irrigation systems. Results revealed that the majority of farmers are against loans due to religious beliefs. However 40.7% of farmers were interested to apply for a loan (table 4).

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Table 4. Would you apply for a loan in order to develop irrigation systems? Answer

Frequency

Percentage

Receiving loans is against religious belief

50

48.5

I would use loans to expand irrigation systems

42

40.7

I can not pay back the loan

9

8.7

Don't need a loan, I have sufficient financial resources

2

1.9

Data was further content analyzed to evaluate farmers overall perception towards participatory irrigation management. Using 3-point Likert Scale, farmers were asked to respond to 12 statement concerning their level of agreement toward participatory irrigation management practices, As shown in Table 5, farmers were less inclined to participate in irrigation management schemes launched by government officials. Almost all farmers (99%) believed irrigation system management is the responsibility of government agencies. Table 5. Farmers’ perception toward participatory irrigation management. Answer

agree

somewhat agree

disagree

Frequency

102

1

0

Percent Frequency Percent

99 100 97

1 1 1

0 2 2

Frequency

5

13

85

Percent Frequency Percent

4.8 6 5.8

12.6 8 7.7

82.5 89 86.4

Frequency

26

2

75

There is problem with water distribution among users Users should pay water fee

Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

25.2 95 92.2 39 37.8

2 2 2 15 14.5

72.8 6 5.8 49 47.5

Users should maintain and operate irrigation systems

Frequency

21

15

67

Users should repair irrigation systems

Percent Frequency Percent

20.3 4 4

14.6 5 4.8

65 94 91.2

Frequency

21

31

51

Percent Frequency Percent

20.3 56 54.4

30 22 21.3

49.5 25 24.3

Frequency

3

3

97

Management of irrigation systems is governments' responsibility Irrigation facilities belong to the government agency User are able to manage irrigation systems

Efficiency of irrigation systems will increase if users take the responsibility Government is doing a good job in managing irrigation facilities

Users should take charge of water distribution

Users should take the responsibility of solving water problem themselves Users should pay for the cost of irrigation water

Percent

3

3

94

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CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: Members of Sarabbas and Sefidbarg Water User Associations were not enthusiastic about participatory in irrigation system management promoted by government. They believed these facilities belong to the government and they should take a passive role in managing such facilities. One reason for current perception is that government have not yet provided an up- todate infrastructure thus farmers feel threatened by worn out irrigation facilities. They feel these facilities would be expensive to maintain and that their resources are not sufficient to meet the cost of operating and maintaining these facilities. Furthermore, farmers were less interested to work in groups. Based on the results of this qualitative study, it is recommended that government agency take a first step in turning over irrigation facilities that are sound and without any mis-function. It is further recommended that government officials select those places with highly motivated farmers to participate in their irrigation schemes. More resourceful farmers are more inclined to participate in irrigation management. Therefore, government agencies should target more resourceful farmers if they are to enhance participatory irrigation management projects. REFERENCES: 1. Delbecq, A., Van de Ven, A. H., and Gustafson, D.H. Group Techniques for Program Planning. Glenview, IL: The Scott, Foresman and Company, 1975. 2. Sun, P. P. C. (2000). Participatory Irrigation Mangaement (PIM). Retrieved on 12 Dec. 2006: http://www.Agent.org/library/abstract/nc129c.html

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

SOCIO-CULTURAL INTIMIDATION ON THE EMERGING IRRIGATION INSTITUTIONS

P. Ignatius Prabhakar1

India is predominantly an agrarian society; access to water for irrigation is an influencing factor of the status of a landed individual. Technological development provided opportunity to individual access to ground water through mechanised wells and hence the once popular tank water irrigation lost its importance in many places and so the traditional irrigation institutions managing them. The State had full control over irrigation tanks. The last decades of the 20th century witnessed a pervasive policy consensus spear headed by World Bank to transfer state management of natural resource by and large to community of users. Resulting in a blanket approach of Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) components in all irrigation-related activities nationwide (Hooja et al. 2002). Thus through projects and through legislations the States started the formation of WUA in villages The fundamental features of an Indian village social structure are the constitution of various castes in the village (Srinivas 1976; Béteille 1996). The interactions and relationship of individuals between local institutions of social, religious, economic and political nature underlies the functioning of village social system. An individual has different types of roles to play. The inter-relation between individuals belonging to different institutions is one of the factors that explains their role, relationship of power and social status. The power in an Indian village is spread wider in different levels of the social structure resulting in emergence of different types of elites. The elites’ intervening factors play a significant role in all sets of action pattern involving individuals from different institutions. The elites of the dominant castes held various positions in the villages’ traditional institutions like the temple management and maintenance, caste organization, traditional irrigation institutions. In regard to the traditional irrigation institutions in the state of Tamil Nadu, a system of management had been in practice for several centuries called Kudimarath, where the farmers were involved in the maintenance of the tank for themselves. In most of the cases during the 18th and early 19th centuries due to various reasons such as local wars, appropriation of tanks by the British government, etc. the farmers slowly lost their interest in Kudimarath. Nevertheless, in many places farmers

1 - Researcher (Social Anthropology), Social Water Management Program, French Institute of Pondicherry, Pondicherry, South India.

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continue to participate, at least through voluntary labour not under any formal discipline. (Palanisamy et el, 2003). The competitiveness between caste groups though prevails, the entities within castes like the kin groups and lineage patronization is emerging. Another major factor that is contributing substantially in the present day village affairs is the intrusion of the popular political parties. This is manifested in various forms, like the disputes and conflicts between the families, kin groups and lineages is nourished by the rival political parties taking their either of the sides, resulting in fractious situations. The creation of WUA and TA is not an exception in the villages that has provided ample space to exercise the fuel the differences that prevails. The state has stereotype guidelines for forming these new associations. In many instances the farmers find it difficult in adapting to the implemented association, as it does not suit their already existing system thus causing disinterest among the irrigators. As a result the formed WUAs remain non-functional. This is well explained by Mollinga (2001) in the case of WUA in Andhra Pradesh (AP), where no further action has been taken to shape processes within the WUAs apart from the organisation of the elections, and also he criticises how these newly formed associations are captured by the local elites. This viewpoint is also shared by Reddy (2005) who recently had undertaken an extensive study in AP and argue for a restructuring and reforming of the State irrigation department and the bureaucracy that is critical for effective and sustainable irrigation institutions. And Mosse (1999) in mentioning about the Tamil society he says “social dominance does not remain unchallenged by new institutions which also provide the means to advance externally defined development objectives such as equity democracy and social justice…. the point is that these social changes intersect with local caste conflicts or factional affiliation and with strategies to challenge as well as retain caste power.” In this paper I present two cases of one each from the states of Pondicherry and Tamil Nadu. In the first case I will be describing the functioning of the Tank Association of Vadanur Tank in Pondicherry, where the context is one association, one tank and two villages. The case in Tamil Nadu is about the Tank water users association of Thiruvennainallur and Saravanapakkam under the context of one association, two tanks and two villages. From these two cases an attempt is made to analyse the socio-cultural factors, such as the existing polity in the caste groups and kin groups that are intimidating the functioning of the WUA /TA and the role of the state. AN OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY REGIONS Tamil Nadu with a geographical area of 13 million hectares is ranked eleventh in size among the Indian States. The net area irrigated rose from 21.11 lakh hectare in 1950's to 27.75 lakh hectare in the 1990s and is reported to have come down to 21.48 lakh hectare during 2004-05. The State is dependent on the ground water resources for providing irrigation to additional acreage and to stabilize the existing area under irrigation. The three main sources of irrigation in the State are rivers, tanks and wells. There are 39,202 tanks, 2,322 irrigation main canals & 18,26,906 irrigation wells in the State. There are 79 reservoirs with a total capacity of about 6895 MCM (243 TMC) (15% of the annual

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water potential) (SPC, annual plan, 2005-06). The Public Works Department of Tamil Nadu have the control over the tanks that has a command area of more than 40 ha that is 8,903 in numbers. There are 20, 413 tanks that have a command area of 40 ha and less fall under the control of Panchayat Union1. There are 9,886 tanks called the Ex-zamin tank. Individual local chiefs called Zamindars once controlled these tanks. With period government orders, the PWD are entrusted to undertake repair works in these tanks. Pondicherry is a small state with a geographical area of 480 sq kms that has the status of the Union Territory. Pondicherry has four regions (or districts), Pondicherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam. Pondicherry and Karaikal are situated within the state of Tamil Nadu, whereas Mahe and Yanam are situated within the states of KeraIa and Andhra Pradesh respectively. The net area irrigation in the state of Pondicherry is 16.73 thousand hectare in 2003-04 2. Two rivers that originate in Tamil Nadu – the Gingee and the Pennaiyar – pass through the region of Pondicherry that flows into the Bay of Bengal. There are also 84 tanks that have the capacity to store water for irrigation. The region has substantial quantities of groundwater of fairly good quality. In Pondicherry, unlike Tamil Nadu, all the tanks – whatever their sizes – are under the control of PWD. There are 59 system tanks and 25 non system tanks in Pondicherry region that irrigated a command area of 6592 ha. The study tanks are situated in Pondicherry and Tamil Nadu. In Pondicherry it is Vadanur tank and in Tamil Nadu there are two study tanks - Thiruvennainallur tank and Saravanapakkam tank - situated in the district of Villupuram. All the three study tanks receive water from the same source of pennaiyar river through two different systems. this river runs to a length of 432 km, that originates from Karnataka state that is situated to the north east of Tamil Nadu. The length of 320 km is in Tamil Nadu. The tirukoilur anaicut is siutuated across river pennaiyar in Villupuram district of Tamil nadu. There are four canals taking from right bank of the anaicut and one canal from left bank. the Vadanur tank situated in Pondicherry is the last tank that receives water from the only canal situated at the left bank of the anaicut called the Pambai canal, whose length is 32.4km and supplies water for 26 tanks. And the tanks of tiruvennainallur and saravanapakkam recieves from one of the four canals sitiuated at the right bank of the anaicut called Ragavan canal with a length of 36.4 km. These two tanks are the 16th and 17th tanks of the 46 tanks that receives water from this canal. The Tamil Nadu farmers’ management of irrigations systems act – 2000 of the Tamil Nadu Legislative assembly received the assent of the President on the 25th February 2001. The act is to provide for farmers’ participation in the management of irrigations systems. And since then the government through he PWD is forming WUA in a phased manner through out the states. Even prior to this intervention from the government during mid-1990s there were projects of tank development and rehabilitation sponsored by European Commission, that introduced WUA in selected villages in the state. The Tank Rehabilitation Project of Pondicherry (TRPP) was launched in August 1999; the Pondicherry public works department (PWD) implemented this project with the assistance of the Agriculture Department. The European Commission provided 1- Panchayat Union is an administration division below the district. This panchayat union comprises of few village panchayat (see foot note no. 2) 2- http://www.pon.nic.in/stategovt/ecostat/ecostat2/ecostat.htm

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consultancy to assist the implementation of the project. The monetary support for the project was 81% from European Commission, 13% from PWD and 6% from the contributions of the Local community. NGOs were involved to mobilize the community and form TAs. CASE I – TANK ASSOCIATION OF VADANUR TANK

The two hamlet villages of Purana Singu Palayam (PSP) and Vadanur (VAD) constitute the administrative unit of Vadanur village panchayat1. These two villages share one irrigation tank – Vadanur tank (VAD tank). Farmers from both the villages have their lands in the command area of the tank. In VAD there is a colony inhabited by the Parayar who are SC2 community, majority of them are landless agricultural labourers and only few family own land. Majority of the inhabitants in VAD are from the caste of Vanniar (initially agricultural labourer and now farmers) who are also called Gounder, they hold the maximum of the lands. There are Chettiar (merchants by tradition, but also own lands and practice agriculture) and other castes like Reddiar (agriculturists and big land owners), Yegali (washer-man), Pillai (accountants) but fewer in numbers and few Muslim families. PSP also has a SC colony inhabited by Parayar with similar occupational pattern of that of VAD. There are few families of the dominant caste of Reddiar, most of them are big land owners in PSP. The majority of the inhabitants of the village are the Vanniars who own lands. There are other castes, Yegali (washerman), Achari (carpenter, black smiths), Yadava (sheep/cattle herders) and only one Pillai family who were once the only big landlord in PSP. The tank of VAD is the last tank of a system that receives water from a canal connecting the Penniyar river through diversion barrage controlled by the PWD of Tamil Nadu. The command area (ayacut) of the Tank is 165 hectares, until early 1970 the only Pillai family in PSP who owned nearly half of the command area. The tank has five sluices, of which through four sluices water will be distributed to the lands in PSP and through one sluice to VAD lands. The major crops that are cultivated in the command area are paddy and sugarcane. Paddy is cultivated for three bogums (cropping season), one is a long term crop for 5-6 months and the other two are short term crops of three months. In hamlet village of VAD, there are ten village leaders who are called natamai, the preponderant caste are the Vanniar. The main function of this institution is to organize village temple festival. In the SC colony there are three natamais. In PSP again the Vanniar who are the majority is divided into four lineages or kothu. Each kothu has a leader called kothukarar. The function of this institution is also to organize village temple festival. Of the four kothu the families belonging to one of the kothu called the kumalamuttar draw respect from other kothus, as they were traditional leading the other three kothus, moreover they were one who were holding land in PSP amongst the Vanniars for many generations though not equal with the big land lords of Reddiar. 1- Village panchayat is the lowest elected governing body, administrative boundaries of a village panchayat will comprise of one or many hamlet villages or revenue villages. 2- Schedule Caste (SC) is the constitutional category given to dalits who are at the lower level of the Hindu caste hierarchy, who were also called harijans or untouchables.

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In PSP rivalry between two kothus prevails for more than five generation. There is said to be opposition from sanasimuttar (one of the kothu) against any decisions taken in the village by leaders of kumalamuttar. This rivalry in many cases has resulted in clashes in the village. In the present day situation, the village panchayat president, office bearers in the TA, belong to the kothu of kumalamuttar. The leading persons of kumalamuttar are also member of the regional political parties and also those leading persons of sanasimuttar are also active members of the regional parties those opposes the political parties to which the kumalamuttar are affiliated. The leading persons of kumalamuttar and Reddiars who are big land lords have good relationship with each other. Moreover, these families hold most of the land in the ayacut of the tank than others in PSP. Few of the leading person of kumalamuttar along with few interested Reddiars of PSP and few interested farmers from VAD took the initiatives every year to march in the supply canal upstream to see to it there is free flow of water to VAD when water is released in the system. This activity is said to be a very old practice and is termed as ‘bringing water to the tank’. Due to the proportion of land holding between the farmers of VAD and PSP in the ayacut, the people of PSP outnumber those of VAD in participating in bringing water to the tank. The expense for this activity is met by the funds with the kothukarrars of PSP that are collected for the temple festivals. The revenue that is generated out of the resources from the tank like the fish is shared in the proportion of 2:1 between PSP and VAD. This is justified as one share each for the PSP and VAD; and the other share is for the water that is brought also goes to PSP because the expenses are borne by them. An association was started during 1995 for VAD tank, under guidance of the PWD. But the association did not become active rather it remained only in paper. The only activity done collectively by the likeminded and interested farmers of PSP and VAD is bringing water to the tank when the water is released in the system, that was claimed as the most important activity. This was not done under the aegis of the association formed. The leading person of PSP and VAD on knowing the inception of a Tank Rehabilitation Project of Pondicherry (TRPP) during 1999 voluntarily represented themselves to the project management unit and invited them to implement the project. TRPP had guidelines and procedures drafted for the formation of the TA. An NGO was entrusted with the assignment of social mobilisation and formation of TA. The NGO undertook household survey and based on it a category of members to be appointed in the Executive Committee (EC) was prepared beforehand. Ayacut farmers, (60%), agricultural labourers/landless (30%), other groups (washer (wo)men, shepherds, fisher (wo)men, etc) (10%). In the group of ayacut farmers, different categories like marginal, small and big farmer; and those with and without well had to be represented. Also women should have at least one-third representation in the EC. The process of formation of the VAD TA was said to be difficult both for the NGO and for the leading people of PSP and VAD who had interest in the irrigation tank. The main opposition had come from the encroachers who were cultivating inside the tank. This issue was taken up rigorously by leading persons of the saniathanmodu of PSP to oppose the eviction of the encroachment. The representative of the NGO was manhandled, and four of the people involved with the TA were tied up inside a temple

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in VAD. The political and social status of those leading persons of PSP and their approach in dealing with the agitation is said to be a vital factor in the formation of the TA. In 2001 March the Vadanur tank association was formed. It has 25 executive member of all the categories specified in the guidelines. Fourteen of them are from PSP of them four are Reddiars and nine are Vanniars mostly belonging to kumalamuttarmodu, nine out of ten of them from the VAD are Vanniars and one from another neighbouring village, who has land in the command area of the tank. One SC and two women from VAD; and one SC and one woman from PSP also comprise the EC. The president and secretary of the TA are from the kumalamuttarmodu and the secretary is a Reddiar, all three from PSP. The vice president, and joint secretaries are from VAD. The Office bearers from PSP are still continuing office, whereas from VAD changes had occurred; on formation of the TA, a Muslim was the vice-president and a Vanniar was the joint secretary, on due course, as their participation in the meeting and other activities was not effective, a land owning Chettiar and another Vanniar were replaced respectively. The treasurer of the TA is a wealthy Reddiar and is called by the villagers as auditor; moreover he owns the biggest rice mill in the region. He has good connection with the political leaders of the state. He is an influential person and have undertaken many activities in the common interest of PSP, like, providing rice to landless at times of natural calamities, conducting health camps in the village and provided nourishments to the school children. The president of the TA is also the village panchayat president, who has been in this post for nearly fifteen years. The secretary also a local leader of the regional political party, and has served as president of the agricultural co-operative society in the village. The vice president a Chettiar from VAD is a big landowner; he is one of the ten natamais in VAD and a local leader of a regional political party. The Join secretary is also an active member of a political party. The influential status of the Office bearers of the VAD TA has facilitated the association to undertake rehabilitation activities in the tank. They have been regularly de-silting the tank; they have laid farm roads in the ayacut, and riverbanks. They have also taken initiatives and planted trees in the tank bed. Prior to the formation of TA, the resources in the VAD tank, fishes and the trees in the tank bund were shared between the villages of VAD and PSP. There is a physical demarcation in the tank that divides the tank for VAD and PSP. The revenue generated from fallen trees and from the yield of the trees in the tank bund under respective boundaries would be managed by the respective village institutions of natamai and kothukarar. In regard to the fish harvest, traditionally there was pre-defined share allocation amongst the ayacut farmers and as well few days of free catch for all the villagers. After the formation of TA, the TA took the control over these resources. The revenue generated from these resources went to the TA. The fish was cultured by the TA and was auctioned. This happened twice after the formation of TA, thereby depriving the earlier shares and free catch. The TA appropriates the revenue to their account that is generated from the resources in the tank that went to the village institutions earlier. This has created a frigid situation between VAD and PSP. The contention of the VAD people is that the revenue that used to come to their village

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institution has stopped. The people of VAD view that the revenue goes to PSP due to the domination of the office bearers of TA who are from PSP. Ever since the formation of TA there are cold differences between the encroachers who were evicted from the tank bed and the TA. Most of the encroachers were land less SCs. The contention of the leading people of TA is that the rival saniathanmodu had made the good use of the cold difference of the people both in VAD and PSP to rise against the TA. Even in the recently held panchayat election, the election promises of those contesting the elections from the faction backed by rival individuals of saniathanmodu was that if they are elected to power they would allow the landless to cultivate inside the tank. The contention of the saniathamodu, is that they do not accept the formation of TA, as they feel those who all are represented in the EC are those who would support and do not question the decisions taken by the Office Bearers (OB) which is dominated by persons from kumalamuttarmodu. The TA auctioned fish in the VAD tank for two years after their formation. During the first year, the TA decided that fish would be cultured and sold by them. They appointed guards to safe guard the fishes that were grown in the tank. They harvested the fishes and used a transport to sell it in other villages. During this process, it was only the office bearers who got involved in it and many of EC members did not get involved. As the Office bearers were from the land owning category, the labourer who used to work in their field were utilised to under take physical work in the process of selling the fishes. Owing to the non-compliance of the EC members, the following year, a public auction was called for, during when people from far off places participated in the auction1. This time, the collective bidding by few members of the TA won the auction. And after the harvest of the fishes, the accounts were submitted to the TA explaining an incurrence of loses. TA association decided to compensate the loss, by returning the money collected in the auction. This aroused anger amongst many even from the EC of TA against the compensation given. But it was said that the domination of the TA officer bearers silenced the under current that was rising against them. In both the cases the leading people of the TA blame the rival group for incurring loss. Their contention is that, it was the rival group that encouraged the landless and other to enter the tank and catch fish. The EC meeting of VAD TA takes place once a month during the evenings of full moon day at the residence of the treasurer of the TA in PSP. During the first year this meeting was held during daytime at the third sluice2 of the tank. The monthly meeting of the EC is intimated through post to the EC members. This meeting commences by 6 pm and goes upto 9 pm. During which the NGO representative designated as Community 1- The TA made announcement of the auction in local new papers. 2- The third sluice of the VAD tank is also called the middle sluice. All activities pertaining to the tank matter, like fish auction, tree auction and redressal of disputes pertaining to the tank will be held in a space near the third sluice, moreover this place is situated in location that is at the middle of the two hamlet villages of VAD and PSP.

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Organiser (CO) responsible for this TA moderates the meeting on the works carried out in the previous month and works that has to be undertaken in the coming month. In order to encourage the EC member to attend this monthly meeting the Office Bearers of the TA had introduced thrift and saving programme, where the members have to save hundred rupees every month, on requirement the saved money will be lent to one individual, who would pay back it with an interest. This change of venue of the meeting and the introduction of the thrift and saving scheme has caused considerable impact on the participation of the EC member like women, SC, and even others in the meeting. Two women members from after the change of venue have not attended the meeting as the timing and the distance did not suit their convenience. Three men members also from VAD do not attend the meeting as they do not have a cycle or a motor bike to reach the meeting venue, they also attribute that the timing also does not suits them. In regard to the introduction of the thrift and saving, few EC members who are unable to part take in it due to their financial problem abstain from attending the meetings. Moreover, this thrift and savings has attracted few other non-EC members who have their interest in it alone. On an average only eleven EC member of the TA participate in the monthly meetings. Those people who were opposing the formation of the TA for VAD tank, on due course after witnessing the physical work undertaken by the TA in the tank have become eager to associate themselves with the tank association. The explanation given by the OB of TA on the reason for this eagerness is the money that was involved in the works undertaken. There are two issues that arise, the OB of TA complain that the new found interest by those who were antagonistic initially is that they feel that they could make some money out of the works undertaken. The other who wanted to associate themselves feel that the money is not being utilised properly by the OB of the TA. And again here, those who wanted to enter the TA are also the traditional rivals belonging to saniathanmodu in PSP. And also there are few from VAD also who wanted to join the TA. In the EC of the VAD TA, according to the guidelines of the TRPP, people from all categories like the SC, landless, women; and small, large and marginal landholding farmer comprise the 25 members from VAD and PSP. After five years of the VAD TA, the expressions of the SCs, women and few members of the EC do not reflect the cohesiveness of the association. When talking about the TA, they exclude themselves and address the OB as TA. Many of them were co-opted in the TA by the leading people who had their interest in the TA to fill the required number of 25. The VAD tank water has not been used for irrigation for the past 30 years. There is a substantial number of bores in the command area. The farmers without bore well in the command area are denied the privilege of using the water for irritation when there is water in the tank. In this regard the farmers without bore express their unhappiness. Moreover, their contention is that, if the water is stored in tank to augment the ground water (according to the bore well owners), when there is water in the tank, the price of water that is sold by the bore owners should be reduced, but the fact is that the same price is levied. The other fact is due to the inconsistency of the supply of water in the tank due to frequent failure of rain, the farmers without bore well are dependent on the bore owners. Therefore the upper hand of the bore owners on the decision of the non-

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usage of the tank water for irrigation remains unchallenged by the farmers without bore in the command area. After the formation of TA, this practice continues, as the OB of TA are also borewell owners in the command area. There is a general acceptance that on irrigating the tank water the yield of the crop would be better than when irrigated with ground water. CASE II - TANK WATER USERS ASSOCIATION OF THIRUVENNAINALLUR AND SARAVANAPAKKAM

TVN is a big village that has a status of the Town panchayat under administrative classification. According to 2001 census the total population of the TVN is 8582 nearly one fourth (26.46%) are Scheduled Castes. TVN has a command area of 267 ha for its tank. The tank has three sluices named as merku vali madugu, kizhaku vali madugu and therku vali madugu i.e. east way sluice, west way sluice and south way sluice. The villagers select by consensus the Vaikal Maniyam1 for the sluices. The Vaikal Maniyam had specific responsibilities to be carried out pertaining to the distribution canals from the sluices. In order to manage and maintain the canals one had to use his ability and had to adapt strategies to pool human resources to clean and repair the canals. The resources could be either by contribution through physical work or through cash. The Vaikal Maniyams usually are elites, respectable persons who have a command over other farmers in that specific distribution canal. In TVN this post of Vaikal Maniyam was hereditary in nature. One of them was from the Vanniar caste and two were from the Udayar caste In TVN Udayar or Tulu Velalar caste are numerically preponderant followed by Vanniar or Gounder and a substantial number of Muslims. The Rediyar caste, though only one family, held most of the land in the village, they are said to be migrants to this village and are not natives. Due to their influence with the then politically influential personalities in the region, it is said by others that they took possession of the porambokku2 lands into their hand and had obtained legal documents for it. Theus assuming power over the other castes in the village. But after the death of the eldest Rediyar i.e. after 1962, most of their lands were sold by his sons that was bought by other castes in the village. And their dominance over the other castes also reduced considerably. The members of the WUA recount that the vaikal maniyam is a prestigious position in the village and those in this position had high respect and their words were taken as a command and accomplished with abidance and esteem. The Rediyar had a command over the village due to his land holding capacity and his relationship with the officialdom of the state. He controlled all affairs of the village including the irrigation tank, moreover it is said that he would also give directions to the vailkal maniyam.

1- Vaikal Maniyam literally means canal manager 2- Porambokku lands are the lands that are not privately owned

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In the year 1976 there was the introduction of vathu kuthagai (duck auction) i.e. immediately after the harvest of the paddy in the command area of the tank. It is ssaid that the off spring of the dominant rediyar initiated this vathu kuthagai. the bidder who wins the auction could graze their ducks in the command area after the harvest of the paddy for a period of one year. The amount generated by this vathu kuthagai was deposited in the bank under the name of a responsible person , the first was the son of the dominant rediyar, then the village panchayat president and then the president of Farmers Organisation. And the money will be utilized to repair the distribution canals. From then onwards the contribution of the respective command area farmers diminished due to availability of this fund from the vathu kuthagai. After this advent of this vathu kuthagai there had been incidences where this post was contested under prestige issues between individuals. This has occurred within a caste and also between castes. Under the Command Area Development scheme, the PWD organized Farmers organization (FO). In which a president of FO was appointed since 1996. This appointment is said to be under political party grounds. This was mentored by the regional representative of the legislative assemble who is called the MLA – Member of the legislative Assembly. The individuals those who were closely associated with the MLA used their influence to become the president of FO, with the consecutive changes in the ruling party of the state and the MLA the leaders of the FO also changed. This president of the FO was later given the responsibility of the vathu kuthagai and the maintenance of the distribution canals of the tank. The main reason for the contestation for this position is the authority to manage the vathu kuthagai funds. Moreover, the president of the FO also owned lands in the command area of the tank. For the past two years due to a dispute between present WUA president and the then FO president the money remains unutilised. The tank is said to receive water from the system twice a year according to the irrigation inspector of the Tirukoilur anaicut (barrage) in the Pennaiyar river from were the water is deviated through vents to the canals that takes water to the tank. During January 2007, the water was released through the vents that reached the TVN tank, in addition to the water that was there in the tank due to rains that occurred the previous year. In the command area there is a substantial quantum of bore wells, so the dependency on the tank water by the command area farmers is not eminent. Moreover, the distribution of water from the sluice is not controlled through any sort of allocation strategies amongst them. Individual farmers let out water on requirement through the sluices. During this season, except for one sluice the in other two sluices water is distributed to the command area. The allocation of water is said to be on negotiation between individual farmers on their requirement. The distribution canal of the west-facing sluice that passes through the residential area of TVN remains damaged for nearly a year. The farmers under this canal manage their irrigation through ground water, few of them are not happy, as they are not able to use the tank water for irrigation. The neighbouring tank to TVN tank is Saravanapakam (SVP) tank. These tanks are contiguous to each other with only a bund dividing the two tanks. The command area of this tank is 126 ha. This tank also has three sluices. The preponderant caste in this village are Vanniars or gounders, the dominant caste in this village are Naidu caste. The command area of SVP tank extends to the neighbouring village of Gokulapuram.

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Mudaliar, traditionally weaving community is the only caste that lives in Gokulapuram. Unlike TVN, there were no vaikal maniyam for SVP tank. In SVP, there was a tradition of pass vari – which means water distribution tax. Few of the families who had lands in the command area paid this tax. These families had the right over the fish and other resources of the tank. The vanniars who constitute the majority in the village have seven divisions or lineage called Kothus. Each kothu was headed by a natamai. This village institution of natami managed the resources of the tank. These persons would take the initiatives to make requests to the PWD officials to release water for their tank. The revenue generated from the resources of the tank was managed by one of natami or the panchayat president and was utilized for the general welfare of the village, like organizing feasts during festival times, temple related activities, meeting the needs for the infrastructure in the village. The command area farmers maintain the distribution canal from the sluices by themselves on requirement; the initiatives are taken by the natamais who have the land in the command area. In SVP, similar to that of TVN politically influential persons holding land in the command area were presidents of the FO. During March 2004, the elections for the managing committee of the water users association of TVN and SVP tanks were held. In this case, one WUA for the both the tank is said to have designed by the PWD and order were passed to conduct the elections. The command area of both the tanks were divided into four governing division each. And the divisions were numbered from one to eight. Nominations were invited by the PWD for the post of president of the WUA and for the members of the managing committee representing the respective divisions. The main eligibility to file their nomination for any of the posts is one should be a command area farmer holding patta (legal documents for the land) in their name. Voter list1 were made, the eligible voters were the holders of the patta. The elections process had been vigorous in TVN. There was contestation for the post of president and for the members of the managing committee (MC). There were two candidates from TVN contesting for the post of president, both from the same Udayar caste and as well from the same political party affiliation. The reason for the contestation was personal differences between the two candidates. Both of them deployed their respective candidates for post of members of the managing committee. The opposing candidates spent money during the election campaign. The candidate who won the president post spent one lakh rupees (2127 US $). He expresses that it would have been a prestige issue if he had been defeated in the election. Of the four members of the MC who won in TVN, one of them hails from the hereditary of the vaikal maniyam of west way sluice of the tank, belonging to the Udayar caste. Of the four member of MC three are Udayar and one from the Vanniar caste. The four members of MC and the president are active members of the political parties at the local level10. Whereas in SVP four members of the MC were unanimously elected for the respective 1- According the list prepared by the village administrative officer during November 2003, TVN had 629 voters and SVP had 400 voters.

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governing divisions of the command area. Three of them are the natamais of SVP and the fourth is a politically influential person from Goukulapuram. The PWD in addition to the conduct of the elections for the president and MC of the WUA, they also formed sub-committee for finance, work, water-management and monitoring. The local officials of the PWD express that under the government orders the WUA and the sub-committees were formed. According to them as there are no funds that are provided for the WUA, it is difficult for the WUA to become active. Moreover, they feel after the conduct of the elections and formation of WUA, there has not been any substantial activities that has happened pertaining to the functioning of the WUA. In the case of Tank WUA of TVN and SVP, prior to this formation, the respective villagers managed the tanks and its resources. The resources such as grass inside the tank that is used for thatching the roofs of the huts, fishes in the tank, trees inside and in the tank bund. In the first year after the formation of the WUA, the president of the WUA, under his authority auctioned the grass of SVP Tank, the villagers of SVP also auctioned the grass of their tank. This created a conflicting situation between the villagers of the SVP and the president of the WUA who is from TVN. More over the MC members of SVP were in the favour of their villages, as the MC members of SVP are the supporters of the opponent who contested for the post of president and lost. As the result the WUA president lost the race in regard to the grass auction. This year again, the villagers of SVP auctioned themselves the trees in the tank bund and paid an amount to the PWD that was transferred to WUA account. This amount was utilised by the WUA president to pay back the pending amount on the previous years grass auction. The other issue that is concerning the MC members of SVP is the non-compliance of the WUA president regarding the repair of the sluices of SVP tank. When they approach the PWD regarding this, they express that the PWD officials wanted the request to come through the WUA president. On the other hand, the WUA president is petitioning the district administration, the PWD, the state administration regarding the repair of the canal that distributes water from the west-side sluice of the TVN tank. He also expresses his inability to utilise the vathu kuthagai funds for this purpose due to the factional dispute within TVN. Owing to the confrontation of the earlier village panchayat president the vathu kuthagai was not held for past five years. The new panchayat president has taken initiatives to hold the vathu kuthagai, but ambiguity prevails over the authority and access to utilise the funds generated out of it. The contention of the farmers of the command area of TVN is that the traditional vaikal maniyam were dedicated, their main priority rendered benefits to the villagers; like clearing the distribution canals from the tank for the benefit of the command area farmers, judicial utilisation of resources like fish, grass, fire wood from the trees for the direct benefit of villagers in general. The villagers respected the vaikal maniyams; for clearing the distribution canal, all the command farmers would render physical labour when an announcement is made. And in regard to clearing the supply canal, representation will be made from all the households in the village. In SVP, though there were no vaikal maniyam but it is said that a similar trend prevailed by the initiatives

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taken by the natamais of the village. But neither the farmers nor the villagers are satisfied with their approaches, as they feel that are not able the see the commitment that was there with the vaikal maniyams in the president and the members of the WUA. TO CONCLUDE.. The state's interventions remain very peripheral that is indeed not enough to shape the processes of the WUAs in the study tanks, as expressed by Mollinga as in the case of AP, which was the pioneering state in regard to PIM implementation in India. Be it the case in AP; the Act that is adopted in TN is similar to that of AP, so from the experience of AP, TN has to make early correction in the process so that the defects that has occurred in AP could be avoided. The surface water irrigation in the case of study tanks though not considered the important source of irrigation due to availability of ground water; however, there is substantial number of bore wells in the command area. So the WUA and the TA that are formed do not attempt to regulate or control the irrigation aspects (both surface and ground water), rather their interest is more on the other resources that could generate revenue, and thus the competition for positions in the MC and EC in the associations. There is an inherent exemplification of caste, kinship and political party issues that are entangled in all possible combinations under the aegis of the newly introduced irrigation institutions. There are many obvious cases of political indictments exercised by the those in positions in WUA and TA, that affects the The farmers of the command area themselves take care of the issues regarding water distribution from the tanks. There are spontaneous collective initiatives taken by the farmers who do not have own bore wells, for cleaning the distribution canal from the tank without depending the WUA. The representatives of the WUA of the study tank in TN do not give priority unlike the traditional representation for the canal that existed earlier. Moreover in the study tanks, the cropping pattern and farming practices are also not in the agenda of the WUA. The reason for this is again the prevalence of independent access to ground water. With the existing approaches that is witnessed amongst the TA and WUA in the study areas, I envisage that both the TA and WUA would exist, but the would remain only in the state's administrative records. There has to be a revitalisation in the social orientation and mobilisation to be undertaken, to create awareness and the importance of these associations amongst the water users. Reminisces of the Traditional Irrigation institution should be imbibed amongst the water users. Only then these associations would become institutions in the future.

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REFERENCE: 1. David Mosse, "Colonial and Contemporary Ideologies of 'Community Management': The case of Tank Irrigation Development in South India", Modern Asian Studies 33, 2 (1999), pp.303-338, Cambridge University Press. 2. Dhan Foundation "Agriculture of Pondicherry Union Territory" Report prepared for Madras School of Economics, 2002. 3. Mollinga P.P., Doraisammy R. and Engbersen K., "The Implementation of Participatory Irrigation Management in AP, India", Int. J. Water, Vol.1, Nos. 3/4 (2001), pp.360-379. 4. Palanisamy K. and Easter, K.W., Tank Irrigation in the 21st Century - What Next? Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, 2000 5. Ratna Reddy V. and Prudhvikar Reddy, P., "How Participatory is Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM)? A study of Water Users Associations (WUAs) in AP", Working Paper No. 65, Centre for Economic and Social Studies, Hyderabad, India, November, 2005. 6. State Planning Commission (SPC), Annual http://www.tn.gov.in/spc/annualplan/ap2005-06/ch_9_11.pdf

Plan,

2005-06

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT OF the MIDDLE SEBOU IRRIGATED SYSTEM

Abderrazak IKAMA1

SUMMARY The large-scale irrigation sector is characterized by the State’s direct intervention while small – and medium- scale irrigation is run locally by traditional associations in so far as management and operations of the district are concerned. The year 1969 saw the promulgation of the Agricultural Investment Code, which was the first legal instrument of its kind to govern management and operations of irrigation schemes and which requires that users basically contribute to the State’s financial effort without actually involving them in the implementation of irrigation development projects. This approach based upon the State’s unilateral intervention inevitably resulted in adverse effects (deterioration of equipment and frequent recourse to rehabilitation operations). Faced with this critical situation, the government opted for the development of Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) as early as 1990. The adoption of PIM as an irrigation policy was a strategic alternative aiming at revisiting a methodology previously used in the beginning of the 60’s--a period when each irrigation development was unilaterally designed, funded and implemented by the State rather than through a participatory approach involving consultation with, organization and commitment of water users. The Middle Sebou irrigation scheme, located in the Fez area, provides a highly representative illustration of the transition from centralized management to consultative management. Indeed, the development of this 6500- hectare area was carried out through a new development and irrigation management pattern stemming from a partnership holding between the State and water users. This approach is aimed at sharing roles and responsibilities and effectively getting users grouped in Water Users' Associations (WUAs) supervise management of their irrigation systems. Therefore, the Middle Sebou irrigated system is run through a contractual framework directly by the beneficiaries who are adherents to any of the twelve Water Users’ Associations (WUAs) which are structured into two federations.

1- Rural Engineer, Head of the management unit of Sahla project, rural engineering department, Morocco

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I. AN OVERVIEW OF IRRIGATION IN MOROCCO I.1 BACKGROUND INTRODUCTION

Morocco’s climate fluctuates between semi-arid and arid conditions and is typified by a rainfall that varies from one region to another and has increasingly unsteady annual and seasonal patterns, which make irrigation an incontrovertible imperative to boost agricultural production and to enhance farmers’ income. Morocco’s irrigated sector is divided into two sub-sectors: x Large-scale irrigation systems with water supplies from big dams and with considerably sizeable areas recently equipped with modern networks. The irrigable potential area through large-scale hydraulic structures is estimated to amount to 850, 000 hectares. x Small- and medium-scale irrigation, where the systems are small-sized and are, to a large extent, irrigated using local water resources. The irrigable potential of small- and medium-scale irrigation is estimated to stand at 785, 000 hectares. I.2. BASIC OPERATING STRUCTURE OF IRRIGATION INFRASTRUCTURE.

Large-scale irrigation infrastructure is characterized by the State’s direct intervention through its being a developer, operator and caretaker of the operations of irrigation systems with a view to ensuring their durability. This is not the case of small- and medium-scale irrigation, requiring ongoing consultation with the local population who are already clustered in traditional associations to supervise management, operation and maintenance or even renewal of irrigation infrastructure. In 1969, within the framework of the Agricultural Investment Code which stipulates that water users must, for their own benefit, contribute towards the State’s financial effort, amongst the body of statutory and regulatory provisions adopted then, two of them pertain directly to the management of large-scale irrigation systems. x A direct contribution, estimated at 30% of the expenditure incurred by development costs calculated on the basis of equipped acreage. x The payment of an annual water fee was intended to recover 10% of the investment, development amortization costs as well as for all expenditures incurred by operations and maintenance of the irrigation infrastructure. This annual fee per cubic meter of used water was calculated on the basis of an equilibrium price set periodically through a joint decree by the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Equipment. Such a unilateral intervention by the State inevitably led to adverse effects; namely, the increasing importance of the actions the State had to carry out in order to ensure better functioning of irrigation infrastructure on the one hand and the serious lack of interest of water users towards infrastructure, often subjected to recurrent and costlier degradation. The responsibility of government in such situations was to opt for Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) as early as 1990.

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The adoption of PIM was, therefore, a strategic alternative put in ballast by the State. This strategic alternative allowed revisiting the irrigation policies formerly used in the beginning of the 60’s and making of irrigation development a sector which was exclusively designed, funded and implemented by the State. x PIM as a participatory approach involving consultation, organization and commitment of water users within a contractual framework was a constitutionallybased response to management of irrigation systems. PIM would enable: x To effectively involve users in, and increase their responsibility for irrigation water, development, operations and maintenance of equipment and irrigation infrastructure; x To promote dialogue and implementation of concerted actions between the State’s watershed agencies and farmers in irrigated systems; x To create good management practices for water resources, equipment and irrigation infrastructure; x To achieve rational use of both water, soil, equipment and irrigation infrastructure to serve not only the interests of irrigated agriculture, but the interests of the nation as well; x To increase the returns of water and allocate it efficiently. II. DESCRIPTION OF THE MIDDLE SEBOU AND DOWNSTREAM INAOUEN IRRIGATION SYSTEM II.1. PROJET AREA

The Middle Sebou and Downstream Inaouen irrigation system covers 15,000 hectares acreage and is located at the piedmont of the Rif mountains, 60 kilometers away from Fez. From an administrative standpoint, this system falls within the jurisdiction of the Fez Wilaya and of the Provinces of Taounate and Sidi Kacem. This system was split into five main district irrigations for purely economic and technical considerations and development of irrigation infrastructure was carried out in two stages: x The first phase includes district irrigations I and II extending over an acreage of 6,500 hectares. Development of the irrigation infrastructure was launched in 1994 and completed in 1998. District irrigation II (3,500 hectares) got irrigation water in 1998 and district irrigation III (3000 ha) got it gradually during the 2001/2002 crop year. x The second phase encompasses irrigation district irrigations I, IV and V covering an acreage of 8,500 hectares. The preliminary study and implementation procedures are being carried out. Effective operation of these irrigation district irrigations is slated for 2007.

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Water supply is ensured through pumping stations, strewn all along the banks of the Sebou river whose waters are regulated by Idriss 1st dam—Matmata- with a yearly throughput capacity of 1.2 m3. Irrigation water allocated to the system amounts to 130 m3 yearly.

II.2. PROJECT COMPONENTS II.2.1 Hydro-agricultural development

The main hydro-agricultural development activities focused on external and internal developments; namely, x x x x

Construction and fitting of 42 pumping stations (main and booster stations) Supply, transport and laying of irrigation canals and pipes; Construction of a 90 km power distribution line; Steering a cadastre operation (land clearing, deep ploughing, land leveling) over 15,000 hectares; x Building internal and external drainage networks; x Construction of a road network. II.2.2. Agricultural Development

The initially applied cropping system is highly favorable to cereals, grown by almost 98% of farmers and represents 81% of crop rotation, along with a quasi absence of fodder breaks. Plant and animal productions were low.

1%3%7%3%1% 5%

80%

cereals

legumes

market gardeningarboriculture

industrial crops fodder crops fallow

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A quadrennial crop rotation scheme was chosen for this irrigation scheme - with an average intensification of 150%. As far as agricultural development is concerned the following main orientations were targeted: x

Introducing new ‘value- added’ cash crops such as sugar beet, tobacco - market gardening crops. Aromatic and medicinal plants will probably be cropped as farms are generally small-sized;

x

Increasing production of fodder crops since dairy production is high on the agenda;

x

Increasing cereal and fruit tree production through applying appropriately-sound techniques;

II.3. AIMS OF THE PROJECT

The main aims of the project are as follows: x

Improving and intensifying crop production ( market gardening, sugar beet, fruit trees) and animal production ( milk, meat);

x

Increasing farmers’ incomes (from €130 /hectare as a per annum net take-away profit margin prior to the project to around €1,200 / hectare after the project );

x

Improving standards of living within the project area through electrification and road infrastructure development;

x

Increasing job opportunities (from 25 work days/ per inhabitant /per annum prior to the project to 150 work days/ per inhabitant /per annum after project implementation;

x

Creating and enhancing capacity-building of associative movement with a view to enabling water users to undertake tasks relating to management, operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure.

II.4. COST – PROFITABILITY AND FUNDING SOURCES

The project cost amounts to 133 million Euros. Economic profitability rate was initially estimated to stand at 11.7% in June 1994. The cost of the preliminary irrigation batch, estimated to be 54 million Euros, is financed up to 50% by the French Development Agency. The remainder is funded by the Moroccan budget. III. IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM The new strategy for irrigation development and management is based upon a partnership scheme involving the State and water users. The purported aim is to share roles and responsibilities and to effectively involve water users, who are members of Water Users Associations (WUAs), in the management of irrigation systems.

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III.1. INSTITUTIONAL ORGANIZATION a) Approach:

The approach adopted for establishing irrigation associations in the perimeter draws upon communication between all stakeholders involved in the project. In short, this approach draws upon lending an ear to the stakeholders, promoting mutual understanding and taking account of (i) attitudes and knowledge of all concerned parties, particularly those who are influential in communities and local groups and (ii) emergence of new leadership with innovative projects. The establishment of Water Users Associations (WUAs) was the fruit of consultations and negotiations involving various partners. Meetings were marked by a transparent dialogue and by the concern to promote connivance and togetherness to avoid misunderstandings. A program of awarenessbuilding meetings was then drawn up in joint collaboration with various representatives of the local population and opinion leaders. Subsequent to this thorough groundwork, the scope of activities was widened to include all concerned parties. This contributed to accurately defining the boundaries of each WUA. b) Institutional Framework

The organizational framework pattern was endorsed subsequent to a series of consultations held with water users. It provided for shouldering the WUAs with tasks relating to (i) technical and financial management of all irrigation infrastructure and pumping units (ii) operation and maintenance of water distribution and drainage networks.

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Synoptic Diagram of District Irrigation II Infrastructures EL KHAIRE D9,10 and 11 ( 836 ha )

EL KARAME D12 and 13 ( 622 ha )

D12

9

D13 T12 SR3

5 Sebou River

SP4

SR2 8

CHARRADIA Zégota and G10 et 11 ( 440 ha )

SR1 Bled Hamri

LOUDAYA G12,13 and 14 ( 819 ha )

6 7

c) Contractualization of relations between the various players

Within a contractualization framework, the WUAs clustered within a federation are entrusted with the responsibility of carrying out operation and maintenance of water infrastructures by the State. Relations between the various partners are governed by: x The agreement between the Administration administration/federationConvention générale de gestion et de WUA together with a maintenance des general specifications book, Fédération des which lists down the AUEA irrigation infrastructure and Convention particulière d’exploitation equipment put at the disposal Association of the associations and their federations, the water Contrat de vente eau allocation for each sector, Usager the technical, financial and organizational provisions, thecontrol mechanisms of commitments made as well as the human and logistics support of the administration and its length in time. x The Federations/ WUAs agreement which defines the responsibilities and obligations of each organization with regard to management, operation x and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure as well as intervention levels in connection with invoicing and recovery of irrigation water fee.

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x Standard procedures of Federations and WUAs which set subscription fees, invoicing and irrigation water fee collection procedures, internal financial and administrative management procedures, as well as the disciplinary provisions related to water service management. x The water sale contract (User/WUA-Federation) which defines water allocations, distribution modalities, invoicing and irrigation water fee collection procedures. III.2. IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

Two management levels have been the focus in each of the two irrigation-based developed districts: x The upstream level which corresponds to the main water infrastructures shared by WUAs : i.e. pumping and booster stations, pipes, transfer canals , balancing reservoirs, drainage, the external protection system and the roads easing access to the irrigation infrastructure. The federation shoulders the responsibility of managing all these components. x The downstream distribution level encompasses the whole infrastructure of all irrigation networks, including drainage and earth roads leading to plots allocated to each association in the irrigated system. The infrastructure also incorporates supply canals, water intakes and main pipes operated and maintained by each WUA. a) Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Infrastructure

All activities related to operation and maintenance of hydro-agricultural equipment shall be entrusted to WUAs and their federations. WUAs and their federations have recruited their own staff; namely, x Watermen who ensure appropriate irrigation water distribution, operation and maintenance of irrigation networks and enforcement of water policing; x Pumping station operators who ensure proper operation, preventive care and maintenance of pumping stations; The administration has made available to the federation a qualified technical team of engineers, technicians and a management accountant, to serve on a temporary basis and for a limited period of five years so that they could help it to carry out its missions successfully. b) Pricing of Irrigation Water

The pricing of irrigation water is adopted based upon applying the principle of real water price. Indeed, the water fee covers all the costs associated with water service; namely, energy, operation costs, maintenance of equipment and repairs.

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Each water user must pay: x a mandatory annual WUA proportionate to the cropped acreage s/he owns within the perimeter; x a three-month water fee which is proportionate to the amount of water used in compliance with the individual contract signed with the WUA and the federation. These water fees are set in such a way as to allow for accounts equilibrium and observance of the commitments made by the WUAs and their federations. IV. ACCOMMODATING MEASURES AND FUTURE PROSPECTS IV.1. ACCOMMODATING MEASURES OF THE IMPLEMENTED OF THE PIM

If Contractualization of relations between the State and organized farmers provides for a five-year transition period, no strategy has as yet been devised to equip the associations with the required training to ease take over of tasks subsequent to the withdrawal of the technical staff afforded to them by the administration despite their being daily supervised by this very technical staff. It is deemed necessary to design a concerted action program targeting the members of the governing board of WUAs, their federations, the watermen and pumping station operators. This program should be tailor-made to enable the various partners (WUAs and their federations) to undergo an efficient and effective training--- a training that will enable them to successfully take over management, operation and maintenance of the irrigation systems. The implementation of this program must necessarily identify the tasks each partner should carry out. With these tasks in view, the training program must be, therefore, adjusted in such a way as to appropriately empower the various partners for tasks incumbent upon them. Strengthening Participatory Irrigation Management requires the following support means and measures: x Training and readying supervision agents for new relations with WUAs; x Training board members of WUAs to gain deeper insights into their missions and statutory

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functions; x Training WUAs’ technicians (watermen) and those of the federations (pumping station operators) in techniques for operation and management of hydroagricultural works. x Emancipating water-user members of these WUAs so that they become real partners of the administration.

IV.2. FUTURE PROSPECTS

Success of this new strategy for the enhancement of Participatory Irrigation Management is contingent upon: x Reforming the legal texts; x According to the 1969 Agricultural Investment Code, irrigation infrastructure belongs to the State, which in itself is a hindrance to the work of the federation to collect funds for renewal, repair and rehabilitation of water structures which fall within the prerogatives of the State in its capacity as the exclusive owner of the irrigation infrastructure. x Effective involvement of all stakeholders with regard to pre-feasibility study on irrigation development schemes (choice of area, type of irrigation pattern); x Opening up an act on voting rights in such a way as to enable all members to be elected taking account of their farm size. In so doing, the board of WUAs will not be monopolized by a particular group of farmers only. x Disseminating enforcement circulars in order to reinforce or clarify the directives of legal texts, such as exemptions on VAT. x Promoting sound financial management in connection with opportunities of investment of funds available to WUAs and federations so that they can make their capital yield a fruit and thus increase their income. x Carrying out irrigation development projects through an integrated framework. Indeed via Participatory Irrigation Management, the institutional and organizational aspects are under better control. Still, a lot remains to be done with regard to increasing the returns of the cubic meter of water. This can only be done through engaging in a partnership scheme involving all concerned parties particularly farmers, administrators and manufacturers. x Taking account in project design of the environmental component by anticipating and assessing the potential impacts on the ecosystem.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

PARTICIPATION OF FARMERS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF RAINAGE SYSTEM

Mumtaz Ahmed Sohag1, Ali Asghar Mahessar2, Masroor Nabi Memon3

To combat waterlogging and salinity, initially a number of Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPs) were introduced 1960s in Pakistan. And also, surface and subsurface drainage system and biological drain system has been introduced for controlling over twin problem of waterlogging and salinity in the country level. Out of total irrigated area of 16.69 Mha (41.23 Ma), 7.545 Mha (about 45%) has been covered under drainage. Still 9.14 Mha (22.59 Mha) needs to be provided drainage facilities in the irrigation basin system of Pakistan. Institutional Reforms has been introduced within water sector by act 1997, in the Sindh Province Pakistan. Through these reforms Sindh Irrigation & Drainage Authority (SIDA), Area water Boards (AWBs) and Farmers Organizations (FOs) were formed at barrage, main canal and distributaries/ minor levels. Drainage Beneficiary Groups (DBGs) have been made on branch drainage system levels. These reforms have provided good opportunity to the farmers/stakeholders participations in management of Irrigation as well as Drainage system in Sindh province of Pakistan. The Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) which consisted on Spinal drain and Link drain such as the DPOD, KPOD and Tidal Link has been constructed in recently which will receive drain water from left side of Indus River for disposing off into Arabian Sea While Right Bank Outfall Drain (RBOD) is under construction on right side of Indus River which will receive water from Upper Sindh and Balochistan for outfalling in the creek of Arabian Sea. The drainage system/ network in the commanded area of Kotri barrage has been introduced in 1960s. This system covers both sides of Indus Rivers and downstream of Kotri barrage which is under jurisdiction of Districts Thatta, Tando Muhammad Khan and Badin on right and left flanks respectively. There are many constraints/problems for safe removal of drains water, such as, high tide low hydraulic gradient, mismanagement of operation and maintenance of the system, defer of maintenance, not proper collection of revenue and drainage cess, lack of interest of framers/stakeholders towards drainage system, heavy rainfall and cyclone frequently, low crop yield, high value of input, low value of output, shortage of irrigation supply, impact of waterlogging & salinity, fertility of soil, effluent of Sugar mills, polluted of surface canal waters, highly saline groundwater, deteriorating conditions of communication infrastructures, poor living standards, bad environmental 1- General Manager (R&D), SIDA, Hyderabad, Pakistan 2- Deputy Director (Water Resources), EMU-SIDA, Hyderabad 3- Junior Engineer, SIDA, Hyderabad

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impacts over ecosystem, frequently earth due to unstable slopes in silty stretches; these all constraints/problems are brought under discussion during meeting with farmers/stakeholders to address for better management of drainage system in the study area. INTRODUCTION: Pakistan is a developing country having highest population growth rate of about 3% per annum that requiring the increasing water demand year by year. The demand of water consumption can be coped with modernization of irrigation system through Integrated Resources Management and better management of drainage network and support agricultural modernization for the sustainable development, socially, environmentally and economically. Pakistan is bestowed with the largest integrated irrigation network in the world. This makes Pakistan essentially an agricultural-based country and therefore, its economy largely depends on the irrigation system. Surveys carried out from time to time indicate that conveyance losses range from 20% to 30%. The colossal wastage of water, not only decreases water for agricultural, industrial and domestic uses but also creates the problem of waterlogging and salinity. Unlike the integrated irrigation network, Pakistan’s drainage network is not interconnected. Much of the drainage effluent is either reused in the Indus basin Irrigation System (IBIS) or disposed into the rivers and canals. The needs to be constructed drainage basin in each canal command area for avoiding environmental degradation through interconnecting the drainage system of the country in order to dispose off all effluent water drainage into the Arabian Sea. There are several principal causes of water logging and salinity, namely irrigation without drainage, over irrigation, low delivery efficiency of the irrigation (35 to 40 percent from canal head to root zone) and inadequate drainage system., Low hydraulic gradient of Sindh Province, obstructions and obstacles developed in natural depressions through construction of railway lines, lanes and roads. The semi-arid climatic conditions prevailing in Pakistan also lead to accumulation of salts in the root zone. In addition, irrigation supplies add salts every year to the root zone. Groundwater pumpage, which is unregulated, further aggravates the situation by mobilizing salts dissolved in the groundwater aquifer The drainage of Sindh Province covered 2.724 Mha (6.732 Ma) where drainage facilities have been provided through 4190 tubewells in Fresh Ground Water (FGW), 2256 Saline Ground Water (SGW) areas including 361 scavenger wells, 9185 km surface drains and 4046 km of sub drains (Tile drains). The project are; LBOD (Stage-I) constructed to carry the saline effluent from the left bank area of River Indus through a system of spinal drains, main drains and Tidal Link to the Arabian Sea and RBOD (Stage-I), which is under construction and will provide drainage facilities for the Indus Right bank. About twenty four percent of the area is severely waterlogged and out of which 54% is saline and needs to be covered under drainage.

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MAIN OBJECTIVES: The main objective of this study is to review & examine the functioning of the drainage system and environmental an socio-economic impacts and also agricultural enhancement in Kotri Drainage circle. Therefore a study exploratory survey has been conducted on the selected systems due to the short span of time. ii. To address the problems in surface drainage system. iii. To examine performance of the drainage network.. iv. To assess potential for the re-use of drainage effluent.. v. To examine Operation &Maintenance of the system. vi. To diagnose the causes of the drainage problems/ threats with a special view to prevent water logging & salinity., vii. To assess socio-economic conditions of local people viii. To assess environmental impact in the study area

STUDY AREA The area of the drainage circle commonly is located in deltaic areas low-elevation above MSL flat but slightly sloping from the apex to the sea, land underlain at shallow depth by un-ripened soils & marine saline ground water drainage outfall to the sea constrained by the tidal regimes, at the sea side the cultivated land of the command transits into extension flat type of coasted fore lands, flooding by the sea is only the incidental problems and there are no distinct coastal embankments. Natural drainage conditions vary with the higher lying lands in the upper command.

MEETINGS FARMERS/STAKEHOLDERS The meeting were held with Farmers Organizations (FOs), namely Pandhi Wah, Shah Bukhari minor, Dandhi Mubark wah, Jarki minor, Pthan hassan Ali minor, Dodo minor and etc and also the field visits have been conducted and the data about studies have been collected. Poor performance of drainage system Loss of lives and damages due to flooding caused by cyclone, heavy rain fall, capacity of drainage system, breaches of embankments, Water logging and salinity problem, Backwater flow of certain main and branch drains, the high tidal effects, severe pollution of irrigation and drainage water, Over-use of irrigation water in the upstream area and severe shortage in tail-end areas, certain loss of fisheries recourses in Dhandh and reused of drains water.

IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS In this regard, physical status of drainage infrastructure has been visited and examined, as well as the meetings were held with local people of different walk of life and interviews were conducted & recorded in order to identify the problems related to irrigation system, drainage network, socio-economic & environmental issues. This

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collected information and data has provided much more views to address the problems and the issues, described as under.

DRAINAGE NETWORK The construction of the Kotri barrage which happens cause over application of irrigation water for higher crop intensity within its command area. Therefore, it was realized for prerequisite of Drainage System in the command area of barrage. There are about 8.0 million cusecs per day canal water is being delivered for irrigation of 2.0 million acres of agriculture land. The application of increased quantity of water and cutting of natural drainage lines by network of irrigation canals, railway lines and roads have resulted in waterlogging and salinity in the canal command area. In 1959, the waterlogging problem became very acute in certain areas that it became necessary to undertake a drainage scheme in the Kotri Command area.

DRAINAGE CESS During the meetings, farmers apprised to that the surface drainage network suffers from weed growth and banks sloughing, as well as degradation of structures and insufficiency of outfall. The major cost of the improper maintenance and operation of the system are the shortfall in revenue generation i.e. Abiana and drainage–cess as well as paucity of development funds for the modernization of the system. In order to understand these complicated problems of system and improve the operational efficiency of Kotri Surface Drainage System. The stakeholders brought under discussion both the physical status and improvement needs of the system as well as O&M requirements, given the present and future Scio-Economic, and environmental requirement of the catchments area of the drainage system. The drainage system is facing problem of operation and maintenance since its construction. This system is directly not source of earning for farmers and other stakeholders but indirectly provides good opportunity for sustaining of land fertility and safe disposal of heavy rain water and pancho water. Owing to deferred maintenance of drains which provides space to thorny bushes and reeds to develop in the prism of drain. Therefore, recently Government has taken initiative steps for levying cess for revenue collection as proper operation and maintenance can be carried out.

HEAVY RAINFALL AND CYCLONE The average annual rainfall in the study area varies from 6 inches to 9 inches. Most of it occurs in the months of (July and September) monsoon season. The hottest months are May and June and coldest is January. Light rain showers occur occasionally in January & February. Although the annual rainfall is low, yet the project area is subject to severe storms. This area receives the heavy rainfall and the cyclone within frequency of four or five year. In 1992, 1994, 1999 and 2003 there was heavy rainfall and the drain which was already silted up could not accommodate the storm water. This caused heavy losses to standing crops and property and damage to drain sections. The prism sections of the drains have almost been lost due to flow well beyond their capacities.

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SEA INTRUSION Farmer told that the drainage system is under close to coastal area, therefore, drainage effluent is being disposed off into Arabian Sea. The Surface drainage system of Sindh province has been diverted for out-falling directly into the Arabian Sea via tidal creeks.. The tides cause reverse flow in the systems especially during high tides. Land slope along the lower reaches of the open drain are practically flat and ground water tables are high with heavy salt contents. Hence these areas are badly flooded especially during the monsoon season. This problem is more aggravated due to deferred maintenance of the drainage system. There is large Kotri Drainage Circle network so that there was not possible to conduct study of over all Drainage Circle. Keeping in view, six (6) main drainage system have been selected out of eighteen (18) of Kotri Drainage circle. There are following selected six drainage system whereof study was carried out with participations. I.

Ghora Bari Outfall Drainage System

II.

Jamsakro Outfall Drainage System.

III. Nagan Dhoro Outfall Drainage System IV. Karo Ghungro Outfall Drainage System V.

Fuleli Guni Outfall Drainage System.

VI. Lowari Branch Drains System

THE SELECTED OUTFALL DRAINAGE SYSTEMS: Surface Drainage Systems above mentioned which are located in Badin and Thatta district of coastal area of Sindh Province of Pakistan. The drainage system was constructed in 1960s. The area lies in the Canal Command area of the Kotri Barrage. The drains water of the system outfalls into different creeks of Arabian Sea by gated and ungated structures. The network presently comprises a main outfall drain, branch drains and field drains and also catchment area of drain. Due to improper operation and maintenance, the drains have been silted up badly, resulting growth of weeds and reeds. banks sloughing has also occurred. The drainage system has been damaged due to not proper maintenance and repair of infrastructure. Therefore, embankments of main drain and branch drains are in poor condition. The breaches and erosion have been developed in the drainage berms and flanks of banks due heavy rain. The weeds and reeds have been grown in the prisms of the main drain and sub surface drain system which cause of obstacle of smoothly flow and take place shape of afflux. Outlet structure, Left bank outfall wing has partially collapsed, which affects main outfall structure and starts to endanger asphalt road. Depending on drainage water discharge, saline water enters more or less far from the tidal creek into the lower reach drains, thus negatively affecting neighboring lands, groundwater and crops was observed.

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The study of this system is required to investigate the feasibility of structures and including drainage system, which integrates i.e. hydrologic, hydraulic/flood protection, tidal, agricultural, irrigation and drainage water quantity and quality management, environmental and O&M costs aspects. This study may serve as a pilot for similar situations (but on a larger scale) of low-laying lands crossed by major open outfall drains discharging into dhands in the tidal fringes of the Left Bank of the Indus.

ENVIRONMENTAL & SOCIAL IMPACT Kotri circle of drainage system is considered in the coastal region, This region has been come under impact of heavy rainfall and cyclone frequently average between 4 and 6year. The cyclones and heavy rainfall have destroyed the ecosystem and soicioeconomic standards of the local people. Therefore, this region has to face environmental physical, biological, socio-economic issues frequently. The network of drainage system of Korti circle has brought some extent good opportunity for improving negative environmental impacts but due to construction of this network created obstacles in the natural ways of run off rainwater or inundated flow on one hand, while lack of operation and maintenance of system happened more cause of environmental adverse impacts in its jurisdiction. The jurisdiction of Kotri Drainage circles comes under canal command of Kotri barrage. In this area water is being supplied through perennial and non-perennial canals. Therefore, during dry season local people and livestock consume drainage water for domestic and livestock. On the one canal water is being polluted by wastewater municipal and industrial and also effluent water of established of sugar mills in the command area of Kotri Barrage which also have been dumping their effluent into the drainage system on the other hand. It is really fact that the local people and ecosystem is only source of consuming canal water and drainage water because ground water is heavily saline. The recently, they could not receive potable water for drinking purpose and other purpose. The application of such type polluted water will not cause of demise fertile lands, animals and ecosystem but also of humans gradually. Environmental issues were also discussed with the stakeholders, and outlined no significant negative environmental impact; however the stakeholder complaint about the effluent of sugar mills and stagnant water due to which smell and other environmental issue occurs. In view point of the stakeholders and from our team view point the following suggestions are made; Sugar mills owners in the area may be asked for the in house treatment of the their mills effluent before discharging it into drain, domestic sewage of the towns and cities should be treated before discharging into near by drain. A monitoring plan is proposed and implemented under O&M component Stagnant water may be drainaged by making natural flow arrangements. The data regarding the social and economic aspect were collected on the questionnaires by questioning the different categories of the stakeholders i.e Landlords, Farmers, Fishermen, NOGs, Agricultural Departments Labourers, and Servicemen etc.General Socio – Economic query is consisted on the following points, yearly income by all sources, expenditure during the year, technical persons as an additional source of

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income, health care facilities including the maternity facilities, Social problem faced by then and any assistance from government organization, environmental aspects affecting their living and agriculture productivity, Source of domestic use of water, Irrigation water and its distribution, Merits and demerits of drainage networks, usage of drainage water for domestic use and agriculture purpose, Participations in the drainage system

RESULT AND DISCUSSION During the meetings were held and field visits have been carried out for better management of drainage system through participation of farmers/stakeholders. The farmers are real stakeholders of operating and maintenance of irrigation and drainage system. During discussion it was realized that farmers were more interest in the management of irrigation system than management of drainage system. It was observed that farmers/stakeholders were not familiar with the importance of drainage management. During the meeting with farmers/stakeholders, NGOs, FOs, about management of drainage system following aspects was covered during study such as: ƒ Drainage / Canal systems performance ƒ Socio-Economic Conditions ƒ Environmental aspects Keeping all objectives of study in view, the following points and facts have been observed and documented: -

Non awareness regarding the drainage system of the stakeholders were noted.

-

Mostly the stakeholders were interested in the canal system rather than Drainage system.

-

Natural drainage conditions vary with the higher lying lands in the upper command, being some what better drained than the lower lying lands in the lower commanded and in depressions.

-

Drainage condition in the lower command area and in the depression adversely affected by the discharge and collection of excess surface water in the area.

-

Water logging and salinity problems were visible in the catchment area.

-

Though the record regarding alignments dimensions and design criteria are available of the irrigation and drainage system in the concerned office, but at the site there was found much variation in design parameter of the systems.

-

Drainage systems have not been designed for multifunction use (e.g. cattle drainage, re-use) and also according to heavy rainfall.

-

No plan was made regarding the development of the drainage system for consultation with local Community.

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-

Blockage and obstacle in certain main, branch and sub drains were observed due to closure of drains by the local people for their crossing purpose or otherwise due to reeds, weed and sloughing of site slopes.

-

The drain sections at some places have widened whereas the infrastructure are al most the poor condition, hence the cost of maintenance of drain prism may increase.

-

The outfall structures available were not functioning properly.

-

Where there were no outfall structures at the outfall points, therefore, sea intrusion has damaged the drainage network up to about 10 Km in upstream.

-

Farmers and other stakeholders showed less interest to own this system for operation and maintenance because they are considering this huge network so that it not possible for them to manage and operate on one hand while they have been referencing about low crop yield due to salinity and waterlogging and frequently impact of cyclones. Therefore, there is need of establishing Drainage Beneficiary Group (DBG) and conveying positive benefits from this system.

-

The drainage water has been used for crop without considering negative impact over fertile lands.

-

Dhands are located in the coastal area which have been supplied pancho water from irrigation system so that they have been maintaining their sanctity but due construction of Drainage system and huge network LBOD system have put serious impact on this dhands. Therefore, these have been converted from fresh water saline.

SUGGESTION / RECOMMENDATION: The Researcher observed number of adverse issues in the study area, on the basis some suggestions and recommendations are given below: x There is stern need of creating awareness among farmers/stallholders about importance and self operation and maintenance of drainage system. x There should be given top priority for establishing Drainage beneficiary Group (DBG) for operation, maintaining and self sustaining of drainage system. x

The capacity of drainage system in the Kotri Drainage circle should be enhanced according to heavy rainwater, as rain water can be safely dispose off into creeks of Arabian Sea.

x Awareness should be created among Farmers and stakeholders for not making breaches and cuts in the drainage system during heavy rainfall. x The gated structure should be constructed at all outfalling points for averting sea intrusion and controlling high tides of sea, otherwise, sea intrusion may cause degrading fertile lands, negative environmental and socio-economic impact.

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x There is hard need to construction small ponds at upstream of each outfall structure, as drainage water may be store in the ponds during high tides. x During field visit it was observed that drainage water is being utilized for cropping through lift machine without knowing quality of water. Therefore, this water has put negative impact over fertile lands. x There is very important to monitoring water quality of drainage system after that can be applied for cultivating of crops. Otherwise, the saline water may cause of devastation of fertile lands and which leads low crop yield. x The Protective Embank may be constructed along with coastal area for controlling sea intrusion, flooding during cyclone. This bank will provide facilities to local people to save their lives and their livestock through shifting on it. x It is clear fact that due to defer of maintenance of drainage system which has badly affected on the operation, Therefore, Government should pay serious consideration for improving this system with the consultations of local people and stakeholders. x It is important to mention that out these lagoons some are in RAMSAR commission. Accordingly, ecosystem of the lagoons has in dangerous conditions and also cause of deteriorating socio-economic conditions of local people and fishermen. x The subsidiary should be paid to the farmers in seeds and fertilizers as they can improve crop yields. x The irrigation system supply may be made perennial basis that may increase crop productivity. This is tail area of irrigation system of our country so it has always been facing shortage of water. x The groundwater is saline that can not be used for application of land for cultivation of crop and for utilization of domestic purpose so that entirely ecosystem in the command are of Kotri barrage depends upon the fresh surface water of canal. x During conducting interviews from local people in the catchment area that they have been crying about not only shortage of water but told that they have receiving polluted water from canal system and drainage system for drinking purpose. They told that urban and industrial effluent was disposed off into both side of canals of Indus River. Therefore, it should be not dumped into canals as they can save waterborne diseases. x Social and economical conditions of local people was poor due lack of awareness, low crop yield, low literacy rate, victimization of heavy rain fall and cyclone frequently. x The house building structure of local people was constructed of raw material and that constantly remains in danger due to heavy rainfall and cyclone.

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x The life standards of the local people was realized poor due to lack of facilities of communication system and education system. x Ideas / opinion of stakeholders regarding the benefits of the drainage system and their interesting coordinator and responsibility to take own the O&M of the system of on farm drainage system. x To developed and improve the use of both natural as well as human re-source are environmental sustainable economically feasible and socially equitable way, through improved drainage and related water management in the individual drainage problem. x Identification objectives i.e. protection of Irrigation and drainage water quality against pollution, reduction of the saline surface effluent quality through technical measurement, protection against storm water management to prevent solution for drainage problems and disposal of drainage water with the random of selected system, to have sufficient social support for the implementation of the system effectively. x The need of organizational development which can enhance capacity with several factors in the new approach to drainage development. Multifunctional designs for structures, which have several purposes to be improved as people are not familiar with multifunctional of operation & Maintenance drainage system.

REFERENCE: 1. Report on Drainage Master Plan of Pakistan, December, 2005. 2. Mahessar A.A, Improving Irrigation Water Management through Participation of Farmers Organization at Potho minor. 3. Stakeholders Consultative workshop on Environmental monitoring Plan of Left Bank Outfall Drain (LEMMP- BOD), November, 2004. 4. Soomaro, Muhammad Saleh, Management of Effluent and Remedial Plan for LBOD System. November, 2004. 5. MUET, November 1997, Symposium on Left Bank Outfall (LBOD) Project and its Impacts, Symposium Proceedings. 6. Sohag, Mahessar etal. Conducted (2005) on pollution on Indus Waters and the Drainage System of Sindh, published paper in proceedings of Environmentally Sustainable Development in International Conference, held by Department of Environmental Science, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbotabad

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran

2-5 May, 2007

Theme 3 Support System for PIM Sustainability

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

GENERAL REPORT ON THE THEME “SUPPORT SYSTEM FOR PIM SUSTAINABILITY”

A. Hafied A. Gany1

INTRODUCTORY BACKGROUND Out of obout 315 abstracts that had been submitted, 95 papers that have been accepted for the “4th Asian Regional Conference” and “the 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management, and about 50 papers for History Seminar for presentation, or about 135 papers altogether. There are 44 papers belong to Theme 1 (A Review on Participatory Measures in Irrigation); 23 papers belong to Theme 2 (Required Grounds and Facilities for PIM Formation); and 28 papers belong to Theme 3 (Support System for PIM Sustainability). On top on these figures, there are nine key speakers to give highlights of the underlying issues on PIM. Among others: (1) Problems and perspectives of PIM under the Small Land Holding Condition (INPIM-INA); (2) Irrigation Management Transfer (IRAN); (3) Irrigation Management Reform; (4) Success and sustainability of PIM (INPIM); (5) Performance PIM (FAO); (6) The Impacts of Management Transfer; (7) Experience on Management Transfer (The World bank); (8) Water Users, Participatory Management and Sectoral Reform (IWMI); (9) International Networks on Participatory Irrigation Management (The World Bank). The present general report has been abstracted from Theme 3 giving special scrutiny on “Support system for sustainability of Participatory Irrigation Management”. Out of which, 21 papers are accepter for oral presentation and seven papers for poster presentation. Based on overall review of the 28 papers on Theme three, the issues have been grouped into sin major sub themes, which are highly relevant with the theme, despite that some particular aspects are unavoidably “overlapped” to some extent with other themes. This report, therefore, fucuses a special scrutiny on these six sub-themes (sections) with some interrelated context with the other two themes. The issues are highlighted in Section 7.

1- A. Hafied A. Gany, Ph.D., P.Eng., is a Board of Director of International Network on Participatory Irrigation Management (INPIM); Pesident of the Indonesian Chapter of INPIM (INPIM-INA); Vice President of the Indonesian National Committee of ICID; and the member of History Working Group of Irrigation and Drainage of International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage –ICID. (General Reporter) - [email protected]; [email protected]

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The general outline of the report based of grouping in somewhat random order, are highlight as the following groups: (1) Institutional Aspects, Constraints, and Opportunity; (2) Concepts and Analysisis of Public Participation; (3) Sustainability of Participatory Irrigation Management; (4) Evaluation of Irrigation Project Performance; (5) Impacts of Socio-economic development; (6) Capacity Building; and (7) Salient highlights of the papers on the theme “Support System for PIM Sustainable”. I. INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS, CONSTRAINTS, AND OPPORTUNITIES 1.1. GENERAL REVIEW

Under the variety of modes, participatory irrigation management has been implemented in many parts of the world over the last few decades. The implementations have been reportedly been indicating positive results. These particularly true for the newly completed projects including among others: (1) irrigated agricultural performance; (2) resource mobilization; (3) quality of irrigation services; (4) maintenance of irrigation infrastructures; and (5) farmers’ institutional development, and other such implementation achievement. However, there are a number of evidences suggest that sustenance of such gains over a long run is often debate-able especially under the poor institutional conditions with the short-lived project activities. In fact, the continuation of external support should be continuously provided for a period of time before the capability of the community to manage the project on self sustainable basis. These external supports among others are: (1) supporting policies and strategies; (2) capacity building, training, and extension; and (3) monitoring and evaluation. 1.2. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT

From the perspective of institutional arrangement, there are at least three significant and complementing actors: national/provincial governments, irrigation agencies and/or water users associations, and the irrigators. The institutional linkages among the three governance levels of responsible actors are evident. In Nepal for example, the experiences so far indicate that the transferring management to farmers has been a huge experiment. Overall, the process has been positive, but more needs to be done to achieve the desired objectives. In the past several attempts have been made to introduce a system to collect water fees from the farmers but without much success or long lasting. Therefore, whether gains in irrigated agricultural performance in PIM/IMT sites can be sustained is questionable. In the past, due to insufficient resource allocation for regular maintenance, irrigation systems fell into disrepair soon after rehabilitation and needed to be rehabilitated within a few years. With regard to effective functioning of the WUAs, one difficulty is to locate strong leadership in the community and create an enabling environment for its emergence by creating favorable linkages with contributing actors. This is particularly relevant to the

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cases in which various supports are extended in the name of supporting PIM/ IMT initiatives through short-lived donor-supported projects. Despite that the refine Goals and Objectives of PIM/IMT foresees improvement in agricultural performance and reduction in government expenditure. However, for last several years, clear and measurable objectives are not yet laid out. In fact, transferring the irrigation system over to WUAs in itself is perceived as one of the objectives in contrast to defining the impacts and results that are expected from the management transfer. For example, experience in Nepal suggest that greater farmer participation in water supply and system management; increased contribution of farmers’ resources to operate and maintain the systems; higher agricultural production; and a more positive farmer perception towards water delivery services. The main threat, however, is the lack of sustainability. 1.3. SUSTAINING THE POSITIVE ACHIEVEMENTS

To ensure a sustainable positive impact, the state needs to give much more attention towards issues such as: (1) Sufficient resource allocation for O&M (be it from farmer contributions or government subsidies); (2) Ways to locate good leadership in the community and create an enabling environment for its emergence; (3) Focus on institutional development of WUA before rehabilitation, as preconditions before starting technical works; (4) Post transfer support: DOI should broaden its role of ‘irrigation system manager’ towards ‘support service provider’; and More (human and financial) resources allocated to ensure a functional monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system to monitor impacts of PIM/IMT. 1.4. OPPORTUNITY FOR EFFECTIVE INSTITUTIONAL ENHANCEMENT

An important area which is sometimes overlooked in the design of IMT programs is the support system for WUAs and irrigated agriculture during and after management transfer. Planners need to consult with water users about what support services are most needed by the farming community in order to assume the new responsibilities and tasks as well to overcome constraints. Support services during and after management transfer may include advisory services about institutional arrangements, establishment of organizational and financial procedures and skills, credit facilities, legal advice, marketing and construction procedures. Training and extension are amongst the most important tool to develop the knowledge and skills of farmers and enable WUA officials to undertake management responsibilities and to ensure more profitable irrigated agriculture. 1.5. FARMERS NETWORK FOR WATER SECTOR REFORMS IN SOUTH INDIA

This paper deals with practical experiences of one of the fundamentals of PIM i.e. Farmers Network for Water Sector Reforms (FNWSR) in South India undertaken by JalaSpandana.

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The main objective of FNWSR is to facilitate farmers – the major stakeholders in irrigation to participate effectively in the political process of policy formulation and implementation. INPIM supported JalaSpandana to carry out FNWSR in 2004 and 2005. The results in terms of regular interaction with the concerned Ministry and Bureaucracy, pressure group to lobby for PIM, motivate fellow farmers to function efficiently at various levels of WUAs, seem alarming. In Andhra Pradesh, FNWSR succeeded in building pressure on the government and ensuring the continuity of WUAs. In Karnataka, the members of FNWSR succeeded in effective formation and functioning of project level WUAs institutions in four major irrigation projects. The analysis concludes that the farmers network is the pre requisite for the success of PIM that warrants devolution of power from department to water users. In this context the FNWSR not only enables negotiate and contest with the government agency but also facilitate building consensus and cooperation from fellow farmers. It is evident from the evaluation that the FNWSR has created considerable impact on PIM through creating awareness among farmers, direct interaction with the policy makers, facilitating implementation process, with limited financial resources. 1.6. FORMULATION OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PLAN IN SEMI-ARID ZONE

This paper presents agricultural and rural development policy of the Government of Morocco in the arid region located at the southeast of the Atlas Mountains. Given the severely lacks rainfall, with only 50 to 200 mm per annum and agricultural activities are fully dependent on torrential water and groundwater through subsurface tunnel structures, referred to as the “khettara" (system resembles tertiary canal of a large irrigation system in end water distribution system) in Morocco. The khettara system has been well operated for several hundreds years because community itself was established on the basis of khettara water. Since the khettara flow is indispensable to maintain communities in arid region, it is desirable to improve present situation through efforts of local people with assistance of local governments considering the major significance of the khettara rehabilitation, i.e., (1) less cost and safer water sources; (2) sole water source for stable agricultural production; (3) source to preserve social system; and (4) heritage for the future. In the light of these facts, it is expected that the Government will continuously support communities and unify them into more large organization such as "communal society" to stabilize and increase farm income of the rural communities under their initiatives. II. CONCEPTS AND ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION 2.1. COOPERATIVE MODE OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

Based on experiences, the locals' participation in water resources utilization is not differed from other forms of public interactions. For public project, however, financial

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support by the governments plays a great role in the completion of this kind of project, and the absence of the public in these projects can be a remarkable weak point. One of the effective ways in water resource development is through public participation such as on public in scheduling, construction, completion and maintaining the projects. In East Azerbaijan, for instance, the participation of the public in completion and maintenance has been initiated through cooperative approach referred to as Water Supplying Cooperative Companies (WSCC). Through the WSCC, public participation has been implemented by means of socioeconomic and management to benefit from the water resource projects. Through the close interaction with the authorities within the framework of the WSCC, the effective life of the projects has been increased and a better use of soil and water resources. The case of East Azerbaijan is considered as a successful model for public participation. 2.2. PERFORMANCE STUDY OF PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

A performance study has been conducted in Orissa State, India to examine the functioning and otherwise of Water User Association (WUA) or Pani Panchayat in India promoted by the State and the local traditional irrigation institutions. The study objectives are; (1) to contrast the formal and informal institutions in terms of their formation, performance and success, (2) to examine about the peoples participation and their liveliness, and (3) to recommend policy interventions to make the formal institutions more successful. The study observation concludes that the Pani Panchayat as regulatory institutions in charge of water distribution on equitable basis, their performance has been reasonably weak and unsuccessful. Even though Pani Panchayat has been initiated and endorsed in the State for more than a couple of years, the acceptance of the model have been lethargic and scattered. However, the study showed that co-operation increases with increase in farm size. Researchers have drawn up a strategy for policy makers to ensure IMT programs become more pro-poor stressing the need to clearly define the rights of farmers, raise awareness of these rights, reform the election process, and monitor participation in water user authorities. As a whole WUA an unexecutable and unacceptable, and is not in the interest of the people. There are so many constraints like selfishness, illiteracy, no interest due to big landowners, which hinder for the improvement of WUA. A detailed action plan should be prepared in consultation with the water users through Participatory Rural Appraisal method. It is necessary to apply bottom-up approach instead of top-down for sustainability. Simpler procedures are needed that still provide the WUA organisations with sufficient legal standing to deal with government agencies, contract with private firms, contractors, and control resources within the group.

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2.3. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF NEW IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN ZANJAN PROVINCE, IRAN

Increasing water efficiency in agriculture part is the most important solution to reduce the negative impacts of water crisis. The most important aspect to put into effect is that the new irrigation project has to be based on appropriate programming as well as performing of irrigation designs and projects implementation. An evaluation study has been conducted in Zanjan Province, Iran concludes that the performance of new irrigation projects have been ranked into four levels including excellent, good, moderate and weak. The overall evaluation of projects in zanjan indicates that the weakness from the qualitative analyses, while the evaluation indicate the good performance from qualitative. From these projects, three successful contribution projects have been identified, however, the performance evaluations from pressured irrigation in third program in Zanjan Province, the study concluded that these projects aren’t conformities in contribution degree from quality point. From this evaluation, some recommendation for future implementations are as follows: (1) The projects have to be equipped with data base networks from national water sources with appropriate quantity and quality as well as time accuracy; (2) Water measurement networks must be effective to support appropriate water resources allocation; (3) Improvement of irrigation efficiency and water utilization is most important aspect to consider; (4) Implementation of artificial feeding projects by groundwater during the non culture seasons; (5) consistent assistance to water users association for improving operation and maintenance; (6) The result from studies about comparing evaluation of pressured irrigation and difference in irrigation efficiency, it is potential in pressure way to use more lands from irrigated farms.

2.4. FARMERS’ PARTICIPATION IN IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT IN NORTHEAST IRAN

A study has been implemented in Northeast Iran to investigate the farmers’ participation in irrigation networks management with an approach to compare two groups of farmers in the irrigation networks with Water Users’ Cooperative (WUC) and without. The methodological approach was a descriptive-correlational and causal-comparative study of the survey type. The reliability analysis and the t-test with independent samples showed that there were significant differences in relation to the averages of the variables of status of farmers’ participation in irrigation management, annual income, farmers’ perception of rural irrigation status, social solidarity with some parameters. According to the study findings, it was found that WUCs as the considerable social capital can improve the level of farmers’ participation in irrigation water management. Significant differences was statistically found between two groups of WUs, those who involved in irrigation network with WUC and those in non-WUA networks in relation to the individual variables of age, education level, and experience in agriculture. Among the economic characteristics, there was a significant difference between two groups of respondents in relation to their annual incomes. Significant differences were

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found between two groups of respondents from the stand point of all their cultural and social characteristics, namely extension contacts, communication channels, social confidence, social solidarity, social participation, farmers’ attitude toward the WUC, and farmers’ participation status concerning irrigation networks management. In addition, the analysis results indicated that among technical factors, there was a significant difference between farmers’ behavior regarding farm water management and farmers’ perception of rural irrigation status in two groups of respondents. Hence, agricultural policies in Iran must aim at raising the potential of water management technologies through the development of multi-functional WUCs to enhance agricultural water productivity, promote equitable access to water and to conserve the natural resource.

2.5. PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT OF MODERN IRRIGATION SCHEMES IN IRAN

A study of stakeholder views on the modern Dez and Moghan irrigation schemes has suggested farmers and extension staffs that the existing canal management is not sufficiently responsive to the new challenges of agriculture in the post-reform era, and that a more participatory management structure could help resolve the problems in water delivery. Iran already has a long-standing and successful model for participatory farmer management in the millennia-old Miraab system (Shaarebin) used for managing the Karezes and Qanats in the arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. The survey responses indicated that all three stakeholder groups (farmers, extension staffs and water agency staff) would support the implementation of a management structure based on the Miraab system. The research confirmed the importance of consulting different stakeholder groups, who might have different attitudes and perceptions of the problems and potential solutions. All the stakeholder groups surveyed indicated they would support its introduction, though some doubts were expressed in interviews about senior water agency staff. It is suggested that farmer organizations should take the government’s interest in irrigation management transfer as a window of opportunity to take up the stewardship of, initially, the tertiary water distribution system. They should use their indigenous knowledge to achieve the flexible demand management required for viable modern farming. The commitment of farmers and support of other stakeholders are both crucial for success of the Miraab systems in the new working context. Successful management of the tertiary canals would be a good start for the ultimate establishment of the full farmers’ stewardship of the main and secondary canals in the future.

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2.6. PIM OPTION FOR GROUNDWATER

Given the fact that a large sector of the irrigated area is totally or partly dependent upon groundwater, in Iran, groundwater has also become a cornerstone of many regional economies and societies. A study has been conducted to study analyzes the situation of groundwater resource use in the Abshar irrigation system in the Zayandeh Rud Basin, Iran and establishes the question if participatory management of groundwater and conjunctive use is a viable option for irrigation management in the present context. This paper intends to trigger the thought on whether through participatory groundwater (or conjunctive water) management it is possible to establish control measures for groundwater management in a case such as the Abshar Irrigation System or any other area where groundwater exploitation levels form a threat for the sustainable use of groundwater. The remaining questions to be established among others: “Is participatory groundwater management within and outside of surface water irrigation systems a feasible solution?” If so, what knowledge is needed? What social structures are needed and at what scale? How should responsibilities be established and who should be responsible for what? What role should be delegated to the state? What role should be delegated to the water management agencies? What responsibilities should go to user organizations and how do you organize these? Is there a need for institutional engineering? The subsequent answers to these questions would provide feasible options for PIM on Groundwater.

2.7. PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN IRRIGATION NETWORKS OF TEHRAN PROVINCE

Participatory Irrigation Management in the section of irrigation and agriculture in the wide land of Iran with water scarcity has a long history. After the victory of Islamic revolution of Iran government provided a fast development in water industry in the demand of work in a way that the resource dams which are under operation and use are more than 170 national dams in provinces and about 83 national resource dams are being built. The process of participatory management shift has been done either by voluntarily establishment of people or it has been done by the application of government, so they have been able to use this design through actual field performance. As far as the previous experiences in Teheran Province, there are a number of problems and constraints associated with PIM implementation. These are among-others: (1) limitation of authorities and legal instrument as well as support system; (2) Unclear water right (3) Diversified water policies causing problems on the management shift in the cities of Tehran Province; (4) Lack of successful PIM model the purpose of attracting people participation; (5) Lack of sense of ownership and responsibility in PIM implementation; (6) Lack of inter-sectoral coordination; (7) Highly dependence on the government on the water services; (8) Problem of land conversion from irrigated agricultural lands to industrial, housing and other non agricultural purposes; (9) Lack of initiative for proper maintenance of irrigation infrastructures; (10) Lack of public

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awareness on the appropriate use of safety facilities provided for irrigation infrastructures.

2.8. APPLICATION OF PROPORTIONAL PLUS RESET (P+PR) AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM FOR PARTICIPATION OF WATER USERS IN DELIVERY MANAGEMENT

Facing water shortage and increasing water demand, it is necessary to consume limited water resource in an optimal fashion. Due to low performance of irrigation networks improvement, water delivery systems and its performance with participation of water users and applying improved control system become a must. For this purpose in recent decades several automatic control Systems including P+PR system, for flow management in irrigation networks have been introduced. Applications of these techniques provide situation that, water users play a direct role in water delivery with high flexibility. To test the performance control in this study, the ICSS hydrodynamic model has been applied on ASCE standard canal number two to test the global performance of P+PR downstream automatic control system. The results show that average depth deviations are in the range of 0.001 to 0.014 % and maximum depth deviations are in the range of 0.111 to 0.211 %. The response time of control system shows that the depth is stabilized in the allowable range at the first time step. Performance indicators and depth variations demonstrate appropriate functioning of the control system. Relying on the results of this study, application of this control system in irrigation canal which provide higher flexibility and direct participation of water users in management of water delivery could be suggested. The study concludes that the performance of developed P+PR automatic downstream control system for simultaneous and significant diversion variations of outlets is quite suitable and it could be used as an effective instrument for direct participation of water users in management of water delivery.

2.9. PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN MAHARASHTRA STATE, INDIA

Maharashtra has long tradition of farmers’ participation in irrigation management in the form of Phad systems and Malgujari tanks. In the nineties, the first Co-operative Water Users Association (WUA) was established in the Mula Irrigation Project. With its success, Government of Maharashtra (GoM) has been promoting PIM in the State. Over the last 10-15 years, there was appreciable growth in WUAs. There are number of success stories, underlining the importance of WUAs. On the other hand, there are also some instances of no appreciable improvement in performance of irrigation projects with WUAs. The study was concluded to evaluate the actual performance of WUAs a study was conducted with some conclusion as to provide insight into hindrances in functioning of

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WUAs and measures to improve its effectiveness, which in turns improves the performance of irrigation projects. It reveals the reasons behind the slow progress and also highlights important learning and challenges to upscale PIM in the State. GoM has initiated series of reforms to strengthen PIM. A stand-alone act (MMISF Act - 2005) has been enacted to provide legal backing to WUAs. The water for irrigation to be supplied volumetrically through WUAs only and there will be legal agreement between WUA and competent authority. The State has gone further in providing water use entitlement to individual farmers and establishment of independent water resources regulatory authority to ensure judicious, equitable and sustainable management of water resources of the State. It is observed that Irrigation management transfer improves the service delivery as well as financial performance of the Project. There is need to have committed support from WRD and timely efforts to build WUAs to shoulder the responsibility. The Maharashtra case study provides insight into important aspects of PIM and possible measures to strengthen WUAs movement. Though Maharashtra approach to PIM is gradual, but with reforms in place and changed mindset of officers of WRD and farmers, PIM could lead to sustainable irrigation management.

2.10. PARTICIPATION OF THE FARMERS ON O&M OF IRRIGATION NETWORKS IN CENTRAL JAVA AND WEST NUSA TENGGARA PROVINCES, INDONESIA

Under the new law on Water Resources No. 7/2004 and the Government Regulation on irrigation No. 20/2006 in Indonesia, the central and local governments recognize the role of the water user associations (WUAs) to carry out the irrigation networks system management based on farmers’ participation approach. This paper elaborates several researches for analysis and evaluation of the farmers’ participation on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system in two provinces in Indonesia: Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara. This research gives general responses of the farmers’ participation at the planning and performing processes respectively as indicating the scores of 2.77 and 2.80 and classifying the moderate categories as well as at the evaluating process as indicating the score of 3.2 and classifying the high category. The farmers’ response on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system management in two provinces summarizes that 42% of farmers is categorized as high participation, 16% as moderate participation, 32% as low participation and 10% as very low participation. Several other researches have been carried out for different locations in Indonesia for evaluation the farmers’ participation on O&M of the irrigation networks system by different analysis methods and clearly concluding the positive impact. This synthetic research was carry out at six water districts in two provinces i.e Central Java and West Nusa tenggara, the results also showing that a good correlation between the farmers’ participation and the performance of O&M of the irrigation networks system in Indonesia.

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2.11. FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF PIM IN QAZVIN AREA

Since the last fifty years, gradual progression in management style of irrigation and drainage systems supported by promotion of people's participation in management trend has faced the government-oriented or hindering mechanisms to critical challenges at global scale. Genesis of this mind-set could largely facilitate evolution of change management through the four-stage process including: diagnosis, denial, cooperation and participation. The network imitates a telescopic model in operation with hydro-mechanical diversion and checks (Amil) installed at its upstream. The Irrigation Management system in Qazvin (QIM) also follows full public governance as being experienced everywhere across the country. This traditional management, parallel to over-dated structures has left nothing but a depreciated and inefficient network in Qazvin. A holistic plan for capacity building and empowerment of local farmers was founded in the province to develop a participatory management and promote due changes towards optimum utilization and maintenance of the network. The initiative is reliant on a treeshaped model and consists of: farming groups, water users associations, unions and their apex Federation at provincial level. Upon direct election of farmers' representatives and formulation of legal instruments, managerial and maintenance affairs in main and lateral canals were gradually transferred to the local clients. Presently, many commitments encompassing structural rehabilitation and water distribution have been shifted to the farmers in Qazvin, followed by logistic and administrative works handled by private sectors. Dynamic involvement of the young generation (men and women) at managerial and technical levels scattered at WUAs branches or Federation posts remarks for outstanding aspects of the PIM system in Qazvin. To date, the mode applied for creation of CBOs (community-based organizations) and legislation of NGOs in terms of Water Users Association (WUAs) in Qazvin, generates a national pattern over the state.

2.12. RESEARCH PROJECT FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PIM (THE TAFILALET AREA, SOUTH-EAST OF MOROCCO

The research project for improvement of PIM is a concrete follow-up of the Rural Development Project in the Tafilalet (PDRT). The Tafilalet is located South-east of Morocco, in the pre Saharan, south-of the Atlas mountains zone and extends over an acreage of 77 250 km2, of which 60 000 ha are under irrigation. During a mission carried out in the area by experts from the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), it was deemed necessary to undertake actions to upgrade users’ capacities to deal with management of irrigation infrastructures. Based on the results of the mission, plans of the research project for the improvement of PIM were developed and implemented. The project, financed through donations from IFAD ($US 490, 000), aims to set up prerequisites to make it possible for users to upgrade their intrinsic capacities through: (i) organizing themselves within Water Users

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Associations (WUAs) where water resources are available; and (ii) meeting O&M costs incurred by irrigation systems. A pilot action plan has been implemented in two small-scale irrigation systems falling within the scope of action of the Tafilalet Rural Development Project (PDRT). The project has targeted two localities Jorf and Tinjdad where the problem of water scarcity is most acute. The plan is based on the following three basic actions: (i) promoting adoption of partnership schemes involving various departments of the Ministry for Agriculture and users of water resources and rehabilitation of irrigation infrastructure; (ii) increasingly involve the Regional Office of Agricultural Development of the Tafilalet (ORMVATf) in providing supervision and technical backstopping to the WUAs and (iii) encouraging use of water-saving irrigation strategies. During the four years of project implementation and while aiming at introducing new methodology and a new approach to prompt farmers to contribute to ensuring durability of irrigation infrastructure, the project has been able to reach almost all of the goals set down: (i) organizing and training farmers within the context of their WUAs; (ii) enhancing awareness by means of training courses and field trips; (iii) promoting watersaving irrigation strategies through practical demonstration plots and acquisition of logistics support; and (iv) setting up a database for follow-up evaluation of the WUAs’ performance.

2.13. PRDA: A PARTICIPATORY METHODOLOGY FOR ANALYZING AND IMPROVING IRRIGATION PERFORMANCE – CONCEPTUALIZATION AND EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION IN KENYA

In Sub-Saharan Africa, agriculture is the backbone of the economy and employs approx 70% of the active work force. Rain-fed agriculture is largely dominant and agricultural production is increasingly vulnerable to erratic rainfalls and recurrent droughts. Although irrigation development is still in its infant stage in most countries and its performance remains largely below expectations of policy planners, it is believed it has a strong potential for rural development and economic growth. The APPIA (is a French acronym for “Improving Irrigation Performance in Africa”) project is implemented in several countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. One of the major activities of the project was to develop and test in the field a participatory methodology for analysing and improving the performance of farmer-managed irrigation scheme. This methodology has been named PRDA for “Participatory Rapid Analysis and Action Planning of Irrigated Agricultural Systems”. A manual published by IWMI and the FAO presents the details of the methodology. This paper describes briefly the situation of smallholder irrigation in Kenya and the numerous questions regarding the performance of such schemes. PRDA is then presented and a case study of its application in one Kenyan scheme is given. In conclusion this paper suggests a set of recommendations for effective use of PRDA based on the lessons learnt in the African countries where it was tested. Based on the results obtained during the course of the APPIA project, the present document suggest that PRDA may be one tool to achieve successful participatory irrigation management that can be used by multi-disciplinary/multi purpose organization such as National Irrigation and Drainage Committees.

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Technicians and policy makers realized that there was no organization in country that can address all issues related to irrigation management. Hence the Ministry of Water and Irrigation decided the formation of a professional association to enhance networking amongst irrigation players, implement multi-disciplinary approaches and develop further Research & Development programs. In countries where they exist this could be one role of the National Irrigation & Drainage Committees. III. SUSTAINABILITY OF PIM 3.1. MEASURING OF SUSTAINABILITY

Many resources have been spent on analyzing and standardizing an approach to introducing PIM. However few resources have been allocated to developing indicators for monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of the performance of WUAs. The sustainability of WUAs within the specific socio-cultural context of the countries in which they have been introduced/developed requires more consideration. Given special scrutiny of the themes on international experience with measuring performance of WUAs; common pitfalls for sustainability of WUAs; and main technical and institutional indicators for measuring WUA performance, it has been concluded that the institutional arrangements for M&E of WUA performance, such as Federations of WUAs, the role of national, regional and local authorities in measuring WUA performance and the maturing of PIM as a process of development. This conclusion puts forward a hands-on approach for policy makers, implementation experts, academics and consultants for ensuring and improving the sustainability of PIM. 3.2. STRATEGY FOR PIM SUSTAINABILITY

Participatory management in irrigation is among the burning issues for discussion in recent decade for exploiting the irrigation and drainage networks of different countries irrespective of their involving infrastructural facilities. Considering the competition in consumption of agricultural water and optimum use of accessible water resources, a study has been conducted based on the assumption that the governmental management faces serious challenges in meeting the needs of users, while the private sector looks at it doubtfully because of high risk in investment on agricultural water. The study for creating participative irrigation management has been conducted in Foumanat Irrigation Network (Gilan Province) and Soufichai Irrigation Network (East Azerbaijan Province). The Foumanat Irrigation Network is a network with an age of more than 30 years and covers an area approximately 50,000 hectares. The main crop of the area is rice. Soufichai Irrigation Network is about eight years old and covers an area about 12,000 hectares. The main crops of the area are cereals and fruits.

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The study concludes that the strategy for PIM sustainability must be perceived that operation and maintenance of irrigation networks is not independent from ways of participation in rural and urban societies. The ways and degree of participation in irrigation networks have to be seen from two major considerations: The first that the degree of willingness of the mother exploiting company to assigning part of its responsibilities and the second is the users who are going to accept the responsibility. For explanation of common issues especially the ways of allocation and distribution of water in irrigation networks, both these aspects must be equipped with analysis instruments, which has to be able to demonstrate water allocation to each system that would resolve the competitive use of water amongst the users. 3.3. MICRO-PLANNING IN PIM, AN ENTRY POINT FOR SUSTAINABILITY

The necessity of devolution of certain management responsibility of irrigation system to the farmers' organization is now widely accepted as an effective tool for sustainable irrigated agriculture. In India during 1990s systematic institutional and organizational changes have been undertaken to increase farmers’ participation in irrigation management through formation of Water Users’ Association (WUA) or Pani Panchayats under different externally assisted economic restructuring and irrigation infrastructure development programmes of World Bank, European Commission, Japan Bank for International Cooperation. Today, Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) at various levels is being implemented in different types of irrigation systems. For this program, appropriate institutional arrangements and mechanisms to bring about efficient utilization, equitable distribution and sustainable irrigation service are framed by different states of India. From a number of experiences learned in Orissa, the poorest state in the dominion of republic of India, concludes that the strategic micro level planning along with identified entry point implementation program that are undertaken for sustainable irrigated agriculture simultaneously. The study concludes that the objective of poverty reduction by way of promoting schemes for agricultural productivity improvement through irrigation can be achieved by adopting community based participatory approaches that support agricultural development like improving irrigation performance. These could be achieved by employing new production technologies, enhancing access to markets, promoting environmentally sustainable production activities, having gender perspective, measures to improve income and livelihood through micro-finance, rural infrastructure upgradation, and participatory processes to empower the rural poor.

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3.4. THE NECESSITY OF FARMERS PARTICIPATION IN PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS FOR PIM SUSTAINABILITY IN IRAN

As a developing country, Iran has several large-scale irrigation and drainage networks under study and operation. These networks are often constructed in small-scale farmlands, and because of water deficit, inappropriate topography and incentive policies, they are equipped with pressurized irrigation systems in which operation is more complicated, comparing with surface irrigation method. On the other hand, government policy is to develop private sector and therefore transferring operation of the networks to farmers’ organizations is highly considered. Most importantly is the availability considerable costs of project execution which is provided by public credits also bank facilities by farmers’ commitment establishing a sustainable PIM is highly important. Nowadays, national policy is often accelerating construction in large-scale pressurized irrigation projects, as a result all components of pressurized irrigation systems being performed by government, so farmers do not play such an important role in this process. This theorem would cause some problems in transferring the irrigation system management to farmers’ organization. The study results obtained from performing under pressurized irrigation systems by government is compared with the one constructed by farmers organization, also offers some suggestions with regard to changing the present procedures and participating farmers organizations in project execution. The study observation conclude that the pressurized irrigation projects in large areas which are constructed in small scale farmlands, all of the project execution are done by government and after accomplishment of project execution, will be transferred to farmers organizations. Nevertheless this approach will result in farmers’ irresponsibility, and it will, in turn cause their dissociation during project operation so that after transferring the system to farmers’ organizations, farmers will ascribe the organizations’ managers to be responsible for all the system's problems.

3.5. SUSTAINABLE PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

To make proper decision on irrigation management transposition, "sustainability in irrigation management" and specifically PIM, which is the result of transposition program should be taken into consideration. In irrigation management transposition process, as the management transposition mechanism and the assured responsibility delegation method are important, the sustainability and persistence of activities are the main issue. Specially, since the stakeholders as the future caretakers for operation and maintenance of irrigation installations do not have enough experience for the acceptance and performance of the given responsibilities. Therefore, the persistence of these activities in the form of new operational system, which is the subject of sustainable management, is focal point of the transposition program. The main elements in the sustainable participatory irrigation management are: (1) Strategies; (2) Training and Extension; (3) Monitoring and valuation.

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In all the three abovementioned main elements, it is recommended that the rational advisory models to be substituted for the common governmental trends, which requires: (1) In policymaking, new guidelines with no consideration for administrative caution, but correspond to requirements of local developing society to be submitted; (2) In training and extension, in addition to formal education in agricultural and irrigation activities, the issues relevant to reconciliation of technical specifications of the network with social requirements of an operation unit to be clarified for the stakeholders; (3) By the assistance of a specialized support system (e.g. in form of a non-governmental specialized/advisory organization) a diligent plan for monitoring and valuation of the performance of modern management to be designed to overcome the conditions resulted from establishment of the participatory operational policy instead of the past one. IV. EVALUATION OF IRRIGATION PERFORMANCE 4.1. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF NEW IRRIGATION PROJECTS (ZANJAN PROVINCE, IRAN)

In an attempt to evaluate the water efficiency in agriculture it’s necessary to focus our best tries on programming and performing irrigation designs and projects. From evaluation in irrigation new projects in five years third program in Zanjan Province the results of effect amount have been ranked in four levels including excellent, good, moderate and weak. Nevertheless, projects have been evaluated in as weak in quantitative term but good in qualitative term, and from these projects, three successful contribution projects have been elected and introduced in this article. The general suggestion noted that in order to motivate in investors, it’s necessary to use encourage policies for using new irrigation approaches. Regarding to performed evaluations from pressured irrigation in third program in Zanjan Province, it was realized that these projects aren’t conformities in contribution degree from quality point. Learning from experience of the project implementation, the following aspects are recommended: (1) Water resources data base must be provided accurately from quantity and quality aspects; (2) Water measurement networks installation must be improved to ensure better irrigation management; (3) The increase of irrigation efficiency could be achieved by appropriate irrigation water operation; (5) On pressured irrigation it’s necessary in pressure way to use more lands from irrigated farms.

V. IMPACTS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

5.1. IMPLEMENTING PIM MANAGEMENT IN THE LITERATE STATE OF INDIA

Kerala, elongated coastal state of India, lags behind many states in the country in participating farmers in the management of irrigation, and implementing PIM.

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Government manages the irrigation projects and distribution of water to its 0.3 mha irrigated area, which includes wetland crops like rice, and garden land crops like coconut. Fragmentation and subdivision of land and resultant small size of holdings (average 0.3 ha); part-time cultivation of farmers who are literate (literacy rate 91%); lack of sufficient labour availability and high labour cost; and lack of coordination among various departments are the major threats to irrigated agriculture in Kerala. PIM pilot projects being implemented at Neyyar and Malampuzha Irrigation Projects of the State have shown that, in spite of all the above issues, farmers are highly motivated and are ready to share responsibilities of PIM. Since spouses of farmers are also inducted as members of WUAs, enthusiasm shown by women in managing irrigation is encouraging. The pilot project experiences are also encouraging. But the hesitation of officials to depart from the existing system, the reluctance of operational staff to involve users in management, and lack of legislative backing, are the main blocks noted. The observation concludes that there are several problems that may hinder the implementation of PIM in Kerala, as mentioned above. But prospects are not too bad, as there are several contributing factors. If the irrigation agency supports and nourishes, PIM will nourish in Kerala also. Almost at all levels, it is accepted that there needs a change. But their apprehensions regarding job security and loss of mandate compel them to opt for maintaining the status quo or keep away from the efforts to initiate change. It is expected that the lessons learnt from the pilot projects on PIM may help to gear up the political and administrative will to counter this.

5.2. PARTICIPATORY EXPERIENCES FOR ENHANCING LAND AND WATER PRODUCTIVITY

This paper shares the experiences of a project having measures to facilitate the formation of land and water management strategies and institutions that are socially acceptable and broadly replicable. The paper describes the participatory process developed and adopted for exploring options for better use of water with focus on a single distributary RPC-V (Right Parallel Channel – V) of Patna Main Canal system through cost effective participatory mechanism, involving poor farmers, landless and share croppers. A key difference in the present approach has been the identification and elaboration of possibilities of bringing improvement through dialogue with poor and marginal stakeholders empowered in relation to the larger-scale farmers who traditionally dominate the on-farm water management (OFWM) through self-help groups (SHGs). Dialogues were initiated between experts, local communities, and other key stakeholders such as the Irrigation Department. The paper concludes that peoples’ participation has been identified as one of the major principles for sustainable development of water resources. This reflects to believe that

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people who inhabit an environment over time are more competent to make decisions. Dynamic nature of land and water invites wide range of stakeholders having multiple interests leading to complex integration amongst them. Establishing dialogue amongst these stakeholders needs identification of appropriate processes and means through which they can be brought together for a common goal. The experiences in collaborative project and wide range of project partnership reflects that participation with community members on land and water related issues is mainly focused on two general types of situations: (a) set of issues focusing immediate and critical concerns leading to short-term emergencies or gains such as; irrigation needs, eradication of seasonal water logging and falling crop yields and (b) concerns that provide opportunities to different stakeholders to come together for longer-term, precautionary issues. To achieve these goals the perspective should be broader which may accommodate members from wider constituency.

5.3. IMPACTS OF FARMERS' NGOS ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF QAZVIN AREA, IRAN

Connoisseurs believe that inefficient management in O&M of irrigation system is assumed as a key element in weakening irrigation performance. Based on experiences, removal of existing inconsistencies and challenges will not realize without people’s participation. The analysis in this article have been made to formulate and implement a strategic plan for establishment and operation of NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) in Qazvin plain mobilized by face to face communication towards further involvement of his staff (Qazvin Irrigation Management, QIM) and target farmers in the process. Based on a timing schedule, an action plan became operational to gradually shift exploitation and maintenance of existing irrigation-drainage network to the local community. Various commitments e.g., selling, inspection, registration, distribution and delivering water quotas are to be implemented by corporate Water Users Associations. They are also obligated for maintenance, dredging, and fixing hydro-mechanical segments (Amil) and turn-out structures. The local leaders, apart from foregoing services and continued inspection of structures and operational processes, are responsible for fulfilling the demands, settling the problems on the spot and preparing daily reports on possible offending in the network. Implementing IMT (Irrigation Management transfer) initiative in Qazvin, has resulted in numerous cultural, social and economic impacts especially in the area of improvement of irrigation management and has created structural changes towards the great objective i.e. "Equitable distribution of water" in the network.

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5.4. PIM, POVERTY AND MODERNIZATION OF FARMER’S ORGANIZATION (FO) MANAGED IRRIGATION CHANNELS IN SINDH, PAKISTAN

The concern of this paper is to assess the role of FOs in managing and implementing the investment and modernization schemes of their own managed channels under PIM in Sindh province of Pakistan. The paper seeks the contribution of PIM modernization intervention in reducing the poverty, equity in delivery of water service and sustainability of FOs. The paper then focuses on the current PIM concepts, reform, and its process. The paper also address the issues of rehabilitation works, contract management. At present at least 180 irrigation channels have been transferred to FOs for management and operation followed by assessment and collection of water service charges. The FOs have also been given an opportunity to implement and undertake the rehabilitation and modernization schemes for improving channels maintenance and operation. The overall analyses concluded that PIM has evolved and become generally accepted as a necessary aspect of productive and sustainable irrigation. The schemes of modernization of irrigation channels are an excellent opportunity to address the issues of sustainability of FOs, sustainable water resource management. The FO managed investment schemes have not only addressed the local employment issues of landless agriculture and rural worker but also has addressed the water equity and efficiency as well. The increased farm productivity and income has reduced poverty from the rural poor. In Sindh PIM has proved to be successful model. But it is long way to go and government still needs to support and create support services for sustainability of reforms in Sindh. An empowerment model has to be followed and enabling environment for these new institutions has to be created. There is a need to maintain the transparency and create support service for institutions created under reforms, particularly FOs and water management agency. 5.5. VOLUMETRIC PRICING OF IRRIGATION WATER IN INDIA: EXPERIENCES AND LESSONS LEARNED

Volumetric method of pricing irrigation water has always been advocated as the better approach to induce water savings by farmers. However, owing to seemingly technical and administrative complexities in adoption of the volumetric method - especially in large public canal irrigation systems, the area based pricing method is widespread in most countries. In India, during the last decade, there has been significant development in adoption of the volumetric supply and pricing through PIM. Present paper provides a brief overview of international practices and the present status of irrigation water pricing and PIM in India. A case study of volumetric allocation, supply and pricing adopted by a Water User Association (WUA) in the State of Maharashtra has been presented. The experiences and lessons learned from the case study and similar other WUAs have clearly demonstrated that a combination of volumetric supply and pricing at the entry point of a WUA command area and subsequent distribution and recovery on crop-area-

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season basis by the WUA can become successful. Although, the much perceived objective of achieving water savings due to the volumetric pricing was not directly realized, there prevails a win-win situation both to the government department staff and WUAs /farmers. For irrigation staff, this approach has minimized the efforts in area measurement and vigilance on the area irrigated by farmers, and billing of irrigation charges has become simpler. From farmers’ side, as there is a full freedom of cropping pattern and the volumetric water charging system being transparent, they are willing to pay higher rates and use the available water efficiently by irrigating more area with same amount of water. Nevertheless, there is a vast scope to refine /upgrade the present system, especially in respect of increasing the accuracy and reliability of flow measurement. The concept of volumetric supply can gradually be introduced at individual farmer’s level by roping in available technology and farmers’ involvement. There is a particular need to strengthen the role of WUAs to equip them for the enhanced responsibilities which calls for a major capacity building exercise. The Way Forward: Volumetric supply and pricing of irrigation water in India is still at

experimental stage and has to go a long way before it becomes a widely accepted and an integral component of WUA’s operation. The case study has amply demonstrated that farmers are willing to pay higher water charges provided the supplies are reliable, flexible, equitable and there is a transparency in the billing system. In the Waghad project, a few WUAs have gone one step ahead by practicing internal distribution of water on hourly basis instead of crop-area basis (proxy volumetric approach). Nevertheless, the political will, quality of service, and leadership are the buzzwords to make it happen. There is a need to make the flow measurements more accurate, reliable and the structures more robust. The flow measuring device may be equipped with an automatic water level recorder /totalizer to account for fluctuating flow rates and convert those into volumes. Deficiencies in the construction and maintenance of the measuring structures need to be removed. Some innovative flow measuring devices may be tried. There is a need to provide water level regulating structures in the canal network to maintain stable flows at the measuring points. Capacity building and training of all concerned – Department personnel and farmers should continue. With the given scenario, one can hope of using volumetric water pricing as a tool to bring about water savings in reality.

VI. CAPACITY BUILDING 6.1. PARTICIPATORY TRAINING PROGRAM, IN ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA

This paper deals on the field activity of participatory training program (PTP)/capacity building of various stakeholders undertaken by Jala Spandana in large canal irrigation projects in Andhra Pradesh, India.

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Given the objectives as to strengthen PIM, sustain WUAs, enhance water use efficiency and livelihoods, the JalaSpandana Designed Participatory Training Programme (PTP), which build the confidence of farmers and other stake holders and produced good results in taking over the responsibility of collecting water tax/rates/charges, exploring alternates for efficient main system management, sustainable WUAs, tail end deprivation. The trainings were carried out in an integrated approach to Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) with unlimited time bound program that is easy to encompass all the complexities of the irrigation system, which again could be registered by the participants. Under the support of the Government of Andhra Pradesh. PTP has been extended to irrigation projects that are undergoing modernization program with huge expenditure. The representatives who were initially discussing only on physical works started exploring alternatives for efficient water management. Establishment of dummy/informal project level committees is yet another technique adopted in PTP. Lessons Learnt: PTP is the right way of training program as different stake holders

realize their roles and responsibilities and in three years period, the project committee of WUAs or Department officials show the sign of taking over the training as part of water management. The department officials and WUAs prove great potential to resolve majority of the issues including tail enders and operation and maintenance issue. The time frame for PTP in these large irrigation projects given the magnanimity of the issues and work in large irrigation project is inadequate, the field experience shows that at least three years is necessary for NGOs to prepare the ground fully and exit. The intensified PTP in large irrigation projects compounded with policy reforms certainly make PIM success in AP, particularly in the wake of policy making WUAs continuous body with every two years election to one third of the members. INPIM may commission study on PIM in Andhra Pradesh both from policy perspective and field situations for the benefit of larger interest of PIM. Further, it would be appropriate for INPIM to support activities like Farmers Network for Water Sector Reforms and Develop PTP. 6.2. BUILDING CAPACITY FOR PIM - EXPERIENCES AND EMERGING ISSUES

This paper builds on established concepts of capacity-building to look in turn at the key dimensions of the policy environment, institutional strengthening and individual development. The importance of a consistent and supportive policy environment for building capacity for PIM is emphasized. A range of approaches to institutional strengthening are put forward, and their focus on the strengthening and development of Water Users Associations for PIM is discussed. Individual development is normally undertaken through training, but there is a clear need for innovatory and non-formal approaches to training, particularly to support PIM. The paper then goes on to discuss water governance and social learning, as two key emerging issues of particular relevance to capacity-building for PIM. Water governance provides a framework for viewing PIM within the wider perspective of the water sector

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as a whole, while the current emphasis on social learning is particular relevant to concepts of participation and PIM, and provides an entry point for capacity-building through individual development. Recent experiences collated through ICID workshops and elsewhere are reviewed for insights into capacity-building for PIM. These include experiences from India, China, Peru, and transition economies such as Ukraine and Albania, with reflective case studies from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria and Tanzania. The paper draws on these experiences to develop some general conclusions in the light of the theory and concepts of capacity-building, in particular highlighting the need to take an integrated view of all the resources needed for capacity-building for effective PIM and the importance of better understanding of participatory processes and of learning at the local level. This paper also analyzed the need for capacity building for PIM at the level of the policy environment, institutional strengthening and individual development. It discussed the importance and relevance of the emerging concepts of water governance and social learning to capacity-building for PIM. Finally it reviewed the experience of ICID and others in the field. The general calculation is that the Institutional strengthening provides the most significant issues in capacity-building, and there is no blueprint for success. The outlined approaches to institutional strengthening which build on a set of design questions. The appropriate responses to these questions will vary from location to location. The emerging concepts of water governance and social learning suggest further key challenges for capacity-building. Whilst much has already been learnt from field experiences, there will always be a need for further learning as the needs for capacity-building change in the constantly evolving context of PIM.

VII. SALIENT HIGHLIGHTS OF THE PAPERS ON THE THEME “SUPPORT SYSTEM FOR SUSTAINABLE PIM” INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS, CONSTRAINTS, AND OPPORTUNITIES GENERAL REVIEW

7.1. There are a number of evidences suggest that sustenance of institutional gains over a long run is often debate-able especially under the poor institutional conditions with the short-lived project activities. 7.2. In fact, the continuation of external support should be continuously provided for a period of time before the capability of the community to manage the project on self sustainable basis – among others are: (1) supporting policies and strategies; (2) capacity building, training, and extension; and (3) monitoring and evaluation.

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INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT

7.3. From the perspective of institutional arrangement, there are at least three significant and complementing actors: national/provincial governments, irrigation agencies and/or water users associations, and the irrigators. The institutional linkages among the three governance levels of responsible actors are evident. 7.4. Despite that the refine Goals and Objectives of PIM, however, for last several years, clear and measurable objectives are not yet laid out. In Nepal for instance, transferring the irrigation system over to WUAs in itself is perceived as one of the objectives in contrast to defining the impacts and results that are expected from the management transfer. For example, experience in Nepal greater farmer participation in water supply and system management; increased contribution of farmers’ resources to operate and maintain the systems; higher production; and a more positive farmer perception towards water delivery services. The main threat, however, is the lack of sustainability. SUSTAINING THE POSITIVE ACHIEVEMENTS

7.5. To ensure a sustainable positive impact, the state needs to give much more attention towards issues such as: (1) Sufficient resource allocation for O&M (be it from farmer contributions or government subsidies); (2) Ways to locate good leadership in the community and create an enabling environment for its emergence; (3) Focus on institutional development of WUA before rehabilitation, as preconditions before starting technical works; (4) Post transfer support: DOI should broaden its role of ‘irrigation system manager’ towards ‘support service provider’; and More (human and financial) resources allocated to ensure a functional monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system to monitor impacts of PIM/IMT. OPPORTUNITY FOR EFFECTIVE INSTITUTIONAL ENHANCEMENT

7.6. Planners need to consult with water users about what support services are most needed by the farming community in order to assume the new responsibilities and tasks as well to overcome constraints. 7.7. Support services during and after management transfer may include advisory services about institutional arrangements, establishment of organizational and financial procedures and skills, credit facilities, legal advice, marketing and construction procedures. 7.8. Training and extension are amongst the most important tool to develop the knowledge and skills of farmers and enable WUA officials to undertake management responsibilities and to ensure more profitable irrigated agriculture. FARMERS NETWORK FOR WATER SECTOR REFORMS IN SOUTH INDIA

7.9. The farmer’s network is the pre requisite for the success of PIM that warrants devolution of power from department to water users. In this context the FNWSR in India not only enables negotiate and contest with the government agency but also facilitate building consensus and cooperation from fellow farmers.

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7.10. It is evident from the evaluation that the FNWSR has created considerable impact on PIM through creating awareness among farmers, direct interaction with the policy makers, facilitating implementation process, with limited financial resources. FORMULATION OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PLAN IN SEMI-ARID ZONE

7.11. The khettara (system resembles tertiary canal of a large irrigation system in end water distribution system in Morocco) system has been well operated for several hundreds years because community itself was established on the basis of khettara water. 7.12. With assistance of local governments considering the major significance of the khettara rehabilitation, i.e., (1) less cost and safer water sources; (2) sole water source for stable agricultural production; (3) source to preserve social system; and (4) heritage for the future. 7.13. In the light of these facts, it is expected in Morocco that the Government will continuously support communities and unify them into more large organization such as "communal society" to stabilize and increase farm income of the rural communities under their initiatives. CONCEPTS AND ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION COOPERATIVE MODE OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

7.14. One of the effective ways in water resource development is through public participation such as on public in scheduling, construction, completion and maintaining the projects. In East Azerbaijan, for instance, the participation of the public in completion and maintenance has been initiated through cooperative approach referred to as Water Supplying Cooperative Companies (WSCC). 7.15. Through the WSCC, public participation has been implemented by means of socio-economic and management to benefit from the water resource projects. Through the close interaction with the authorities within the framework of the WSCC, the effective life of the projects has been increased and a better use of soil and water resources. The case of East Azerbaijan is considered as a successful model for public participation. PERFORMANCE STUDY OF PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

7.16. A study observation in Orissa State, India concludes that the Pani Panchayat as regulatory institutions in charge of water distribution on equitable basis, their performance has been reasonably weak and unsuccessful. Even though Pani Panchayat has been initiated and endorsed in the State for more than a couple of years, the acceptance of the model have been lethargic and scattered. However, the study showed that co-operation increases with increase in farm size. 7.17. Researchers have drawn up a strategy for policy makers to ensure IMT programs become more pro-poor stressing the need to clearly define the rights of farmers, raise

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awareness of these rights, reform the election process, and monitor participation in water user authorities. 7.18. A detailed action plan should be prepared in consultation with the water users through Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) method. It is necessary to apply bottom-up approach instead of top-down for sustainability. Simpler procedures are needed that still provide the WUA organisations with sufficient legal standing to deal with government agencies, contract with private firms, contractors, and control resources within the group. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF NEW IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN ZANJAN PROVINCE, IRAN

7.19. For new irrigation project, the most important aspect to put into effect is that the implementation has to be based on appropriate programming as well as performing of irrigation designs and projects implementation. 7.20. An evaluation study has been conducted in Zanjan Province, Iran concludes that the performance of new irrigation projects have been ranked into four levels including excellent, good, moderate and weak. The overall evaluation of projects in zanjan indicates that the weakness from the qualitative analyses, while the evaluation indicate the good performance from qualitative. 7.21. From these projects, three successful contribution projects have been identified, however, the performance evaluations from pressured irrigation in third program in Zanjan Province, the study concluded that these projects aren’t conformities in contribution degree from quality point. 7.22. From performance evaluation, some recommendation for future implementations are as follows: (1) The projects have to be equipped with data base networks from national water sources with appropriate quantity and quality as well as time accuracy; (2) Water measurement networks must be effective to support appropriate water resources allocation; (3) Improvement of irrigation efficiency and water utilization is most important aspect to consider; (4) Implementation of artificial feeding projects by groundwater during the non culture seasons; (5) consistent assistance to water users association for improving operation and maintenance; (6) The result from studies about comparing evaluation of pressured irrigation and difference in irrigation efficiency, it is potential in pressure way to use more lands from irrigated farms. FARMERS’ PARTICIPATION IN IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT IN NORTHEAST IRAN

7.23. A study has been implemented in Northeast Iran to investigate the farmers’ participation in irrigation networks found that Water User’s Community (WUCs) as the considerable social capital can improve the level of farmers’ participation in irrigation water management.; 7.24. Significant differences was statistically found between two groups of WUs, those who involved in irrigation network with WUC and those in non-WUA networks in relation to the individual variables of age, education level, and experience in agriculture.

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7.25. Significant differences were found between two groups of respondents from the stand point of all their cultural and social characteristics, namely extension contacts, communication channels, social confidence, social solidarity, social participation, farmers’ attitude toward the WUC, and farmers’ participation status concerning irrigation networks management. 7.26. The analysis results indicated that among technical factors, there was a significant difference between farmers’ behavior regarding farm water management and farmers’ perception of rural irrigation status in two groups of respondents. Hence, agricultural policies in Iran must aim at raising the potential of water management technologies through the development of multi-functional WUCs to enhance agricultural water productivity, promote equitable access to water and to conserve the natural resource. PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT OF MODERN IRRIGATION SCHEMES IN IRAN

7.27. A study of stakeholder views on the modern Dez and Moghan irrigation schemes has suggested farmers and extension staffs that the existing canal management is not sufficiently responsive to the new challenges of agriculture in the post-reform era, and that a more participatory approach could help resolve the problems in water delivery. 7.28. Iran already has a long-standing and successful model for participatory farmer management in the millennia-old Miraab system (Shaarebin) used for managing the Karezes and Qanats in the arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. The survey responses indicated that all three stakeholder groups (farmers, extension staffs and water agency staff) would support the implementation of a management structure based on the Miraab system. 7.29. It is suggested that farmer organizations should take the government’s interest in irrigation management transfer as a window of opportunity to take up the stewardship of, initially, the tertiary water distribution system. They should use their indigenous knowledge to achieve the flexible demand management required for viable modern farming. 7.30. The commitment of farmers and support of other stakeholders are both crucial for success of the Miraab systems in the new working context. Successful management of the tertiary canals would be a good start for the ultimate establishment of the full farmers’ stewardship of the main and secondary canals in the future. PIM OPTION FOR GROUNDWATER

7.31. A study has been conducted to study analyzes the situation of groundwater resource use in the Abshar irrigation system in the Zayandeh Rud Basin, Iran and establishes the question if participatory management of groundwater and conjunctive use is a viable option for irrigation management in the present context. 7.32. The remaining questions to be established among others: “Is participatory groundwater management within and outside of surface water irrigation systems a feasible solution?” If so, what knowledge is needed? What social structures are needed and at what scale? How should responsibilities be established and who should be responsible for what? What role should be delegated to the state? What role should be

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delegated to the water management agencies? What responsibilities should go to user organizations and how do you organize these? Is there a need for institutional engineering? PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN IRRIGATION NETWORKS OF TEHRAN PROVINCE

7.33. The PIM concept in the section of irrigation and agriculture in the wide land of Iran with water scarcity has a long history. After the victory of Islamic revolution of Iran government provided a fast development in water industry in the demand of work. 7.34. The process of participatory management shift has been done either by voluntarily establishment of people or it has been done by the application of government, so they have been able to use this design through actual field performance. 7.35. Learning from experiences in Teheran Province, there are a number of problems and constraints associated with PIM implementation. These are among-others: (1) limitation of authorities and legal instrument as well as support system; (2) Unclear water right (3) Diversified water policies causing problems on the management shift in the cities of Tehran Province; (4) Lack of successful PIM model the purpose of attracting people participation; (5) Lack of sense of ownership and responsibility in PIM implementation; (6) Lack of inter-sectoral coordination; (7) Highly dependence on the government on the water services; (8) Problem of land conversion from irrigated agricultural lands to industrial, housing and other non agricultural purposes; (9) Lack of initiative for proper maintenance of irrigation infrastructures; (10) Lack of public awareness on the appropriate use of safety facilities provided for irrigation infrastructures. APPLICATION OF PROPORTIONAL PLUS RESET (P+PR) AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM FOR PARTICIPATION OF WATER USERS IN DELIVERY MANAGEMENT

7.36. Due to low performance of irrigation networks improvement, water delivery systems and its performance, within in recent decades several automatic control Systems including P+PR system, for flow management in irrigation networks have been introduced. Applications of these techniques provide situation that, water users play a direct role in water delivery with high flexibility. 7.37. To test the performance control in this study, the ICSS hydrodynamic model has been applied on ASCE standard canal number two to test the global performance of P+PR downstream automatic control system, having a conclusion that application of this control system in irrigation canal which provide higher flexibility and direct participation of water users in management of water delivery could be suggested. 7.38. The study concludes that the performance of developed P+PR automatic downstream control system for simultaneous and significant diversion variations of outlets is quite suitable and it could be used as an effective instrument for direct participation of water users in management of water delivery.

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PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN MAHARASHTRA STATE, INDIA

7.39. Over the last 10-15 years, there was appreciable growth in WUAs by the Government of Maharashtra (GoM), India. There are number of success stories, underlining the importance of WUAs. On the other hand, there are also some instances of no appreciable improvement in performance of irrigation projects with WUAs. 7.40. The study observes that Irrigation management transfer improves the service delivery as well as financial performance of the Project. There is need to have committed support from WRD and timely efforts to build WUAs to shoulder the responsibility. The Maharashtra case study provides insight into important aspects of PIM and possible measures to strengthen WUAs movement. 7.41. Though Maharashtra approach to PIM is gradual, but with reforms in place and changed mindset of officers of WRD and farmers, PIM could lead to sustainable irrigation management. PARTICIPATION OF THE FARMERS ON O&M OF IRRIGATION NETWORKS IN CENTRAL JAVA AND WEST NUSA TENGGARA PROVINCES, INDONESIA

7.42. Under the new law on Water Resources No. 7/2004 and the Government Regulation on irrigation No. 20/2006 in Indonesia, the central and local governments recognize the role of the water user associations (WUAs) to carry out the irrigation networks system management based on farmers’ participation approach. 7.43. This research gives general responses of the farmers’ participation at the planning and performing processes respectively as indicating the scores of 2.77 and 2.80 and classifying the moderate categories as well as at the evaluating process as indicating the score of 3.2 and classifying the high category. 7.44. The farmers’ responses on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system management in two provinces summarizes that 42% of farmers is categorized as high participation, 16% as moderate participation, 32% as low participation and 10% as very low participation. 7.45. Several other researches have been carried out for different locations in Indonesia suggested that there is a positive correlation between the farmers’ participation and the performance of O&M of the irrigation networks system in Indonesia. FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF PIM IN QAZVIN AREA, IRAN

7.46. Since the last fifty years, gradual progression in management style of irrigation and drainage systems supported by promotion of people's participation in management trend has faced the government-oriented or hindering mechanisms to critical challenges at global scale. 7.47. A holistic plan for capacity building and empowerment of local farmers was founded in the province to develop a participatory management and promote due changes towards optimum utilization and maintenance of the network. The initiative is reliant on a tree-shaped model and consists of: farming groups, water users associations, unions and their apex Federation at provincial level.

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7.48. Presently, many commitments encompassing structural rehabilitation and water distribution have been shifted to the farmers in Qazvin, followed by logistic and administrative works handled by private sectors. Dynamic involvement of the young generation (men and women) at managerial and technical levels scattered at WUAs branches or Federation posts remarks for outstanding aspects of the PIM system in Qazvin. 7.49. To date, the mode applied for creation of CBOs (community-based organizations) and legislation of NGOs in terms of Water Users Association (WUAs) in Qazvin, generates a national pattern over the state. RESEARCH PROJECT FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PIM (THE TAFILALET AREA, SOUTH-EAST OF MOROCCO

7.50. The research project for improvement of PIM is a concrete follow-up of the Rural Development Project in the Tafilalet (PDRT). The Tafilalet is located South-east of Morocco, in the pre Saharan, south-of the Atlas mountains zone to make it possible for users to upgrade their intrinsic capacities through: (i) organizing themselves within Water Users Associations (WUAs) where water resources are available; and (ii) meeting O&M costs incurred by irrigation systems. 7.51. During the four years of project implementation by introducing new methodology and a new approach to prompt farmers to contribute to ensuring durability of irrigation infrastructure, the project has been able to reach almost all of the goals set down: (i) organizing and training farmers within the context of their WUAs; (ii) enhancing awareness by means of training courses and field trips; (iii) promoting water-saving irrigation strategies through practical demonstration plots and acquisition of logistics support; and (iv) setting up a database for follow-up evaluation of the WUAs’ performance. PRDA: A PARTICIPATORY METHODOLOGY FOR ANALYZING AND IMPROVING IRRIGATION PERFORMANCE – CONCEPTUALIZATION AND EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION IN KENYA

7.52. The APPIA (is a French acronym for “Improving Irrigation Performance in Africa”) project is implemented in several countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. One of the major activities of the project was to develop and test in the field a participatory methodology for analysing and improving the performance of farmer-managed irrigation scheme. This methodology has been named PRDA for “Participatory Rapid Analysis and Action Planning of Irrigated Agricultural Systems”. A manual published by IWMI and the FAO presents the details of the methodology. 7.53. Based on the results obtained during the course of the APPIA project in Kenya, it is suggested that PRDA may be one tool to achieve successful participatory irrigation management that can be used by multi-disciplinary/multi purpose organization such as National Irrigation and Drainage Committees. 7.54. Technicians and policy makers realized that there was no organization in country that can address all issues related to irrigation management. Hence the Ministry of Water and Irrigation decided the formation of a professional association to enhance

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networking amongst irrigation players, implement multi-disciplinary approaches and develop further Research & Development programs. SUSTAINABILITY OF PIM MEASURING OF SUSTAINABILITY

7.55. Given special scrutiny of the themes on international experience with measuring performance of WUAs; common pitfalls for sustainability of WUAs; and main technical and institutional indicators for measuring WUA performance, it has been concluded that the institutional arrangements for M&E of WUA performance, such as Federations of WUAs, the role of national, regional and local authorities in measuring WUA performance and the maturing of PIM as a process of development. 7.56. This conclusion puts forward a hands-on approach for policy makers, implementation experts, academics and consultants for ensuring and improving the sustainability of PIM. STRATEGY FOR PIM SUSTAINABILITY

7.57. Considering the competition in consumption of agricultural water and optimum use of accessible water resources, a study for creating participative irrigation management has been conducted in Foumanat Irrigation Network (Gilan Province) and Soufichai Irrigation Network (East Azerbaijan Province). 7.58. The study concludes that the strategy for PIM sustainability must be perceived that operation and maintenance of irrigation networks is not independent from ways of participation in rural and urban societies. 7.59. The ways and degree of participation in irrigation networks have to be seen from two major considerations: The first that the degree of willingness of the mother exploiting company to assigning part of its responsibilities and the second is the users who are going to accept the responsibility. 7.60. For enable the effective allocation and distribution of water in irrigation networks, the operator must be equipped with analysis instruments, which has to be able to demonstrate water allocation to each system that would resolve the competitive use of water amongst the users. MICRO-PLANNING IN PIM, AN ENTRY POINT FOR SUSTAINABILITY

7.61. In India during 1990s systematic institutional and organizational changes have been undertaken to increase farmers’ participation in irrigation management through formation of Water Users’ Association (WUA) or Pani Panchayats under different externally assisted economic restructuring and irrigation infrastructure development programmes of World Bank, European Commission, Japan Bank for International Cooperation.

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7.62. Today, Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) at various levels is being implemented in different types of irrigation systems. For this program, appropriate institutional arrangements and mechanisms to bring about efficient utilization, equitable distribution and sustainable irrigation service are framed by different states of India. 7.63. From a number of experiences learned in Orissa, the poorest state in the dominion of republic of India, concludes that the strategic micro level planning along with identified entry point implementation program that are undertaken for sustainable irrigated agriculture simultaneously. 7.64. The study concludes that the objective of poverty reduction by way of promoting schemes for agricultural productivity can be achieved by adopting community based participatory approaches that support agricultural development like improving irrigation performance. These could be achieved by employing new production technologies, enhancing access to markets, promoting environmentally sustainable production activities, having gender perspective, measures to improve income and livelihood through micro-finance, rural infrastructure up-gradation, and participatory processes to empower the rural poor. THE NECESSITY OF FARMERS PARTICIPATION IN PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS FOR PIM SUSTAINABILITY IN IRAN

7.65. As a developing country, Iran has several large-scale irrigation and drainage networks under study and operation. These networks are often constructed in smallscale farmlands, and because of water deficit, inappropriate topography and incentive policies, they are equipped with pressurized irrigation systems in which operation is more complicated, comparing with surface irrigation method. 7.66. Based on a study results obtained from performing under pressurized irrigation systems by government is compared with the one constructed by farmers organization, offers some suggestions with regard to changing the present procedures and participating farmers organizations in project execution. 7.67. The study observation conclude that the pressurized irrigation projects in large areas which are constructed in small scale farmlands, all of the project execution are done by government and after accomplishment of project execution, will be transferred to farmers organizations. 7.68. However, this approach will result in farmers’ irresponsibility, and it will, in turn cause their dissociation during project operation so that after transferring the system to farmers’ organizations, farmers will ascribe the organizations’ managers to be responsible for all the system's problems. SUSTAINABLE PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

7.69. To make proper decision on irrigation management transposition, "sustainability in irrigation management" and specifically PIM, which is the result of transposition program should be taken into consideration.

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7.70. In irrigation management transposition process, the persistence of activities in the form of new operational system, which is the subject of sustainable management, is focal point of the transposition program. 7.71. The main elements in the sustainable participatory irrigation management are: (1) Strategies; (2) Training and Extension; (3) Monitoring and valuation. 7.72. In all the three abovementioned main elements, it is recommended that the rational advisory models to be substituted for the common governmental trends, which requires: (1) In policymaking, new guidelines with no consideration for administrative caution, but correspond to requirements of local developing society to be submitted; (2) In training and extension, in addition to formal education in agricultural and irrigation activities, the issues relevant to reconciliation of technical specifications of the network with social requirements of an operation unit to be clarified for the stakeholders; (3) By the assistance of a specialized support system. EVALUATION OF IRRIGATION PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF NEW IRRIGATION PROJECTS (ZANJAN PROVINCE, IRAN)

7.73. In an attempt to evaluate the water efficiency in agriculture it’s necessary to focus our best tries on programming and performing irrigation designs and projects. 7.74. Regarding to performed evaluations from pressured irrigation in third program in Zanjan Province, Iran, it was realized that these projects aren’t conformities in contribution degree from quality point. 7.75. Learning from experience of the project implementation, the following aspects are recommended: (1) Water resources data base must be provided accurately from quantity and quality aspects; (2) Water measurement networks installation must be improved to ensure better irrigation management; (3) The increase of irrigation efficiency could be achieved by appropriate irrigation water operation; (5) On pressured irrigation it’s necessary in pressure way to use more lands from irrigated farms.

IMPACTS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTING PIM MANAGEMENT IN THE LITERATE STATE OF INDIA

7.76. Kerala, elongated coastal state of India, lags behind many states in the country in participating farmers in the management of irrigation, and implementing PIM. 7.77. Fragmentation and subdivision of land and resultant small size of holdings (average 0.3 ha); part-time cultivation of farmers who are literate (literacy rate 91%); lack of sufficient labor availability and high labor cost; and lack of coordination among various departments are the major threats to irrigated agriculture in Kerala. 7.78. PIM pilot projects being implemented at Neyyar and Malampuzha Irrigation Projects of the State have shown that, farmers are highly motivated and are ready to

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share responsibilities of PIM. Since spouses of farmers are also inducted as members of WUAs, enthusiasm shown by women in managing irrigation is encouraging. 7.79. The pilot project experiences are also encouraging. But the hesitation of officials to depart from the existing system, the reluctance of operational staff to involve users in management, and lack of legislative backing, are the main blocks noted. 7.80. The observation concludes that there are several problems that may hinder the implementation of PIM in Kerala, as mentioned above. But prospects are not too bad, as there are several contributing factors. If the irrigation agency supports and nourishes, PIM will nourish in Kerala also. 7.81. It is expected that the lessons learnt from the pilot projects on PIM may help to gear up the political and administrative will to counter this. PARTICIPATORY PRODUCTIVITY

EXPERIENCES

FOR

ENHANCING

LAND

AND

WATER

7.82. This paper shares the experiences of a project having measures to facilitate the formation of land and water management strategies and institutions that are socially acceptable and broadly replicable. The paper describes the participatory process developed and adopted for exploring options for better use of water with focus on a single distributary of Patna Main Canal system through cost effective participatory mechanism, involving poor farmers, landless and share croppers. 7.83. The observation concludes that peoples’ participation has been identified as one of the major principles for sustainable development of water resources. This reflects to believe that people who inhabit an environment over time are more competent to make decisions. Establishing dialogue amongst these stakeholders needs identification of appropriate processes and means through which they can be brought together for a common goal. 7.84. The experiences in collaborative project and wide range of project partnership reflects that participation with community members on land and water related issues is mainly focused on two general types of situations: (a) set of issues focusing immediate and critical concerns leading to short-term emergencies or gains such as; irrigation needs, eradication of seasonal water logging and falling crop yields and (b) concerns that provide opportunities to different stakeholders to come together for longer-term, precautionary issues. To achieve these goals the perspective should be broader which may accommodate members from wider constituency. IMPACTS OF FARMERS' NGOS ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF QAZVIN AREA, IRAN

7.85. It is commonly understood that inefficient management in O&M of irrigation system is assumed as a key element in weakening irrigation performance. Based on experiences, removal of existing inconsistencies and challenges will not realize without people’s participation. 7.86. The analysis in this article have been made to formulate and implement a strategic plan for establishment and operation of NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) in

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Qazvin plain mobilized by face to face communication towards further involvement of his staff (Qazvin Irrigation Management, QIM) and target farmers in the process. 7.87. Based on a timing schedule, an action plan became operational to gradually shift exploitation and maintenance of existing irrigation-drainage network to the local community. Various commitments e.g., selling, inspection, registration, distribution and delivering water quotas are to be implemented by corporate WUAs. 7.88. Implementation of IMT (Irrigation Management transfer) initiative in Qazvin, Iran has resulted in numerous cultural, social and economic impacts especially in the area of improvement of irrigation management and has created structural changes towards the great objective i.e. "Equitable distribution of water" in the network. PIM, POVERTY AND MODERNIZATION OF FARMER’S ORGANIZATION (FO) MANAGED IRRIGATION CHANNELS IN SINDH, PAKISTAN

7.89. The concern of this paper is to assess the role of FOs in managing and implementing the investment and modernization schemes of their own managed channels under PIM in Sindh province of Pakistan. The paper seeks the contribution of PIM modernization intervention in reducing the poverty, equity in delivery of water service and sustainability of FOs. The paper then focuses on the current PIM concepts, reform, and its process. The paper also address the issues of rehabilitation works, contract management. 7.90. The overall analyses concluded that PIM has evolved and become generally accepted as a necessary aspect of productive and sustainable irrigation. The schemes of modernization of irrigation channels are an excellent opportunity to address the issues of sustainability of FOs, sustainable water resource management. The FO managed investment schemes have not only addressed the local employment issues of landless agriculture and rural worker but also has addressed the water equity and efficiency. 7.91. The increased farm productivity and income has reduced poverty from the rural poor. In Sindh PIM has proved to be successful model. But it is long way to go and government still needs to support and create support services for sustainability of reforms in Sindh. An empowerment model has to be followed and enabling environment for these new institutions has to be created. 7.92. There is a need to maintain the transparency and create support service for institutions created under reforms, particularly FOs and water management agency. VOLUMETRIC PRICING OF IRRIGATION WATER IN INDIA: EXPERIENCES AND LESSONS LEARNED

7.86. Volumetric method of pricing irrigation water has always been advocated as the better approach to induce water savings by farmers. However, owing to seemingly technical and administrative complexities in adoption of the volumetric method, the area based pricing method is widespread in most countries. 7.93. In India, during the last decade, there has been significant development in adoption of the volumetric supply and pricing through PIM. A case study of volumetric

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allocation, supply and pricing adopted by a WUA in the State of Maharashtra has been presented. 7.94. The experiences and lessons learned from the case study and similar other WUAs have clearly demonstrated that a combination of volumetric supply and pricing at the entry point of a WUA command area and subsequent distribution and recovery on croparea-season basis by the WUA can become successful. 7.95. The concept of volumetric supply can gradually be introduced at individual farmer’s level by roping in available technology and farmers’ involvement. There is a particular need to strengthen the role of WUAs to equip them for the enhanced responsibilities which calls for a major capacity building exercise. 7.96. The Way Forward: (a) Volumetric supply and pricing of irrigation water in India is still at experimental stage and has to go a long way before it becomes a widely accepted and an integral component of WUA’s operation; (b) The case study has amply demonstrated that farmers are willing to pay higher water charges provided the supplies are reliable, flexible, equitable and there is a transparency in the billing system; (c) There is a need to make the flow measurements more accurate, reliable and the structures more robust. The flow measuring device may be equipped with an automatic water level recorder to account for fluctuating flow rates and convert those into volumes; (d) Deficiencies in the construction and maintenance of the measuring structures need to be removed. Some innovative flow measuring devices may be tried. There is a need to provide water level regulating structures in the canal network to maintain stable flows at the measuring points.

CAPACITY BUILDING PARTICIPATORY TRAINING PROGRAM, IN ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA

7.97. This paper deals on the field activity of participatory training program (PTP)/capacity building of various stakeholders undertaken by Jala Spandana in large canal irrigation projects in Andhra Pradesh, India. Given the objectives as to strengthen PIM, sustain WUAs, enhance water use efficiency and livelihoods, the JalaSpandana Designed Participatory Training Programme (PTP), exploring alternates for efficient main system management, sustainable WUAs, tail end deprivation. 7.98. The trainings were carried out in an integrated approach to Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) with unlimited time bound program that is easy to encompass all the complexities of the irrigation system, which again could be registered by the participants. 7.99. Under the support of the Government of Andhra Pradesh. PTP has been extended to irrigation projects that are undergoing modernization program with huge expenditure. The representatives who were initially discussing only on physical works started exploring alternatives for efficient water management. 7.100. Lessons Learnt: PTP is the right way of training program as different stake holders realize their roles and responsibilities and in three years period, the project committee of WUAs or Department officials show the sign of taking over the training as

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part of water management. The department officials and WUAs prove great potential to resolve majority of the issues including tail enders and operation and maintenance issue. 7.101. The time frame for PTP in these large irrigation projects given the magnanimity of the issues and work in large irrigation project is inadequate, the field experience shows that at least three years is necessary for NGOs to prepare the ground fully and exit. 7.102. The intensified PTP in large irrigation projects compounded with policy reforms certainly make PIM success in AP, particularly in the wake of policy making WUAs continuous body with every two years election to one third of the members. It would be appropriate for INPIM to support activities like Farmers Network for Water Sector Reforms and Develop PTP. BUILDING CAPACITY FOR PIM - EXPERIENCES AND EMERGING ISSUES

7.103. This paper builds on established concepts of capacity-building to look in turn at the key dimensions of the policy environment, institutional strengthening and individual development. A range of approaches to institutional strengthening are put forward. 7.104. The paper then goes on to discuss water governance and social learning, as two key emerging issues of particular relevance to capacity-building for PIM. Water governance provides a framework for viewing PIM within the wider perspective of the water sector as a whole, while the current emphasis on social learning is particular relevant to concepts of participation and PIM, and provides an entry point for capacitybuilding through individual development. 7.105. Recent experiences collated through ICID workshops and elsewhere are reviewed for insights into capacity-building for PIM. These include experiences from India, China, Peru, and transition economies such as Ukraine and Albania, with reflective case studies from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria and Tanzania. The paper draws on these experiences to develop some general conclusions in the light of the theory and concepts of capacity-building. 7.106. The general conclusion is that the Institutional strengthening provides the most significant issues in capacity-building, and there is no blueprint for success. The emerging concepts of water governance and social learning suggest further key challenges for capacity-building. Whilst much has already been learnt from field experiences, there will always be a need for further learning as the needs for capacitybuilding change in the constantly evolving context of PIM.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

PIM, POVERTY AND MODERNIZATION OF FO MANAGED IRRIGATION CHANNELS IN SINDH- PAKISTAN

Nazeer Ahmed Memon1

ABSTRACT The concern of this paper is to assess the role of FOs in managing and implementing the investment and modernization schemes of their own managed channels under Participatory Irrigation Management in Sindh province of Pakistan. The paper would also seek the contribution of PIM modernization intervention in reducing the poverty, equity in delivery of water service and sustainability of FOs. The paper will focus on the current PIM concepts, reform, and its process. The paper will address the issues of rehabilitation works, contract management. At present at least 180 irrigation channels have been transferred to FOs for management and operation followed by assessment and collection of water service charges. The FOs have also been given an opportunity to implement and undertake the rehabilitation and modernization schemes for improving channels maintenance and operation. 1. INTRODUCTION Under the water and poverty initiative (WPI) there has been many papers presented by various forums including Global Water Management (GWP). These initiatives have been instigated by the major donors under the co-ordination of the Asian Development Bank. In recent years there has been an increased focus on reducing poverty as a key responsibility of government and objective of donor support. This was reinforced at the UN Millennium General Assembly when the Millennium Development Goal of halving the proportion of the world's population living in extreme poverty by 2015 was agreed by all member countries of the United Nations. Other goals and targets specific to water and poverty were agreed at the Millennium Assembly and at the World Summit on Sustainable Development. At present about 68% pf Pakistan’s population living in rural areas is directly or indirectly linked with agriculture for their livelihood. The poverty assessment indicates that about one-third of the Pakistan population is poor, and two-thirds are found in rural areas. Poverty in rural Pakistan is deeper and more severe than in urban areas. The low

1- Social Development Specialist, Sindh Irrigation and Drainage Authority (SIDA), Left Bank Barrage Colony, Hyderabad Sindh- Pakistan. Email: [email protected], Phone: +92 22 921 0085, Fax: + 92 22 921 0081

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agricultural productivity has been reported a major cause for poverty. The agriculture productivity depends importantly on the availability of water for irrigation. The paper is to review the overall status of reform and poverty in Sindh. With the passage of time it has been witnessed that the PIM and water-related services can help reduce poverty in the contexts of public health, land use, food production, livelihoods, agricultural development, rural planning and environmental protection. Based on such presumption, the PIM has been recognized as main tool in poverty reduction, especially in the countries where agriculture is a key mean for livelihood. 2. DEFINING PIM: PROCESS AND APPROACH Participation is a process through which stakeholders influence and share control over development initiatives and the decisions and resources which affect them. Participatory Irrigation Management refers to the involvement of farmers/irrigation users in all aspects of irrigation management. The intensity of participatory management may range from minimal user involvement to the transfer of nearly all management functions. There are various aspects of PIM that include planning, design, construction, operation & maintenance, financing and policy matters. Similarly PIM can be implemented at various levels i.e. quaternary, tertiary, secondary, main system, project and sectors. 3. WATER MANAGEMENT NET WORK OF SINDH Sindh province has almost 13 million acres of irrigated lands in its three barrage command areas, built between 1932 and 1962. Sukkur barrage was the major irrigation achievement with a command area of 7.6 million acres. The barrage was built at a strategic location, some 600 kilometres upstream from the deltaic regions in the Arabian Sea. The other two barrages in the province are the Kotri barrage (with CCA 3 million acres) and the Guddu barrage (2.1 million acres) , built in 1955 and 1962, respectively, with the former being upstream from the Sukkur barrage and the latter being roughly 150 kilometres away from the coastal and deltaic communities. The irrigation system of Sindh province has total gross command area (GCA) of 14.391 million acres (5.8 million hectares), out of which 3.211 million acres is classified as cultivable waste, which can be brought under cultivation if irrigation water is available. In 1999 the total waterlogged area was calculated as 5.434 million acres which appears to be more than 30% of the total command area of the province. The irrigation system of the province below the barrages comprises 14 feeders and main canals, 1462 branch canals, distributaries and minors. More than 95% of the irrigation is from canal water. The water withdrawal capacity of the barrages totals as 125,625 cusecs (designed) and 150,931 cusecs (maximum). The controlled irrigation system installed during the colonial years was a vast network of waterways that carried irrigation supplies from the river source to the farmlands. The system runs 13234 miles in form of main canals, branch canals, distributor canals and minor canals. The main canal draw water from rivers at the barrage points and delivers water into the branch canals. Water reaches the farm through distributaries or minor canals, which take water from the branch canal, the lower middle tier of the irrigation system. Around 78% of the area in Sindh province is underlain by saline groundwater, which is unsuitable for

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irrigation. Close to the edges of the irrigated lands, fresh groundwater can be found. Refer below the map of irrigation system of Sindh: A part from irrigation system, Sindh has drainage system which as such is not contiguous and integrated. There are 13 existing surface drainage systems in Sindh, which serve a total area of over 6.2 Million acres (2.5 M ha) and have an aggregate length of about 2,981 miles (4,800 Km). In addition there are two sub-surface drainage systems, which serve an area of 0.10 Million acres (0.04 M ha). 4. MAGNITUDE OF CRISIS It is estimated, however, that out of the 13 million acres comprising the greater canal area in the province, at least one million acres-mostly owned by small and poor landowning families- do not receive sufficient irrigation supplies. The situation is extremely distressing to the communities or settlements that are dependent on the surface irrigation flows for drinking and other domestic uses. The Sindh Government’s annual expenditure on O&M is more than 3000 million rupees against its annual revenue (water charges) of less than 1000 million rupees. An example of financial year 2001-02 is given in below. As stated earlier, the Sindh Irrigation System is part of the Indus Basin irrigation system, the world’s largest irrigation system. The size of the system is enormous by any standard. The area in the Province irrigated by the fourteen main canals from the three barrages on the Indus River is 5.5 M ha. To give a measure of the size of the irrigated system in the Province of Sindh: it is twice the irrigated area in Mexico and almost equal to the area under irrigation in Egypt. The movements towards participatory irrigation management in Sindh has its background in problems encountered in irrigation systems elsewhere – though probably in an amplified form: the inability to subsidize irrigation and drainage operations with public resources, the difficulty to maintain performance standards and the increased unwillingness of water users to contribute in cash or in kind. The irrigation system of Pakistan is the largest irrigation system in the world. Its construction was begun long before partition and it was expanded after independence. In Sindh alone, the system has 3 barrages and over 20, 000 km of larger and smaller canals. Today the system is in danger since there is not enough money to maintain and operate the system. 5. THE STATE OF PIM AND POVERTY IN SINDH Sindh has a total population of over 30 million, majority of which (51%) lives in rural areas. The total geographical area is 14 million ha, constituting 17.5 percent of Pakistan. About 5.8 million ha is commanded by canals. Net area sown is about 3 million ha, with about 1 million ha sown twice a year. It is estimated, that out of the 13 million acres comprising the greater canal area in the Sindh province, at least one million acres-mostly owned by small and poor land-owning families- do not receive sufficient irrigation supplies. The situation is extremely distressing to the communities or settlements that are dependent on the surface irrigation flows for drinking and other domestic uses. The Sindh Government’s annual expenditure on O&M is more than 4000 million rupees against its annual revenue (water charges) of approximately 600 million rupees. The

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irrigation and drainage system has its institutional weaknesses in terms of management. The continuous centralized management has deteriorated the water management system in Sindh and as a result of that system’s efficiency has reduced miserably to 30% only. The environmental issues caused due to inefficient management have never been looked into which resulted in destruction of wetlands, Indus delta and marine life, poor water quality, sea intrusion and disappearance of fresh water in the down stream part of Indus River. The waterlogging and salinity has affected more than 40% of the total cultivable command area of Sindh. The poor water management service directly affects socio-economic condition of the people of Sindh province especially rural people who have direct stake in water-the main source of their livelihood. The index of Poverty in rural Sindh is deep and alarming. About 37% population lives below the poverty line compared to 33% in Pakistan on an overall basis. Over 70% of the rural population is landless. Rural households, including the landless, derive 56% of their income from agriculture, directly or indirectly. The rural poor tend to be employed mostly as agriculture wage workers. The concentration of poor is the highest among categories of households where the head is an unpaid family worker, sharecropper, or owner-cultivator owning less than 2 hectares of land. The poverty headcounts in these categories are 60%, 50% and 40% respectively. Rural Sindh is highly dependent on public services with little role of the private sector. Thus reforms to improve public service delivery and stimulate rural growth that raise agricultural and nonagricultural wages are fundamental for reducing poverty in rural Sindh. 6. GOSINDH STRATEGY FOR PIM - A TOOL FOR POVERTY REDUCTION A holistic water resources management strategy encompassing policy and institutional improvements, improved management of storages, infrastructure improvement, environmental sustainability, productivity enhancement, and poverty alleviation, is required to address the water recourses management issues. While realizing the need for such a holistic strategy and initiating its preparation, GOSindh has evolved an interim strategy that would yield quick dividends, within the broader constraints mentioned above, while building the foundation for the longer term strategy. This interim strategy has three inter-related elements: (a) fostering an institutional, policy and operational framework conducive to efficient and self-sustaining operation and maintenance of the irrigation system; (b) supporting WCAs in implementing high payoff infrastructure improvements needed for improved water management, particularly at the tertiary level of the irrigation system, at a much accelerated pace, than in the past; and (c) enhancing agricultural productivity and incomes by introducing improved technology, agronomic practices, and information knowledge systems. The first element of the strategy is predicated upon the implementation of fundamental and far reaching institutional reforms that are being supported under the World Bank funded projects. These reforms involve decentralization and transfer of management of the irrigation and drainage system from the Sindh Irrigation Department to a multi-tier system of autonomous institutions, with clearly defined roles and responsibilities within the system, with a fm commitment to rationalize O&M subsidies. The key elements of the reforms, the hierarchy of the new institutions and their roles and responsibilities are as follows:

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(i) conversion of the Irrigation Department into an autonomous Sindh Irrigation and Drainage Authority (SIDA), with responsibility for intra-provincial aspects of the system, including O&M of barrages and main canal head-works, and management of intra-province bulk water transfers, including water deliveries at the head of main canals and management of drainage effluent in main drains that extend across canal commands; (ii) establishment of self-accounting, commercially oriented, client responsive and financially sustainable area water boards (AWBs) --public utilities-- on each main canal, responsible for operating and maintaining the irrigation and drainage system within the main canal command up to the head of the distributary canals; and (iii) establishment of FOs, owned and managed by farmers, and responsible for O&M of the irrigation and drainage system within the command area of distributary and minor canals and collection of abiana (water charges). FOs would have representation on the AWBs. The long term vision is that once the new institutions become operational, SIDA would enter into contracts with AWBs for bulk supply of irrigation water and receipt of the drainage effluent generated within the limits of the AWBs. The AWBs would enter into similar contracts with FOs for bulk supply of water at the head of the distributary canals. The FOs will collect abiana, retain a part of it and pass on the remaining proceeds to AWBs for maintenance of the main canals. The AWBs would in return pass on a portion of the amounts received to SIDA for the O&M of the system under the latter's jurisdiction. It is expected that the reforms would lead to SIDA and AWBs developing into vibrant autonomous bodies capable of improved management and O&M of the upper tiers of the irrigation system that would result in improved and sustainable operations, higher water delivery efficiency and better scheduling of canal deliveries reflecting more closely the irrigation requirements in canal commands. Establishment of FOs would lead to more equitable distribution of water amongst watercourses, improved and cost effective maintenance and more efficient collection of abiana. The second element of GOSindh's interim strategy --supporting communities to carryout accelerated high payoff infrastructure improvements at the tertiary level-- complements the first element of the strategy, but stands on its own merit. It involves, establishing effective community organizations/user groups at the watercourse, and distributary canal levels to provide a solid foundation for the upper tier reforms. Also, investments to make the irrigation infrastructure functional and efficient are essential to enable the fledgling institutions (WCAs, FOs) to perForm and yield intended outcomes. Overall progress on establishing WCAs and infrastructure improvements at the tertiary level has been slow, primarily due to lack of capacity for social mobilization and capacity building. GOSindh wishes to improve the speed and effectiveness of this program through greater participation by WCAs. In addition, GOP is considering a country wide watercourse improvement program that would include improvement of the remaining 29,000 watercourses in Sindh The third element of the strategy -- supporting productivity and income enhancement

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measures- is critical to reap the full benefits of institutional and infrastructure improvements in terms of higher productivity, and to help translate higher productivity into higher incomes. Past interventions in this regard have been limited to a few demonstration centers, routine training & visit (T&V) type extension activities and some efforts at information dissemination. Few attempts have been made to introduce improved technology (land leveling, improved farm layout, zero-tillage, sprinkler drip, etc.) and information systems. The impact has been modest. GOSindh is exploring new and more efficient ways of improving and scaling up delivery mechanisms for new technologies, extension, input supplies, storage and processing, marked marketing information, and modem information systems, including access to internet. Current thinking is that these activities would be developed around the new institutional setup, primarily at the AWBs, FOs, and WCA levels. 7. INSTITUTIONS CREATED AS A RESULT OF PIM IN SINDH In Sindh, following bodies are to be fully established: Sindh Irrigation and Drainage Authority (SIDA)

ƒ 13 Area Water Boards ƒ About 1400 Farmers’ Organisations. Sindh is proud of being ahead of other provinces in implementing these reforms and offering investment implementation opportunity to FOs. The overall status of establishment of new institution is as under: ƒ SIDA- fully established and functioning ƒ AWBs- Three AWBs on four main canals (Nara, Ghotki, Phuleli and Akram Wah) are functional ƒ FOs- more than 220 FOs established- mostly in Nara Canal AWB command area 8. IMPLEMENTATION OF MODERNIZATION SCHEMES Under Sindh On Farm Water Management (SOFWM) Project, 100 distributaries / minors managed by Farmers Organizations (FOs) are being rehabilitated / improved in three Area Water Boards i.e. Nara Canal Area Water Board (NCAWB), Left Bank Canal Area Water Board (LBCAWB) and Ghotki Feeder Canal Area Water Board (GFCAWB). The rehabilitation / improvement works include: ƒ Restoration of outlets, weak sections of channel banks & berms ƒ De-silting ƒ Repair of regulator gates, cross regulators and diversion structures ƒ Protection works upstream and downstream of structures and channel sides ƒ Construction of cattle crossings and cattle ghats (cattle drinking water points) ƒ Installation of gauges and control structures for flow measurement at the Distributary head and each Mogha (watercourse off take outlets).

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At present around 175 irrigation channels have been transferred to FOs and about 100 distributary/ minor canals, that are managed by FOs, are planned to be rehabilitated through a project of Sindh On farm Water Management funded mainly by the World Bank. FOs are responsible to act as contractor for the rehabilitation of their own distributary/ minor canal in case of less than US$ 100,000 contract amount through Community Based Contract (CBC). On the other hand, if amount exceeds US$ 100,000, the contract could be awarded to the private contractors through National Competitive Bidding (NCB) and FO becomes employer of the contractor. The works are identified and proposed by FOs on the basis of joint walk-through surveys along with AWB staff,, consultants and social mobilization teams of Social Development Cell SIDA. In first year 10 contracts were awarded of which 09 were NCB and one was CBC. In first year the maximum limit of CBC work was US$ 30,000 and based on the first year performance, environmental compliance and work quality review, the GoSindh and World Bank agreed to extend upper limit of CBC up to US$100,000. This directly resulted in a greater opportunity to many FOs to undertake investment activity directly under their management and execution. 8.1. PARTICIPATION IN JOINT WALK THROUGH

In order to identify the work a joint walk through is carried out. The joint walk through largely helps in determining the scope of rehabilitation work for FO. At the end of walk through, a format is jointly signed by all the parties incorporating all the technical requirements, repair needs and necessary irrigation structures. At the same time, environmental impacts of the rehabilitation works are also assessed jointly along with any resettlement impact of the works. In addition through the survey identification of community infrastructures like washing bays, buffalo baths, and foot bridges are proposed on appropriate places with consultation of FO members. Some committees are formed by FOs to manage the rehabilitation work, monitor the work, and implement the CBC works. 8.2. PARTICIPATION IN CONTRACT BIDDING AND AWARD

After joint walkthrough and detail designing, tender documents are prepared and based on the cost estimation bids are invited for NCB works (costing more than US 100,000) and evaluated in presence of the FO representatives. The contracts are awarded by the FO in capacity of employer and FO Chairman Signs the agreement with selected contractor. This process creates ownership of FOs and ensures sustainability. As stated earlier, under the rehabilitation works program of irrigation channels, initially it was decided that contracts worth less then US$ 30,000 will be awarded to FO as part of institutional strengthening measure. And later on this limit was enhanced to US$ 100,000. In the first year of program of works, only one contract was awarded as CBC contract (FO Bagi minor in NAWB). Whereas in second year, out of 35 contracts, 21 were classified as CBCs. This enhancement in the upper limit for contract amount was appreciated by the FO community at large. By and large, the performance of CBC has been satisfactory as local labor and local machinery like tractors and excavators are hired, generating employment opportunities at local level. The contractors on the

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contrary largely bring their manpower and machinery from their own pool of resources, mostly located outside of the project area. Community appreciated the donor and govt. efforts for awarding the contract to FOs. 8.3. PARTICIPATORY MONITORING

Generally there is a strict monitoring by FOs on the rehabilitation works at most places. FOs generally form a committee to address the quality work and ensure work is completed as per scope. The contractors’ exerted political pressures to obtain the bills in advance but the FOs withstand the pressure and forced contractor to complete the work. For example contractor of Mir Minor exerted pressure on FO chairman to release his final bill before the completion of work. But chairman took stand and described to contractor clearly that bill could not be signed before the work was completed. 9. PIM IN SINDH: - ACHIEVEMENTS AT GLANCE ƒ Community Participation: farming community through participatory irrigation management has effectively been involved in management and distribution of water at minor and canal level. More than 100,000 farmers have taken part in the social mobilization process and promoted institutional reforms. ƒ Control of Water Theft: After implementation of PIM, the AWBs have been some how succeeded to control the theft and closing the illegal direct outlets. The World Bank Aide Memoire (Feb 2005) further recognizes improvement in the water management due to irrigation reforms. It mentions that “The left Bank Canal AWB with the support of SIDA and IPD closed several illegal outlets in the lined canal which served an area of about 20,000 ha. For the first time in 3 years the tail end farmers received water”. ƒ Better and reliable service delivery: The water service delivery has also been improved under reform programe. The DPR value has been observed more for the area which is managed by FOs. An other World Bank Implementation review mission on SOFWM project (refer Aide Memoire May 27, 2005) maintains that “ the mission observations during field visits that in distributary canals where farmer organizations are functional and physical and hydraulic improvements are being implemented, water is now reaching the tail-end farmers who had reportedly never received their due share in the past”. ƒ Better management of investment and modernization schemes: A world Bank mission on same project while visiting one FO Channel (Bagi minor that is undertaking rehabilitation work by them) maintains in their Aide Memoire (Dec 2005) that “ This is the first community based contract and the quality of work observed was good. The management committee was exemplary and seemed to be working well together in a participatory and democratic manner”. The M&E consultants (M/s MMP) of SOFWM project has recently concluded that out of 10 rehabilitation works on FO channels, work under undertaken by FO Bagi (under community contract) was more environmental friendly than other 9 contracts being implemented through contractors. This is remarkable finding in term of quality work and sustainability of the irrigation and drainage system due to reforms.

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ƒ Reduction in Poverty and socio-eco distress: It has also been witnessed that in many areas where people migrated earlier from tail area due to water shortage have returned back to cultivate their lands as they can now receive water which was being stolen through direct outlets at head reach. This happened mainly in the Left Bank Area Water Board. This all has happened due to reforms in irrigation sector. The recent report published by World Bank on Pakistan Water Economy running dry also appreciates Sindh and recognizes that Sindh has made commendable progress in institutional reforms in irrigation (refer page 103 of the report). ƒ Water Distribution equity: unauthorized discharges from direct outlets are controlled. This has resulted in availability of water in the tail end area of Nara and Left Bank canal AWB ƒ Institutional Development and Governance: The WCAs and FOs have been acting as water management bodies. All investment works on watercourse and minors are being carried out/managed by the farmers. Te FO Bagi Minor under community contract has been awarded contract for rehabilitation of minor. This will improve operation and maintenance of irrigation system and ensure water availability at tail and reduction in water losses. ƒ Increased Agricultural Productivity and land use: with the good governance of water at AWB and FO level, many people who migrated from tail area have returned back in Left Bank Canal area. The land has again come under cultivation and the yield as improved due to reliable water supply. ƒ Reduced water losses: with the improvement of watercourses and effective O&M by FOs the losses have decreased ƒ Reduced Environmental degradation: the industrial units especially sugar mills used to pollute drains and water ways by putting their effluent. The mills have agreed to install treatment plants. ƒ Change in cropping pattern/water use efficiency: farmers have started growing water resistant crops (sunflowers) especially in Left Bank AWB area where sugarcane and rice used to dominate. 10. CONCLUSION PIM has evolved and become generally accepted as a necessary aspect of productive and sustainable irrigation. The schemes of modernization of irrigation channels are an excellent opportunity to address the issues of sustainability of FOs, sustainable water resource management. The FO managed investment schemes have not only addressed the local employment issues of landless agriculture and rural worker but also has addressed the water equity and efficiency as well. The increased farm productivity and income has reduced poverty from the rural poor. In Sindh PIM has proved to be successful model. But it is long way to go and government still needs to support and create support services for sustainability of reforms in Sindh. An empowerment model has to be followed and enabling environment for these new institutions has to be created.

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There is a need to maintain the transparency and create support service for institutions created under reforms, particularly FOs and AWBs. 11. REFERENCES 1. Azad, Aslam Rasheed and Yameen. 2003: Sindh Water Resources ManagementIssues and options published by Investment Centre FAO 2. Johnson, Sam H. III, Mark Svendsen, and Fernando Gonzalez. 2002. Options for Institutional Reform in the Irrigation Sector. Discussion paper prepared for the International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management, 21-27 April, Beijing, China. 3. Nazeer 2004, IWRM- a tool for poverty reduction, published by Pakistan Water Partnership, Islamabad Pakistan 4. Nazeer, “Participatory Irrigation Management and Indus Basin Irrigation SystemA case study of Pakistan” published in EC (DGI) Regional Action Program “ Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) Vol. 2, country over view of PIM, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute, Bari- Italy Sept. 12-22, 2001 5. SDSC 2006, Third Party Monitoring and Evaluation of Institutional Reforms in Sindh- Final Report 6. SDC-SIDA (2006). Monthly Progress Reports 7. Vermillion, Douglas L. Forthcoming. Irrigation Sector Reform in Asia: From Patronage under Participation to Empowerment with Partnership. In Asian Irrigation in Transition. Edited by G. Shivakoti, D. Vermillion, E. Ostrom, R. Yoder, W.F. Lam and U. Pradhan. New Delhi: Sage Publications. 8. Vermillion, Douglas L. and Juan A. Sagardoy. 1999. Transfer of Irrigation Management Services: Guidelines. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper Number 58. Rome: FAO, IWMI and GTZ. 9- World Bank Aide Memoirs (2004-2006) on NDP and SOFWM Projects 10- World Bank (1993). Pakistan Irrigation and Drainage: Issues and Options Report No. 11884-PAK 11- World Bank (2004). Project Appraisal Document Sindh On-farm Water Management Project, March 4, 2004 Report No. 27982-PKAK 12- Yameen and Nazeer (2001). Are farmers willing to contribute for operation and maintenance of Drainage System? Proceedings 2nd National Seminar on Drainage in Pakistan, April-18-19, 2001-University of Agriculture Faisalabad

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

A PERFORMANCE STUDY OF PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN EASTERN INDIA: OBJECTIVES, RATIONAL OF CONCEPT AND NEED

Sushanta Kumar Mahapatra1

ABSTRACT Main motivations of this paper is to examine the functioning and otherwise of Water User Association (WUA) or Pani Panchayat promoted by the State and the local traditional irrigation institutions and to evaluate their functioning & characteristics in the context of local water management in the Hirakud Command Area (HCA), of Orissa state in Eastern India. The specific objectives are; (1) to contrast the formal and informal institutions in terms of their formation, performance and success, (2) to examine about the peoples participation and their liveliness, (3) to recommend policy interventions to make the formal institutions more successful. The paper concludes that the Pani Panchayat as regulatory institutions in charge of water distribution on equitable basis, their performance has been reasonably weak and unsuccessful. Even though Pani Panchayat has been initiated and endorsed in the State for more than a couple of years, the acceptance of the model have been lethargic and scattered. Key Words: Common Property Resource, Farmer Managed Irrigation System, Formal & Informal Irrigation Institutions, Orissa, India, Pani Panchayat, Participatory Irrigation Management, Water User Association, Water Management

I. CONTEXT OF THE STUDY Recently Pani Panchayat (Water Council) as an institution in irrigation management and research in the collective management of Common Property Resources (CPRs) has paying attention of many researchers and policy makers. The current paper deals with an evaluation of water management through community participation and emergence of Pani Panchayat in a case study of Vir Bajrang Bali Pani Panchayat under Lift Irrigation Project of the Hirakud Command Area (HCA), of Orissa state in Eastern India. We are aware that, it is incredibly near the beginning to assess and evaluate the formal Pani Panchayat in the state, as the practice of implementation is just falling on the line.

1- Research Scholar, Madras Institute of Development Studies (MIDS), No-79, Second Main Road, Gandhi Nagar, Adyar, Chennai-600 020 (Tamil Nadu), India Email: [email protected]

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Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) to the user farmers is being increasingly advocated and practiced the world over, to provide correctives to the distortions arising from the failure of the market as well as the state. The most common type of reform in the Indian irrigation sector in recent years has been the attempts to increase farmer’s direct involvement in irrigation under the label of PIM. Such reforms are directed for improving the performance of irrigation by involving who have the greatest stake in irrigation, in the operation & management of systems. Utmost painstaking efforts have been made in a number of countries worldwide to transfer the rights and responsibilities for irrigation management activities of an irrigation system from a Government agency to private or local organisations (Brewer et al., 1999, Vermillion, 1997). Transferring responsibilities has come to be seen by policy-makers as a way to lessen pressures on thinly stretched Government finances, while at the same time, improving irrigated agricultural production and ensuring the long-term sustainability of irrigation systems (Geijer et al., 1996, Kloezen and Samad 1995, Vermillion 1991). The Philippines (Wijayaratna and Vermillion 1994, Svendsen 1992), Indonesia (Soenarno 1995), China (Xu Zhifang 1995) and Sri Lanka (Ratnayake 1995) in Asia, Mexico (Johnson 1997) and Columbia (Garcia- Betancourt 1994) in Latin America, and other countries New Zealand (Farley 1994) and Turkey (Devlet su Isleri et al., 1996), have foremost efforts in this track. One study on a survey of the impact assessment IMT was carried out by the IIMI and the IIMA (Naik et. al., 2002). Brewer et. al., study (1999) found that, in India, increasing user participation in the management of irrigation systems is being tried as a means to reduce the pressures on Government finances, improve the performance of irrigated agriculture, and ensure sustainability of irrigation systems. An analysis of scattered studies concludes that the various evidences shows a combination of positive and negative consequences, but the majority studies report positive results, particularly improvements in water distribution and finance (Vermillion 1997). But this review study also shows that, the different studies are not comparable, nor is it comprehensive. FORMAL VS. INFORMAL IRRIGATION INSTITUTION Recently major debate is in the region of the subject matter of formal vs. informal institution. An effort has been taken to discuss both formal and informal traditional irrigation institutions or FMIS and its sustainability, importance and participation in the decision-making and the proper monitoring of the behavior of the members. Why focal point on institutions? Institutions could be arranged into two ways: formal and informal. A government agency is a formal institution as it has rules, which are officially laid down in a written form. Farmers’ institutions could be both formal and informal. An institution which has written rules, is termed as formal, where as an institution, which does not have written rules, is an informal institution. In many of the informal institutions (FMIS) the rules are not in written form but they are practiced for a long period of time. They serve as a rule in their day-to-day interaction. The management of irrigation systems requires strong institutions, because they have to manage the distribution of scare resources and this can lead to various types of conflicts. Ostrom (1992) points out conflict management as critical for self-governing irrigation systems, and Vermillion (1996) restates this as an important factor in the context of irrigation management transfer programs. The governance of FMIS can be studied by

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looking at various rules in use. E.Ostrom (1992) observes institutions as rules-in-use, which define the rights and responsibilities of the water users. Ostrom (1990, 1993) characterize that an institution is the rules actually used (rules-in-use or working rules) by a set of individuals to organize repetitive activities that produce outcomes affecting those individuals and potentially affecting others. In a world of uncertainty they have been used human beings in an attempt to structure human interaction. They are rule of the game of a society and in consequence provide the framework of incentives that shape economic, political and social organization. On the other hand North (1944, p.360) emphasize that, Institutions as a combination of “formal constraints (e.g. rules, laws, constitutions), informal constraints (e.g. norms of behavior, conventions, self-imposed codes of conduct) and their enforcement characteristics)”. Enforcement is carried out by third parties (law enforcement, social ostracism), by second parties (retaliations) or by the first party. An institution is “… an enduring, complex, integrated, organized, behavior pattern through which social control is exerted and by means of which fundamental social desires and needs are met (Fairchild, 1955 cited in Dusseldrop, 1993; 56). Organisations can be defined as ‘groups of individuals bound by some common purpose to achieve objectives’ (North 1990: 5). They are identified by roles (Coward 1980; Uphoff 1992). Institutions are identified by the rules, shared understandings, or norms held by a group of people (Coward 1980; North 1990; Uphoff 1992). The most important of these sets of rules, from the standpoint of resource management, are those governing access, withdrawal, and, management, or those related to monitoring, enforcement, and sanctions governing resource use (Ostrom 1992). Norman Uphoff (1986a) also opines that institution as composite of norms and behaviour that persists overtime by serving collectively valued purposes. An institution is a combination of roles, rules, procedures, a practice and a system of relations. These definitions emphasize different elements of institutions rules constituted in a group requiring a complex of practices and control. Besides, these definitions discuss the performance of the role by an individual and the rules that regulate actions of the individuals/groups. The action is always guided by the role expected by other members of the community and one is judged by the performance associated with the role. Coward (1985) alleges that this role expectation and role performance are the institutional and organizational dimensions respectively which are regulated by the rules. It has to be realized that institutions are not functioning in vacuum. Changes in the political environment and opening up of the villages are changing the strength of social control, which is of great importance for the functioning of the institutions. The well functioning institutions will have greater control on the use of resources and its distribution. II. OBJECTIVES MAIN OBJECTIVE

Broad objective of this paper is to examine the functioning and otherwise of Water User Association (WUA) or Pani Panchayat promoted by the State and the local traditional irrigation institutions and to evaluate their functioning & characteristics in the context of

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local water management in the Hirakud Command Area (HCA), of Orissa state in Eastern India. SECONDARY OBJECTIVES

The secondary objectives are; (1) to contrast the formal and informal institutions in terms of their formation, performance and success, (2) to examine about the peoples participation and their liveliness (3) to recommend policy interventions to make the formal institutions more successful. III. FUNCTIONING OF PANI PANCHAYAT/WUA IN HIRAKUD COMMAND AREA, ORISSA

The Hirakud Command Area Development Authority1 reveals the fact that during 19992000, seven water user’s Association (WUA) were organized and got registered under the societies Registration Act, 1860 in villages of Kumelsingha, Babebira, Lahoula, Paharsirgida, Kulunda, Sahajbahal and Sulunda. Of course regrets the CADA, these WUA could not be made operative in the absence of detailed functional guidelines of government. Information on the extent of farmer participation is illusory. The number of registered WUAs, often used as an indicator of participation, is ambiguous. Many registered WUAs exist only on paper in HCA. On the other hand, we have inadequate information on instances of real participation of users which have not resulted from any roles officially granted to them IV. RESEARCH METHODS In order to examine the functioning and impact of transfer of irrigation management to the water users, a detail survey of 70 households (HH) has been done in a case study of Vir Bajrang Bali Pani Panchayat under Lift Irrigation Point (LIP) of the Hirakud Command area, Orissa. The Primary data has been collected from Bandhapali village of Kardola Panchayat in Dhankauda Block comes under Sambalpur district. The Bandhapali village is 32 KM away from the district headquarter Sambalpur. The nearest railway station is at Hirakud 24 KM far from the village. Bandhapali is a revenue village of Kardola Panchayat consists of one ward. Both quantitative and qualitative information are obtained in order to observe the efficacy of different types of institutional arrangements. Qualitative information is obtained by way of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) use such as focus group discussions, key person interviews like senior citizens, officials in the irrigation department. Discussion were also done with the office bearers of the concerned PP, in addition to those expelled from the PP i.e. woman and landless people. Two structured questionnaires; one related to WUAs and another related to households, were prepared 1- Hirakud Command Area Development Authority (1999) – Annual Administration Report

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to collect quantitative information. These interviews unscheduled, and carried out in variety of locations like in a school house or Panchayat building, on a temple veranda, under a tree, or in private homes. Before and after scenarios were exploited to evaluate the impact as there is no option for with and without scenario, as all the farmers getting irrigation water are covered under Pani Panchayat. The field work was conducted during the period 2004-2005. V. MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION, INSTITUTIONAL AND ORGANISATIONAL ASPECTS We asked the PP member about the different aspect of PP such as knowledge about working group, user group and PP committee, and their views were described below. PANI PANCHAYAT WORKING GROUP IN THE VILLAGE:

The committee of PP in Orissa shows that, they are formal in the sense that the Government recognise them as having the authority to enforce the Panchayat decisions. The Nepal experience on Farmer Managed Irrigation System (FMIS) shows that at the central level usually the organisation comprises a general assembly of beneficiaries and a committee consisting of members elected to carry out the decisions made by the general body. COMPOSITION OF THE PANI PANCHAYAT COMMITTEE

The total number of members in a PP Committee varies from area to area depending upon the size of the command area, the complexity of the water distribution methods employed and the respective land holding of the farmers. Each of the PP constitutes a President, Secretary, Vice-President and a Treasure. Other members of the PP usually represent different areas of the system. Their functions are to help with water distribution and conflict resolution within their respective areas and to help mobilise resources for canal maintenance and repair. SELECTION OF MEMBERS

The user group members usually elect the members of PP committee. Here when the Water User Association was registered in 1997 for the first time members were nominated by the Government officials. During the meeting held on 21st August 2002 the committee members were again changed and that too by nomination with the help of Government officials. In Nepal FMIS, generally the members have been selected on the basis of the Panchayat head, hereditary, land holding, rich people or head of the village. Whether a PP opts for a hereditary committee president or an elected one, influenced by so many factors like 1. The age of the PP 2. The number of beneficiaries

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3. The size of the PP 4. Access to a road and 5. The number of levels in the PP. From the Table-1 it shows that, the process of electing the president is through nomination as 100 per cent responded that it is through nomination. 79 per cent members responded that there is no political interference in the working of the PP committee (Fig-1). The wards of the village are politically demarcated boundaries; the hydrological boundaries of the PP may extend beyond. The various activities in the PP are taken over by the president. The landless farmers were 29 per cent satisfied with the functioning of the PP committee. Among the marginal farmers 34 per cent were satisfied with the committee, while majority 66 per cent are not satisfied. Majority of medium farmers (75 per cent) are not satisfied. 62 per cent of the small farmers are not satisfied with the functioning. On the contrary, only 17 per cent of the large farmers are not satisfied with the functioning of the PP Committee. Fig-1

Fig-2 Fig.2 Political Interference in Pani Panchayat Committee (in %) Yes 21%

Fig.3 Effectiveness of User Group in Various Activities (in %) 80

59

60 40 No 79%

33 8

20 0 Very co-operative

Average

Poor

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ACCOUNTABILITY OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE PANI PANCHAYAT The Committee is responsible for keeping accounts, distributing water in accordance with directives of the Governing body, implementing decisions made during the general meeting and resolving conflicts. The day-to-day affairs of the ‘Association’ shall be governed by the management committee. The executive body is consisting of president, Vice-president, Secretary, Treasurer and all members of the Chak Committees. The Secretary keep up a register of all transactions related to PP. The Secretary of the concerned PP is having a trading business as his main profession, leaving little time to take charge of water distribution. There are different function and power of the executive body such as a. The executive body shall have powers and duties necessary for the administration of the affairs of the ‘Association’ in keeping with the provision of the bye-law. b. Designate employ on remuneration and dismiss personal necessary for the operation and drainage system. c. They take care of, upkeeps and surveillance of irrigation and drainage systems in the area if operation of the ‘Association’ and the common areas and facilities. d. Levy charges for operation maintenance and repairs of irrigation and drainage system. e. Collect water rates/ charges contributions from owners and remit Government dues. f.

See that cash book is written promptly and is signed by the treasurer.

g. Sanction working expenses, count cash balance, engage labour, organize labour contribution from land owners or award contracts for O & M of irrigation and drainage system. h. Educate farmers in cropping pattern, water management, optimal and efficient use of water and inputs for increasing agricultural production yields and their profits through trained Irrigation Community Organised (I.C.O.) i.

Inspect irrigation and drainage system, distribution of water.

j.

Scrutinise accounts kept by Secretary and/ or Treasurer and examine the registers and accounts books and take steps for the recovery of all sums due to the ‘Association’.

k. Allow Chak committees and others to organize and carry out repairs of irrigation and drainage systems under their respective outlets, if so desired by themselves through labour and materials contributions. If the committee will not function properly the powers will be delineated, and also if any member other than the office bearers of the executive body without sufficient reasons given in writing to the executive body will automatically ceased to be a member of the executive body. Office bearers can also be removed upon and affirmative vote by a majority (more than 50 per cent of the member present) of members of the general body of the ‘Association’ any of the office bearers may be removed with cause and his successor elected as per procedure laid down.

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USER GROUP A Water User’s Association is an ‘Association’ of all persons owning land within a hydrological delineated portion of the command area varying in size from 300-600 Ha. It may be for each distributary or minor or sub minor canal area including direct outlets clubbed to them. The association will be formed and registered after enrolment of minimum 51 per cent of members. The entire land owner within the jurisdiction of ‘association will have right to become members of the association’. The activities of the user group is 1. Ensure collective and community responsibility of the farmers to collected water charges from water users and payment to government from time to time. 2. Demonstrate and practice improvements on firms’ water management, method for improve field operation efficiency in the individual firm’s field. 3. To maintain and operate the minor/ Distributary/ laterals, FCI/FDC etc including lining earth work, structures etc. Already turned over by government to the control of “Association” by meeting the expenditure from out of the operation and maintenance (O and M) fund created by “Association”. 4. The “Association” will resolve disputes among farmer’s in respect of water distribution and allied matters. 5. Develop the sense of economy in water use amongst the users. The user group is formed on the basis of location, activities, pre-location technology. It is also based on limit of area and budget. The group has no president, the whole group is unanimous. It has been argued that uniformity of social economic conditions prevalent in a co-operation conversely neutral differentiated groups tend to re-enforce the differentiation. Access to potential benefits of the scheme by the members of the collective is discriminatory. This constitutes a disincentive for co-operation effort by those who perceive the benefit as beyond their reach. Unless specific measures are taken to redress this imbalance, it discourages the reproduction of the co-operative spirit. Due to this the field study shows that majority of the members (59 per cent) are medium average co-operative and 33 per cent are very co-operative and only 8 per cent are less or not or poor co-operative (See Table-2 and Fig-2). The field work also shows that landless farmers are 69 per cent co-operative in average scale, among the marginal farmers 25 per cent are very co-operative and 76 per cent are average. Among the small farmers 9 per cent are not at all or we can say poor co-operative and 62 per cent are cooperative averagely. On the contrary, majority (59 per cent) of the large farmer responded that, User groups are very co-operative. Thus the study shows co-operation increases with increase in farm size. Table-2 depicts that, those 9 per cent from small farmer groups which are less or poor co-operative, are due to caste conflict. There were no comments in relation to the UGs co-operation regarding planning/design, supervision of construction work, cost estimation of works etc. The UG is very co-operative and active because they are from the same or near by village and they are the relative or neighbours to the person concern.

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VI. CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS An analysis on various aspects of Pani Panchayat Committee from the farmers view points showed that many farmers had no idea about the PP Programme. The landless farmers were 29 per cent satisfied with the functioning of the PP committee. Among the marginal farmers 34 per cent were satisfied with the committee, while majority 66 per cent are not satisfied. Majority of medium farmers are not satisfied. 62 per cent of the small farmers are not satisfied with the functioning. On the contrary, only 17 per cent of the large farmers are not satisfied with the functioning of the PP Committee. Our field study analysis of Pani Panchayat on User Groups showed that majority of the members are medium average co-operative and 33 per cent are very co-operative and only 8 per cent are less or not or poor co-operative. The field work also revealed that landless farmers are 69 per cent co-operative in average scale, among the marginal farmers 25 per cent are very co-operative and 76 per cent are average. Among the small farmers 9 per cent are not at all or we can say poor co-operative and 62 per cent are co-operative averagely. On the contrary, majority of the large farmer responded that, User groups are very co-operative. Thus the study showed, co-operation increases with increase in farm size. We can conclude that the PP as regulatory institutions in charge of water distribution on equitable basis, their performance has been reasonably weak and unsuccessful. This endures unfavorably on their capacity to generate resources through collection of water cess. Researchers have drawn up a strategy for policy makers to ensure IMT programs become more pro-poor stressing the need to clearly define the rights of farmers, raise awareness of these rights, reform the election process, and monitor participation in water user authorities. 1 Despite the fact that the irrigation agency in Orissa has taken policy decision to encourage farmer’s participation and attempts are underway to motivate farmers to form WUAs, the farmer’s response in this regard is not up to the level of satisfaction (Swain; 2000: 128). The State should act as a facilitator not controller. PP do not imply that the state would completely withdraw from irrigation, but would continue to provide critical services, particularly water supply at main delivery points, providing information, training and accounting are required to support PP. Even though PP has been initiated and endorsed in the State for more than a couple of years, the acceptance of the model have been lethargic and scattered. There is no promptly accessible data to evaluate this performance. As a whole PP is an unexecutable and unacceptable. PP is not in the interest of the people. There are so many constraints like selfishness, illiteracy, no interest due to big landowners, which hinder for the improvement of PP. A detailed action plan should be prepared in consultation with the water users through Participatory Rural Appraisal method. A feasibility study should be under taken by examining the caste class conflict, groupism, political differences and history of confrontation and conflict if any. It is necessary to apply bottom-up approach instead of top-down for sustainability. There must also be mechanisms to ensure that the benefits of the project are equally distributed to all concerned stakeholders. The Government 1- For detail discussions, see The Water Policy Briefing Series (www.iwmi.org/waterpolicybriefing).

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should review its decision of making the availability of irrigation water conditions to the formation of PP. Many registration actions of PP are complex and long, raising the costs of participation for the farmers. Simpler procedures are needed that still provide the PP organisations with sufficient legal standing to deal with government agencies, contract with private firms, contractors, and control resources within the group. APPENDIX PROFILES OF THE SELECTED PANI PANCHAYAT (PP)

Name of the PP:

Vir Bajrang Bali Pani Panchayat (Lift- I & II) Location: Village: Bandhapali Gram Panchayat: Kardola, Post office: Chiplima Block: Dhankauda District: Sambalpur, State- Orissa, Country- India Age of the system: Old registration 1996-97 as WUA, Newly formatted in 2001-02 as PP

Type of the system:

Lift Irrigation (LI)

Total No of LI Points: Lift I and II Name of the Source: Mahanadi River Area in acre (ayacut): 123.66 Acre Horse Power Used:

15 HP (Horse Power)

Office Bearers:

Total No. of PP members: 63 No. of Committee members: Four

President Election:

Nomination

REFERENCES 1. Brewer, J.D., S. Kolavalli, A.H. Kalro, G.Naik, S. Ramnarayan, K.V.Raju and R.Sakthivadivel, (1999): “Irrigation Management Transfer: Policies, Process and Performance”, New Delhi, Oxford and IBH Publishing Company. 2. Coward Jr, E Walter (1980): Irrigation and Agricultural Development in Asia (Ed): Perspectives from the Social Sciences, Cornel University Press, Ithaca and London. 3. ------------- (1985): “Technical and Social Change in currently irrigated Regions: Rules, Roles and Rehabilitation”. In Putting People First, ed M.M. Cernea, pp.2751. Oxford University Press. 4. Devlet su Isleri, Economic Development Institute, International Irrigation Management Institute (1996): “Assessment of IMT in Turkey”, Paper presented for the International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management, Antalya, Turkey, 10-17 April.

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5. Farley, Peter J., (1994): “Privatisation of Irrigation Schemes in New Zealand, Short report Series on Locally Managed Irrigation No.2, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo. 6. Geijer, Joost CMA, M Svendsen, and DL Vermillion, (1996): “Transferring Irrigation Management Responsibility in Asia: Results of a Workshop”, Short report Series on Locally Managed Irrigation No.13, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo. 7. Garcia-Betancourt, Gilberto, (1994): “The Emergence of Federriego: The Colombian Federation of Irrigation Districts”, Short report Series on Locally Managed Irrigation No.8, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo. 8. Government of Orissa (2002): Pani Panchayat in Orissa, Department of Water Resources 9. Government of Orissa (2002): The Orissa Gazette: The Orissa Pani Panchayat Act, 2002 No.1053, July 8, Cuttack. 10. Johnson, Sam H, (1997): “Irrigation Management Transfer in Mexico: A Strategy to Achieve Irrigation District Sustainability”, Research Report No. 16, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo. Iyer R Ramaswamy (2003), Water Perspectives, Issues, concerns: Sage Publications of India Pvt Ltd, 11. Kloezen, Wim, and M. Samad (1995): “Synthesis of Issues Discussed at the International Conference on Irrigation Management Transfer, Wuhan, China, 2024 September 1994” , Short report Series on Locally Managed Irrigation No.12, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo. 12. Naik, Gopal, Amarlal H.Kalro, Jeffrey D. Brewer, M.Samad and R.Sakthivadivel, (2002): “Assessing the Impact of Irrigation Management Transfer: Case Studies from Maharashtra”, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. 13. North, Douglass C. (1990): Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, New York, Cambridge University Press. 14. Ostrom, Elinor (1990): “Governing the Commons, the evolution of institutions for collective action”, Cambridge University Press, New York. 15. ----------------- (1992): “Crafting institutions for self-governing irrigation systems”. Institute for Contemporary Studies Press, San Francisco 16. -----------------And Roy Gardner (1993): “Coping with asymmetries in the Commons: Self-governing irrigation systems can work” Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol.7, Number 4 pp. 93-112. 17. Ratnayake, Ranjith (1995): Irrigation Management Transfer in Sri Lanka, pp79-87 in J.C.M.A. Geijer, ed., “Irrigation Management Transfer in Asia: Papers from the Expert Consultation on Irrigation Management Transfer in Asia”, Bangkok and Chiang Mai, 25-29 September 1995, RAP Publication 1995:31, Food and Agricultural Organisation and International Irrigation Management Institute, Bangkok. 18. Sainath, P. (2002): “Little Pani Less Panchayat” The Hindu, September 15, 2002.

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19. Soenarno, (1995): Irrigation Management Transfer in Indonesia, pp89-98 in J.C.M.A. Geijer, ed., “Irrigation Management Transfer in Asia: Papers from the Expert Consultation on Irrigation Management Transfer in Asia”, Bangkok and Chiang Mai, 25-29 September 1995, RAP Publication 1995:31, Food and Agricultural Organisation and International Irrigation Management Institute, Bangkok. 20. Svendsen, Mark, (1992): “Assessing Effects of Policy Change on Philippine Irrigation Performance”, Working Papers on Irrigation Performance 2, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington. 21. Swain, Mamata (2000): “Turning over Irrigation Management to farmers- Issues for Concern” in Farmer and Local Participation in Irrigation Management, Gyana Chandra Kar and Mamata Swain (eds), Commonwealth Publishers, New Delhi 22. Tang, S. Y. (1992): Institutions and Collective Action: Self-governance in irrigation, San Francisco, Institute for Contemporary Studies Press. 23. Uphoff, Normann (1986): Improving International Irrigation Management with Farmer Participation- Getting the Process Right, Studies in Water Policy and Management, No.11, Westview Press, Boulder and London. 24. Uphoff, Normann (1992): Learning from Gal Oya- Possibilities for Participatory Development and Post-Newtonian Social Science, Iithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press. 25. Vermillion, Douglas L., (1991): “The Turnover and Self Management of Irrigation Institutions in Developing Countries”, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo. 26. Vermillion, Douglas L., (1997): “Impacts of Irrigation Management Transfer: A Review of Evidence”, Research Report No. 11, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo. 27. Water Policy Briefing Series (www.iwmi.org/waterpolicybriefing). 28. Wijayaratna, CM, and Douglas L. Vermillion, (1994): “Irrigation Management Turnover in the Philippines: Strategy of the National Irrigation Administration”, Short report Series on Locally Managed Irrigation No.4, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo. 29. Xu Zhifang, (1995): Irrigation Management Transfer in China, pp157-16 in J.C.M.A. Geijer, ed., “Irrigation Management Transfer in Asia: Papers from the Expert Consultation on Irrigation Management Transfer in Asia”, Bangkok and Chiang Mai, 25-29 September 1995, RAP Publication 1995:31, Food and Agricultural Organisation and International Irrigation Management Institute, Bangkok.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

INSTITUTIONAL CONDITIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE PIM: CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Krishna C. Prasad1; Paul van Hofwegen2; David J. Molden3; and Bart Schultz4

ABSTRACT Participatory irrigation management (PIM), in its various forms, has been implemented all over the world for several decades. PIM-related interventions have generally been made, and continue to be made, in form of a set of project activities mostly implemented over a limited period of time with supports external to the irrigation system. Reported results have been encouraging, particularly during and immediately after the project activities, in terms of improvements in: a) irrigated agricultural performance; b) resource mobilization; c) quality of irrigation service; d) maintenance of irrigation infrastructure; and e) farmers’ institutional development. Nevertheless, evidences suggest that sustenance of such gains over a long run is often questionable when there are no favorable institutional conditions after the conclusion of short-lived project activities and withdrawal of external supports. Such institutional conditions include continuation of: i) supporting policies and strategies, ii) capacity building, training, and extension; and iii) monitoring and evaluation. The paper identifies various institutional constraints with the view to identify opportunities to timely instigate possible measures that concern three significant and complementing actors: national/provincial governments, irrigation agencies and/or water users associations, and the irrigators. Conclusions and recommendations are based on in-depth case study of Nepal while reflecting on relevant cases elsewhere.

INTRODUCTION: CLARIFYING PIM AND ITS CONTEXT Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) generally implies participation of irrigators in the management of the irrigation system and is generally interpreted as “...the involvement of irrigation users in all aspects of irrigation management, and at all levels” (http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/pimelg/index.htm). ‘All aspects’ includes planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance, financing, decision rules and the 1- Senior Lecturer, UNESCO-IHE, Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, P. O. Box 3015, 2601 DA, Delft, The Netherlands. Phone: +31(0)152151825, Fax: +31(0)152122921, email: [email protected] 2- Senior Water Management Adviser, World Water Council, France 3- Coordinator, Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, Sri Lanka 4- Professor, Land and Water Development, Department of Water Engineering. UNESCO-IHE, Institute for Water Education. The Netherlands.

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monitoring and evaluation of the irrigation system. ‘All levels’ means the primary, secondary and tertiary (and subsidiary) levels of water distribution network in the irrigation systems. Most irrigation systems, both surface and groundwater, by their management mode, can be categorized in three types: (a) agency-managed irrigation systems (AMISs); primarily managed by the state or state-appointed entity (agency) with very little or no involvement of the irrigating farmers, (b) jointly-managed irrigation systems (JMISs); in which irrigators and the agency jointly manage the irrigation system, and (c) farmermanaged irrigation systems (FMISs); wherein most management responsibilities rest with (or have been transferred to) the irrigators. In all three situations, both the irrigators and the agency are involved in the irrigation system management. However, the extent and mode of their involvement varies. In AMIS, the irrigators have little space for their organized and systematic involvement or participation, whereas in farmer-managed (or management-transferred) cases (FMISs), irrigating farmers are the main managers. In the intermediate stage of joint-management, both irrigators and the agency share management responsibilities. Thus, in an encompassing sense, the concept of PIM is evident in all scenarios, nevertheless, in varying degrees; with the exception in completely private irrigation systems owned by individuals or private firms. The AMIS and FMIS represent two extreme management scenarios which respectively indicate a higher involvement of agency (conversely, lower involvement of irrigators) in AMIS and vice versa (Figure 1). These extremes can be conceived in the form of a management continuum in which the extent of agency’s involvement decreases as the management mode changes from that of an AMIS to more and more of an FMIS. This continuum represents a domain in which the process of PIM is planned and adopted.

Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM)

Farmer

Agency

Involvement

Continuum Agency-managed

Jointly-managed

Farmer-managed

Figure 1. Continuum of Participatory Irrigation Management.

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Thus, PIM implies the level, mode, or intensity of user participation that would increase irrigators’ responsibility and authority in the management of an irrigation system (http://www.maff.go.jp/inwepf/documents/inaugural/inpim-note.pdf). Hence, the process of initiating PIM clearly is conceivable only in those systems where predominantly the agency has been undertaking various irrigation management activities in the past. Typically, such AMISs or JMISs are originally constructed by the agency without or with some involvement and/or contribution from the farmers. Nevertheless, in cases like East Rapti irrigation systems in Nepal, the management was taken over by the agency, mainly for improving the infrastructure, even though they were originally constructed by the local farmers. Reviews of various cases indicate that the main aim for initiating PIM is to improve the prevailing disappointing performance levels of the system, both in terms of (Vermillion, 1997; Prasad et al., 1998; Groenfeldt and Svendsen, 2000; Prasad et al., 2000): ¾Efficiency of the management process in irrigation service delivery and ¾Productive efficiency of resources employed in irrigated agriculture. Additional rationales behind PIM initiatives – some, particularly inspired by many success stories of FMISs - include the following: x With PIM, management is decentralized to users in a supportive socio-technical context, which increases the farmers’ ownership of the irrigation system; x PIM provides an opportunity to bring together agencies’ nomothetic-, and farmers’ idiographic knowledge and experiences for improved management of the irrigation system and thus improved delivery of irrigation services; x A higher financial and a social cost incurs when only government agencies undertake irrigation management functions; x Irrigators have stronger incentives to manage water productively than does a government bureaucracy; x Farmers can respond more quickly to problems or changes in the system leading to increased profitability from irrigated agriculture; and so on. Nevertheless, PIM related undertakings may have various objectives: e.g. to improve the financial and physical sustainability of irrigation systems (Mexico or Chile): to improve water management and agricultural productivity (Andhra Pradesh, India); to cope with constraints on government budgets (Philippines, Nepal); to delegate control over the irrigation system and improve the water service (Columbia Basin, USA, Australia); etc (Peter, 2004; http://www.fao.org/AG/aGL/aglw/waterinstitutions/default.stm). In addition, it may also be for strategic restructuring of the irrigation sector/agency (South Australia and South Africa) involving downsizing, adoption of new mandates, redeployment of personnel, and a change from a centrally-financed line agency to a financially autonomous authority or corporation (Philippines). Sometimes, irrigators may even pressurize the state to take over the management of irrigation systems to gain control over the use of irrigation service fees and keep the cost of irrigation from rising as in the Coello and Saldaña systems in Colombia and the Dominican Republic.

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KEY FEATURES OF PIM In general, PIM activities are initiated in AMISs (or intensified in JMISs) either under the initiative of the agency or the farmers. The agency’s initiative to instigate or intensify PIM related activities, which is often interpreted as ‘supply-driven’, largely represent an ‘intervention’ in the status quo. In the other case, irrigating farmers approach the agency seeking various financial and technical supports to address various challenges (or threats) in the irrigation system. The agency, in response, may offer various supports in the form of PIM activities with an understanding that irrigators will collectively, through their associations commonly called Water User Associations, (WUAs), assume larger roles in irrigation management activities. The latter is often termed as ‘demand-driven’. Such PIM related initiatives are usually based on one or a combination of various rationales mentioned above. Congruent to the latter approach is the process of Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT), which may be initiated with either supply-driven or a demand-driven approach. The last two decades have observed several countries getting increasingly engaged in IMT both in surface and groundwater systems (http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/waterinstitutions/profiles.stm; Vermillion, 1997; Groenfeldt and Svendsen, 2000). Though generally known as IMT, it is also referred to as: turnover, privatization, post-responsibility system, participatory management, commercialization, self-management, etc in different countries. Most PIM undertakings have at least two principal sets of activities: a) irrigation system rehabilitation1 and b) institutional development for improved service delivery. The former set involves activities related to making changes in the infrastructural conditions of the irrigation system. The latter set of activities involves institutional development efforts including the development of farmer organization and related rules and regulations; training and skill development of farmers and personnel associated with irrigation management; establishing links with external support agencies, etc. Rehabilitation of irrigation systems As an impetus and means to introduce or intensify PIM, irrigation systems are invariably slated for rehabilitation (and/or modernization). The rehabilitation is meant for make suitable changes in the physical condition of the irrigation system so that the system becomes physically and operationally suitable for PIM related activities. In addition, it is expected that the irrigating farmers, upon assuming greater irrigation management responsibilities, will be able to do so without major technical difficulties. Rehabilitation, which to certain extent determines the eventual success or failure of PIM initiatives, is perceived as an indispensable incentive for farmers to gradually take over the management of the system. In addition to providing an opportunity of working together during the rehabilitation itself, it has often played a major role in inducing farmers’ involvement in management process. Nevertheless, the strategies, scopes of work, arrangements for cost sharing and implementation of rehabilitation vary greatly from one case to another (IWMI, 2000; Samad and Vermillion, 2000; http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/waterinstitutions/profiles.stm; http://www.inpim.org/leftlinks/Documents). 1- Termed differently in different cases (system improvement, modernization, upgrading, revitalization, restoration, etc) depending upon the nature and extent of infrastructure improvement works.

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FARMER ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT In parallel to the rehabilitation or even before, formation or strengthening of the WUA as an institution is generally integral to PIM related initiatives. Efforts are made to ensure that the structure of such WUAs matches with the socio-physical hierarchies of canal networks in the irrigation system. An effective WUA (see next section), besides aiding the PIM process, may also determine to a large extent the sustenance of the irrigation system. With respect to PIM activities, particularly when they are aimed for IMT, devolution of an irrigation management from the agency over to the irrigators represents a form of decentralization. It involves the transfer of authority for decision making for lower-level farmers or groups of farmers in the socio-physical hierarchy of an irrigation system, so that such lower level farmer groups can elect their own councils, raise their own resources, and have independent authority to manage irrigation systems effectively. Moreover, operationalizing each management activity involves executing three sets of power: legislative, executive and judicial (Agrawal and Ribot, 2000). Each of these three sets of powers involves decision-making. Legislative power allows farmers to form new rules and regulations or modify old ones. Rules to access and use water, distribute to water users, and mobilize/generate resources for system maintenance are important in managing system operation. Executive power allows farmers to implement or enforce the rules as agreed upon, and to monitor whether the rules are actually followed by the users. It also allows farmers to impose sanctions on those who do not follow the rules. Similarly, judicial power allows farmers to adjudicate disputes that arise while enforcing the rules in operating the irrigation system. Thus, empowering WUA as an institution is necessary to promote PIM and devolution of irrigation management authority. Assumption of irrigation management responsibilities only by effective WUAs can result in realization of the PIM objectives. Accordingly, various institutional development and capacity building activities for irrigators and other personnel associated with irrigation management activities are undertaken during PIM initiatives. What Makes an Effective WUA? If looked into examples of sustainable and effective WUAs across the world, one may find four key features generally present (Wilkins-Wells and Prasad, 1994; Prasad et al., 2000; Pradhan and Gautam, 2005; Malano and van Hofwegen, 2006). The first is some form of local government for the association, based on the principle of voting and adequate checks and balances in the leadership structure. Such self-governed associations are independent of any local or central government influence other than legal certification and auditing. This is what the autonomy in association governance generally means. The formation of a self-governing leadership structure in the WUA includes the following: -

Defining the hydrological boundary of the command area

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Devising a collectively agreed upon organizational design that fits with the sociophysical hierarchies of canal networks

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Ascertaining the decision-making process and accountability within the organizational framework

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Incorporating provisions for adequate checks and balances/sanctions against defaulters

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Updating the roster of the beneficiaries entitled to receive the irrigation service

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Fixing the eligibility criteria for representation in the association

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Setting out a process to elect/select genuine representatives accountable to the farmers

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Defining the process for modification of organizational set up as and when needed

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Establishing the process to seek and accept various kinds of support from different line agencies

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Resolving the water related disputes between systems, zones of a system or individuals

The second feature is some form of association record keeping, no matter how rudimentary, designed to maintain records on labor mobilization, donations and/or fees, water delivery scheduling, association membership, and some rules about how water is to be managed and divided among beneficiaries during normal and unusual water supply conditions. Typically the record keeping activities involve the following: -

Keeping the ledger and accounts of all sorts of resources mobilized internally or externally for the irrigation system

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Comprehensive accounting of payments and various expenses

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Details of previous water delivery schedules and actual distribution at all levels of the irrigation system

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Details of cropping pattern and calendar in the command area

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Details of entitled water shares, including the utilized and the balance amounts, of individual beneficiaries

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Information regarding collected and due irrigation service fees, based on the rate fixed by the WUA in proportion to water shares

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Keeping track of the violations made by defaulters

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Preparing the budgetary details and financial statements

The third key feature is the presence of an association’s water delivery workforce, however small, appointed and supervised by the association leadership to oversee the management of water and irrigation service delivery in the command area. This workforce is responsible for allocation of water and collection of irrigation fees by shares, meaning that a beneficiary's water right in the association's collective supply is roughly proportional to the contributions made by that same individual to the cost of operating and maintaining the irrigation system annually, in cash, produce, or labor equivalent. Setting up a water delivery workforce includes the following:

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-

Appointing a core group of people, accountable to the WUA, and mainly responsible for delivering entitled water shares of individual farmers to their fields according to the agreed upon water distribution schedules

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Assessing the duty of available water at different points in the canal system

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Defining a share of water and associated irrigation service fees per share

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Ascertaining water availability in the source and the water use right

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Assessing water demand schedules and patterns

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Suggesting and adopting operational schedules based on demand and supply conditions inclusive of plans of water distribution in different seasons and in situations of water scarcity

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Ascertaining arrangement to distribute any shrinkage in water supply over water shares

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Controlling the free riders

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Documenting details of actual water delivery to the field, time, dates, conveyance time, losses, etc.

The fourth is the mechanism for ensuring adequate maintenance of the irrigation infrastructure. It includes the following: -

Preparing prioritized inventory of required maintenance works

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Estimating resource requirements

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Scheduling maintenance works

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Allocating labors for the works to be done by internal labor mobilization

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Appointing consultants and contractors for specialized works

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Supervising maintenance activities and controlling quality

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Maintaining acquired vehicles and equipments, if any

Besides, a WUA also needs to plan and act for the long term sustenance and efficient productivity of the common pool resource system like irrigation. Therefore, it is necessary for the WUA to be sensitive toward the issues of environmental degradation, deterioration agricultural resource base including the watershed or aquifer. Also, developing linkages with different line agencies and support institutions is important for WUAs’ sustained existence and thereby that of PIM. ACTORS OF PIM Main actors associated with PIM related activities can be categorized into two groups: a) Responsible actors and b) Contributing actors (Figure 2).

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Contributing Consultants Responsible Contractors/Manufacturers National/Provincial Governments

Policy/Legislation Universities/Schools

Irrigation and Drainage Agencies Water Users Assocations

Main and distributary systems

Irrigators/Farmers

Field systems

Research Institutes Banks/Donors INGOs/NGOs Allied farmer groups e. g. cooperatives Local interest groups/Politicians, etc

Figure 2. Actors of PIM (adapted from Schultz et al., 2005) Generally, the responsible actors are: a) national and provincial governments; b) irrigation and drainage agencies or WUAs - which may be appointed by the government, or the irrigators, or jointly; and c) the irrigating farmers. The contributing actors may range from various donors to local politicians and other inertest groups. This implies that to achieve productive and sustainable irrigation system management, the roles of these three actors and their activities associated with irrigated agriculture need to be in synergy. Nevertheless, such a synergy must be accomplished within the legal framework of a country where several rules and regulations will be applicable, such as environmental and land use regulations, ownership, etc (ibid, p. 270-271). The three responsible actors essentially reflect three levels of governance, namely; national and/or provincial; irrigation system level and field level. All other actors only contribute to, or facilitate the effort of effective and sustainable irrigation management. They are needed and have specific functions for various reasons, but ultimately, they are not responsible for the management initiatives in an irrigation system. Case Review The 7th conference of International Network on Participatory Irrigation Management (INPIM) pointed out that despite encouraging signs in terms of stabilizing food productions and prices, a wide variation existed in the reported gains from PIM across the world (http://www.maff.go.jp/inwepf/documents/inaugural/inpim-note.pdf). Such variations can naturally be expected, given the diverse socioeconomic and institutional conditions, including the objectives of PIM, in different cases. Nevertheless, some premises encompassing PIM are general as outlined below (Peter, 2004; http://www.fao.org/AG/aGL/aglw/waterinstitutions/default.stm): ¾Traditionally, irrigation sector has largely been managed by centralized agencies at the federal/state/province level. ¾Most PIM related undertakings have been supported by the major international development banks and many NGOs, often in a time-bound project mode.

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¾Through PIM, the irrigators are expected to assume larger role in irrigation system management. ¾However, irrigation management responsibilities may be shared differently in different cases between and the agency and WUAs. For instance in countries such as France, China, Australia and United States, the regulatory responsibilities rest with the agency while infrastructure control, O&M, service charge collection, etc lie with user-represented companies/boards. In countries such as Thailand, Vietnam, Sri Lanka and Philippines, most of the irrigation management responsibilities lie with the agency but they need to be undertaken with input from the WUA representatives. In Andhra Pradesh (India), Turkey and Albania, these responsibilities are shared between the WUA and the agency with variations in specificities. ¾Similarly, organization types that assume greater irrigation management responsibilities through PIM differ. The most common type is WUA, but there are also the irrigation districts which are semi-municipal governments (USA, Mexico and Taiwan). In addition, there are mutual companies where water users own shares in the management company (USA, Mexico and Shandong province in China). WUAs only act as the governing authority and may arrange for contractors to provide water delivery and/or maintenance services (USA and increasingly in China). Self-financing “public” utilities also may take over management from government agencies (Morocco and China). These premises may significantly define the desirable institutional conditions for PIM on the ground, which may vary from one case to another. IN-DEPTH CASE STUDY OF NEPAL Nepal’s irrigation policy strongly encourages PIM/IMT in the AMIS and accordingly, the Department of Irrigation (DOI) from 1992 has been engaged in such activities mainly in two forms - joint management and full or partial management transfer to WUAs. The policy embraces both surface and groundwater types of irrigation systems. Irrigation systems irrigating up to 2,000 hectares in the plains and 500 hectares in the hills are to be fully management-transferred to WUAs. Larger schemes would go through a gradual transfer on a priority basis keeping in view the technical requirements of the systems and the institutional capability of the WUAs. Projects such as Second Sector Irrigation Project (SISP, Asian Development Bank supported), Nepal Irrigation Sector Project (NISP, World Bank supported), Irrigation Development Project (IDP, European Union supported), Community Shallow Tube Well Program (World Bank supported), Irrigation Management Transfer Project (IMTP, Asian Development Bank and USAID supported), System Management and Training Program (SMTP) of the DOI itself, and many others such as Marchawar Lift Irrigation Project, Bagmati Irrigation Project, Mahakali Irrigation Project and so on, all emphasize on local management of the irrigation system by the organized irrigators. By 1998, the DOI had formally transferred the management of three irrigation systems to the respective WUAs: West Gandak (9,000 ha), Panchkanya (406 ha), and Marchawar Lift (2,815 ha) Irrigation Systems. Piparpati and Parsauni minors (1,600 ha) that stand separate from the main West Gandak system, were management-transferred

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to the WUAs in early 1990s assisted by USAID-supported Irrigation Management Project (IMP). In Kankai Irrigation System, the management of some tertiary canals has been transferred. Similarly, the management of about sixty deep tube wells under Bhairahwa Lumbini Ground Water Project (BLGWP) has also been transferred. All these systems were previously being managed by the DOI and now respective WUAs manage them. Like most other cases elsewhere, the process of PIM/IMT in Nepal generally incorporates two components: (i) establishment of sustainable and effective WUAs and (ii) rehabilitation and improvement of irrigation and drainage facilities. Establishment of sustainable and effective WUAs also includes the objective strengthening them through various training and capacity building activities so that organized irrigators can successfully assume the irrigation management responsibilities of the physically improved system after the management-transfer. Rehabilitation in generally aimed at upgrading of physical condition of the system to a level that can be managed by the WUAs without technical difficulty and a minimal O&M cost is required after the transfer. GAINS ACCRUED Relevant research findings on performance and process of PIM/IMT in Nepal are summarized below (IWMI, 2000). The elaborations are primarily based on 3-year research activities undertaken in Nepal by International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in collaboration with various local partners. a. Irrigated Agricultural Performance: Agricultural productivity generally showed an increasing trend at PIM/IMT sites. In some schemes, gains in yields are exceptionally higher soon after management transfer. This is likely due to rehabilitation and improved management brought about by PIM/IMT. b. Resource Mobilization: A comparative performance assessment of resource mobilization practices suggested that the costs of O&M born by farmers are increasing in PIM sites while government allocations for O&M are at low levels following management-transfer. The collections of irrigation services in all PIM sites have improved but the amounts are less than the required regular O&M costs (Sijapati et al., 1998). In general, three kinds of resource mobilization practices are prevalent: x Labor mobilization for canal maintenance works; x Cash generation through collection of ISF and other sources; and x Mobilization of necessary tools and equipment needed for O&M activities. These resources are mobilized from among the beneficiaries of the system, i.e. internal to the system. The other source of the resources is from outside the system, or external resource mobilization. External resource mobilization might be a contribution from the government or other agencies including non-governmental organizations in the form of a monetary grant for a specific purpose, a regular government contribution for O&M, or a material contribution by the government such as supplying gabion crate boxes or cement for repairing the physical infrastructure.

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The resources that each beneficiary must contribute are usually in proportion to the farmer’s irrigated area and/or water allocation. The amount of cash or labor per unit of water, which is generally measured in terms of irrigated land, is determined by the general assembly of the irrigators at their annual meetings. Once the contribution rate is agreed upon and approved, the WUA enforces it strictly. c. Quality of Irrigation Service: Farmer surveys conducted in various irrigation systems indicated that a majority of the irrigators perceived that the adequacy of irrigation water improved with management transfer. Similarly, the timeliness of water delivery became better and water distribution was fairer. In addition, farmers of transferred units faced less difficulty in arranging for irrigation water and felt it easier to get assistance of the WUAs. c. Maintenance of Irrigation Infrastructure: Surveys indicated that the physical conditions of the irrigation facilities were better after management transfer. Partly this is due to the rehabilitation that preceded the management transfer. The positive perception was more pronounced in the transferred systems than in the non-transferred systems. The mechanisms of contracting the construction works to farmer representatives had helped WUAs to become more effective but only where the contractor-farmers were accountable to the WUA and full transparency was maintained. Also, WUA’s involvement in design aspects was useful in improving the satisfaction level of the irrigators. d. Farmers’ Institution Development: The WUAs formed in course of PIM/IMT are indeed alive, although they vary in effectiveness. Farmers have assumed several irrigation management tasks, either partly or fully. In many places elections are effective in changing leadership when needed. There is evidence that WUAs are learning and improving. However, the WUAs’ capacity to enforce their own regulations is questionable in some cases. Despite these encouraging findings, there remains inconclusive evidence whether the gains can be sustained afterwards (IWMI, 2000). In few cases, other support agencies (contributing actors) in the area were not integrated into the PIM efforts. In addition, some marginal stakeholders such as landless tenants and women were excluded from the institutional development process that took place in the irrigation systems as part of PIM/IMT. Among the key factors to success were found to be the timing of and the importance given to institutional development in the PIM process. Wherever institutional development preceded the rehabilitation, the functional status of WUAs was found reasonably well. Institutional conditions: opportunities and constraints, Nepal Moving on the evolutionary path of improving governance in the water sector including irrigation, Nepal has come a long way in decentralizing the related tasks and responsibilities (Neupane and Neupane, 1997; Sijapati and Prasad, 2005). Particularly, after the re-advent of multi-party representation in the government structure in 1990, the process of various stakeholders’ involvement in water sector governance (facilitated by institutional changes both in terms of rules and tools) has gained a faster pace. Currently, the organizational structure of water administration in Nepal has three levels:

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coordination and policy; implementation and operational; and regulatory. At the level of coordination and policy, the organizations in place are: a) National Development Council; b) National Planning Commission; c) National Water Resources Development Council; d) Water and Energy Commission; and e) Environment Protection Council. Similarly, at the ministry level, six relevant ministries and the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat is involved. At the implementation and operational level, seven government departments and semi government organizations like Nepal Electricity Authority and Nepal Water Supply Corporation are involved. The local government bodies such as District Development Committees (DDCs), Village Development Committees (VDCs) and Municipalities as well as NGOs like WUAs are also in place at the operational level. The prevalent policy and regulations have entrusted the governance of water at the local level to the WUAs formed by the representatives of the beneficiary. This institution of local organizations with a federation at the central level (e.g. National Federation of WUA, Nepal) is playing an instrumental role at the operational level. CONCLUSIONS Recalling back the previously discussed framework of actors PIM, it is evident that at national and regional government level, Nepal has promulgated various laws, policies and organizational structures that are amenable to pursue the policy of PIM/IMT in the AMIS. Similarly, favorable institutional conditions exist both at irrigation system level at which both irrigation agencies and WUAs are actively engaged in PIM/IMT-related activities. Farmers at the field level also are increasingly assuming larger roles in irrigation management tasks. Thus, the institutional linkages among the three governance levels of responsible actors are evident. Nevertheless, their linkages and relationships with the contributing actors with regard to productive and sustainable management of the irrigation systems remain largely obscure and unclear. The experiences so far indicate that the experience of transferring management to farmers has been a giant experiment in Nepal. Overall, the process has been positive, but more needs to be done to achieve the desired objectives in a way that assures sustainability of the gains accrued. An important element in PIM/IMT process is the farmers’ resource mobilization to contribute to recurrent O&M expenses. In the past several attempts have been made to introduce a system to collect water fees from the farmers but without much success or long lasting. Less than 2% of the total O&M expense in the AMIS comes from farmers’ contributions and 98% is born by the government. In PIM and IMT sites fee collection rates are better but far from the targeted amount (Sijapati et al., 1998). Therefore, whether gains in irrigated agricultural performance in PIM/IMT sites can be sustained is questionable. In the past, due to insufficient resource allocation for regular maintenance, irrigation systems fell into disrepair soon after rehabilitation and needed to be rehabilitated within a few years. Whether it will be possible to break the cycle of rehabilitation-decline-rehabilitation through sustainable PIM initiatives remains to be seen. With regard to effective functioning of the WUAs, one difficulty is to locate strong leadership in the community and create an enabling environment for its emergence by

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creating favorable linkages with contributing actors. This is particularly relevant to the cases in which various supports are extended in the name of supporting PIM/ IMT initiatives through short-lived donor-supported projects such as Irrigation Sector Project, Irrigation Development Project, Community Shallow Tube Well Program, etc. It is also recognized that the WUAs are not “formed” just for the purpose of meeting the condition for implementing rehabilitation without giving much consideration to their long term effectiveness and sustenance. RECOMMENDATIONS Refine Goals and Objectives of PIM/IMT: Broadly speaking PIM/IMT in Nepal foresees improvement in agricultural performance and reduction in government expenditure. Though the state has been adopting the policy of PIM/IMT for last several years, clear and measurable objectives are not yet laid out. Instead, transferring the irrigation system over to WUAs in itself is perceived as one of the objectives in contrast to defining the impacts and results that are expected from the management transfer. Defining clearer objectives of management transfer would give a clearer focus to the PIM/IMT effort. Ensure Sustainability of Gains Accrued through PIM/IMT: Positive impacts of PIM/IMT in Nepal include greater farmer participation in water supply and system management; increased contribution of farmers’ resources to operate and maintain the systems; higher agricultural production; and a more positive farmer perception towards water delivery services. And possibly this all is feasible at reduced recurrent O&M costs born by the state. However, the main threat to these gains is lack of sustainability. To ensure a durable positive impact the state needs to give much more attention towards issues such as: x Sufficient resource allocation for O&M (be it from farmer contributions or government subsidies). x Ways to locate good leadership in the community and create an enabling environment for its emergence. x Focus on institutional development of WUA before rehabilitation. Development milestones, such as WUA registration, certain percentage of service fee collection, etc. as preconditions before starting technical works. x Post transfer support: DOI should broaden its role of ‘irrigation system manager’ towards ‘support service provider’ – responsible to contributing actor. Such services include providing training to WUA in essential O&M tasks, facilitating access to other services (credit, agricultural extension), and ensuring appropriate legal framework for WUAs to function smoothly. x More (human and financial) resources allocated to ensure a functional monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system to monitor impacts of PIM/IMT. More generally, IMT should not be taken as PIM. It is more plausible to see IMT as one of many means for fostering PIM in the management continuum (Fig 2.) aimed at improving their performances.

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An important area which is sometimes overlooked in the design of IMT programs is the support system for WUAs and irrigated agriculture during and after management transfer. Clear roles of responsible and contributing actors at state/national, provincial are often obscure. Planners need to consult with water users about what support services are most needed by the farming community in order to assume the new responsibilities and tasks as well to overcome constraints and to explore new income opportunities. Support services during and after management transfer may include advisory services about institutional arrangements for the WUA, establishment of organizational and financial procedures and skills, credit facilities, legal advice, marketing and construction procedures. Training and extension will be an important tool to develop the knowledge and skills of farmers and enable WUA officials to undertake management responsibilities and ensure more profitable irrigated agriculture. REFERENCES 1- Agrawal, A and J.C. Ribot. 2000. “Analyzing Decentralization: A Framework with South Asian and West African Environmental Cases.” Working Paper. World Resource Institute. 2- Groenfeldt, D and Mark Svendsen (eds). 2000, Case studies in participatory irrigation management. WBI Learning Resources Series: TC812.C37. The World Bank Institute, Washington DC. 3- IWMI, 2000. Evaluation of Management Transfer Performance and Process, Nepal. Project Completion Report. (September 1996 – April 2000). May 2000. International Water Management Institute, P. O. Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 4- Malano, H. and P. van Hofwegen, 2006. Management of Irrigation and Drainage Systems: A Service Approach. IHE Monograph 3. UNESCO-IHE, Delft, Netherlands. 5- Neupane, I. and Neupane, B. 1997. Institutional Framework to Support Management Transfer. In workshop proceedings: Evaluation of Irrigation Management Transfer Process and Performance - Workshop held in Kathmandu, 5-6 October 1997. Neupane, I.; Prasad, K. C. (Eds.) 1997. Proceedings of workshop jointly organized by Research and Technology Development Branch (RTDB) and IIMI. 139p. + annexes. 6- Peter, Raymond J., 2004. Participatory Irrigation Management. INWEPF/SY/2004(06). Pp 13. http://www.maff.go.jp/inwepf/documents/iaugural/inpim-note.pdf. 7- Pradhan P. and U. Gautam, 2005. Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems and Governance Alternatives. Proceedings of the Third International Seminar, 9-10 Sep 2004, Kathmandu, Nepal. FMIS Promotion Trust, Nepal. 8- Prasad, K., Thoreson, Bryan P., and David J. Molden. June 2000. Tracing the History of the Development and Management of Two Irrigation Systems in the Terai of Nepal. In proceedings of the International Conference on “The Challenges Facing Irrigation and Drainage in the New Millennium”, June 20-24, 2000. Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.

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9- Prasad, Krishna C., Sijapati, S., Pradhan, P., Sharma, K. R. and Nicola Riddel, 1998. Irrigation Service Fees in Nepal. IIMI and Research and Technology development Branch/DoI, Kathmandu, Nepal. 10- Schultz, B; Thatte, C. D.; and V. K. Labhsetwar; 2005. Irrigation and Drainage: Main Contributors to Global Food Production. Irrigation and Drainage 54: 263– 278 (2005). Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/ird.170. 11- Sijapati, S., Prasad, K. C., and W. R. Laitos, 1998. Resource Mobilization for Participatory Irrigation Management. In proceedings of the INPIM Seminar held during 10-14 Nov 1998, IAAS, Chitwan, Nepal. 12- Sijapati, S. and Krishna C. Prasad, 2005. Improving governance in Nepal’s water resources sector through institutional changes. In proceedings of Third International Conference of USCID, March 29-April 2, 2005, San Diego, USA. Pp. 141-151. 13- Wilkins Wells, John and Krishna C. Prasad, September 1994. The Role of Rural Credit Institutions in Irrigation Management Transfer. In proceedings of the “International Conference on Irrigation Management Transfer”, September 20-24, 1994, Wuhan, P. R. China. 14- Vermillion, D. L. 1997. Impacts of irrigation management transfer: A review of the evidence. Research Report 11. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Irrigation Management Institute.

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The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

BUILDING CAPACITY FOR PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT - EXPERIENCES AND EMERGING ISSUES

Tom Franks1

ABSTRACT This paper builds on established concepts of capacity-building to look in turn at the key dimensions of the policy environment, institutional strengthening and individual development. The importance of a consistent and supportive policy environment for building capacity for participatory irrigation management (PIM) is emphasised. A range of approaches to institutional strengthening are put forward, and their focus on the strengthening and development of Water Users Associations for PIM is discussed. Individual development is normally undertaken through training, but there is a clear need for innovatory and non-formal approaches to training, particularly to support PIM. The paper then goes on to discuss water governance and social learning, as two key emerging issues of particular relevance to capacity-building for PIM. Water governance provides a framework for viewing PIM within the wider perspective of the water sector as a whole, while the current emphasis on social learning is particular relevant to concepts of participation and PIM, and provides an entry point for capacity-building through individual development. Recent experiences collated through ICID workshops and elsewhere are reviewed for insights into capacity-building for PIM. These include experiences from India, China, Peru, and transition economies such as Ukraine and Albania, with reflective case studies from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria and Tanzania. The paper draws on these experiences to develop some general conclusions in the light of the theory and concepts of capacity-building, in particular highlighting the need to take an integrated view of all the resources needed for capacity-building for effective PIM and the importance of better understanding of participatory processes and of learning at the local level.

1- Chair, ICID Working Group on Capacity-Building, Training and Education tel 44-1274-235272, [email protected]

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INTRODUCTION Capacity-building is now recognised as an essential component of policies, programs and projects for development. It is realised that scientific and technological advances must be accompanied by matching increases in the capacity of individuals and organisations to manage technology if overall improvements are to be made. This is particularly the case in participatory irrigation management (PIM) and other areas of agricultural water management, which bring together a complex mix of biophysical, economic and social factors, encompassing a range of actors. A range of definitions of capacity-building are available. A useful definition is given by UNDP, which has done a considerable amount of work in this area: ‘the process by which individuals, groups, organisations and societies increase their abilities to perform core functions, solve problems, achieve objectives and to understand and deal with their development needs in a broad context and a sustainable manner’ (UNDP 1998). This definition focuses on capacity-building as a process and highlights that it is needed not only to support individuals and organisations in their day-to-day operations (core functions) but also in taking a strategic view (developmental needs and objectives). It therefore encompasses a range of concerns, at the large and local scale and in the long and short term. There is an extensive literature by a variety of development institutions and international agencies on approaches to capacity-building which address these range of concerns (see for example (Fukuda-Parr, C et al. 2002). A consensus emerges from this body of work on a basic theoretical concept for capacity-building. This concept has been taken up by ICID in the recent work carried out through the Working Group on Capacity-Building, Training and Education (http://www.wg-cbte.icidonline.org/home.html) and forms the framework for this paper in consideration of capacity-building needs for PIM. The concept identifies capacitybuilding needs at three levels, at the level of policy, at the level of the organisation or institution, and at the level of the individual. This paper describes the context for PIM and elaborates the conceptual framework within which to consider capacity-building for PIM. It then addresses in more detail certain key issues which have arisen recently in this field, before going on to review the experiences in capacity-building brought together within ICID and other fora over the past few years. THE CONTEXT FOR PIM Over the past two decades dissatisfaction with public sector management of irrigation has grown as a result of constraints on government effectiveness and financing and of ideas of ‘rolling back’ the role of the state from that of service provider to that of regulator. This has particular resonance in the irrigation sector, in which beneficiaries are often relatively well off compared to others in the agricultural sector. This suggests that private sector structures may be more appropriate than traditional public organisations in providing services to irrigation farmers, in turn leading to the idea of transferring responsibility for management to beneficiaries through some form of irrigation management transfer (IMT).

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International Seminar on PIM

IMT requires that there are institutions ready and capable of taking over some of the management responsibilities. Such may indeed be the situation in richer countries with a long history of private sector development, in which private sector institutions may have the capability and experience to take on management roles and where formal legal relationships are well understood and developed. In many other poorer countries, including many of those with extensive surface irrigation systems, institutional structures are not developed in this way, there are few institutions with the management expertise to take up the new roles under IMT, and formal legal relationships are illdefined and difficult to exercise. In such situations it is necessary to build on existing institutional structures and find innovative ways of bringing farmers together to assume management responsibilities. Almost inevitably this requires some form of PIM, implying ‘participation’ between farmers who, in other respects, may not necessarily be accustomed to participation with one another, or who would prefer for other reasons to participate in different structures and groups from those reflecting the hydraulic system. Most often participation is expected to take place through some form of Water User Association (WUA) which takes over some of the managerial roles and responsibilities of the public irrigation agency. Inevitably, therefore, much of the focus of capacitybuilding for PIM lies in developing or strengthening WUAs and the participatory processes which underlie them. THE POLICY ENVIRONMENT It has long been recognised that a supportive policy environment is essential if efforts to increase capacity at the local level are to be successful. In the case of PIM, the key policy measures have been identified above, a policy of transfer of management responsibility for irrigation (IMT) away from the public sector to an appropriate private or non-governmental organisation, and, where the private sector is not yet in a position to take the responsibility, a policy of participation in irrigation management (PIM) through a WUA. These two form the essential components of a capacity-building strategy for the sector. However there is also a clear need in capacity-building to ensure that other subsidiary policies are in place to support overall policy aims and directions. For example, there are often regulations concerning the establishment of participatory organisations which involve heavy transaction costs (visits to central ministries and departments, payment of significant fees) and which may result in constraints and hindrances to their effective functioning. Another aspect of supporting policy which must be considered is the relationship between hydraulic organisations such as WUAs and the structures of local government, particularly in contexts where hydraulic systems form the dominant element of the local landscape. In such situations the overall policy environment may actually be hostile to the establishment of powerful and effective grass-roots irrigation organisations because of their significant political importance at this level, even if the avowed policy aim in the agricultural sector is management transfer to participatory management organisations (Theesfeld 2004).

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International Seminar on PIM

INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING Institutional strengthening forms the next level of capacity-building. The concept of institutions needs some definition here, since it has two distinct but related meanings. Institutions refer, firstly, to the rules and norms which govern the way people live and interact with one another. Thus reference is made to the institutions of the law, such as property rights, and the institutions of personal relationships, such as those set by marriage or kinship. Such institutions result from a range of formal and sociallyconstructed forces in society (politics, legislation, culture, tradition, wealth and so on). They change and develop over a long periods and, whilst their importance in capacitybuilding is widely acknowledged, it is also recognised that it is difficult to make significant changes over the short-term of development interventions. The second meaning of institutions is in relation to organisations, deliberately or informally constructed groupings which may range from bureaucratic structures with established constitutions and defined roles to loosely-aligned groups of individuals and households. Institutions in this sense refer to the Law Courts (the arrangement of judges and other legal officers, together with their buildings and operational systems) or the grouping of individuals within family household or kinship structures. Much of the challenge of capacity-building lies at the institutional level. Part of the challenge arises from the dual nature of ‘institutions’. That element of institutions relating to rules and norms arises over the long-term as a result of interactions between individuals in close groups, in the wider environment of organisations and in the context of society as a whole. Rules and norms are dynamic and change over time, but they change as a result of the interaction of a range of different trends, forces and pressures, and they are seldom susceptible to change as a result of a single development intervention or even a programme. For example, attitudes towards co-operation and participation will be determined by a range of factors in the local context and in society as a whole, and they will not change significantly over the longterm solely as a result of a project designed to foster participation. The other aspect of institutions, the groupings and organisations which provide roles for the individuals within them, are more amenable to purposive change through projects and other interventions. Here again, however, a note of caution must be sounded as organisations consist of both structure and culture. The structure (the relationship of roles) is possible to define, develop and modify. The culture (the way of doing things in the organisation) bears many resemblances to the rules and norms of institutions. It develops slowly over time and can be changed only incrementally and in a loosely-defined way. With this note of warning, there are nevertheless some approaches which can be used as a basis for approaches to institutional strengthening within capacity-building. For example Ostrom has been working on issues of self-governing institutions for irrigation over the past 20 years. Whilst her interest lies in governing the resource commons in general, her focus on irrigation as a case study makes her work particularly relevant for PIM. Initially postulated as a set of design principles (Ostrom 1991), more recently the ideas have been recast as a set of questions to be asked when designing or strengthening institutions for resource management (Ostrom 2005). With specific reference to PIM at the local level, they can be translated as: x How can the boundaries of the system and the people using it be defined, so as to make clear who is authorised to benefit?

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International Seminar on PIM

x How can the relationship between benefits received and costs contributed be defined? x How can the participation of those involved in making key decisions be supported and encouraged? x Who is monitoring the operation of the system, and do they have appropriate incentives for this task? x What system of sanctions is in place for infringement of rules and are these appropriate and appropriately graded? x What mechanisms exist to solve conflicts over water use? There has been considerable discussion and comment on these design questions, on a number of counts. For example, it is suggested that they do not sufficiently take into account the variability and dynamism of the contexts in which they are applied, nor the socially-constructed understandings that shape peoples’ collective action (Cleaver and Franks 2005). For example, people have may have a wide range of reasons for interacting with one another, such as kinship, so that their relationships are not wholly mediated by the fact that they are members of the same WUA. Thus the simplicity of the concepts underlying the design questions may mask a range of complex interrelationships which will have an important bearing on the way that institutions for PIM develop. Nevertheless the Ostrom questions provide a useful entry point into thinking about the necessary conditions for long-lasting institutions for PIM. A second entry point to institutional strengthening arises from approaches commonly applied to organisations across the spectrum of management concerns. These have been codified for development organisations into a number of questions (DFID 2003): x Is there a strategic plan for the organisation? How does the strategy relate to the organisation’s mandate and responsibilities? x What is the formal structure of the organisation? How is decision-making exercised and what are the mechanisms for accountability? x What is the organisation’s culture? How are its rules and norms established? x What inputs and resources are available to the organisation? What systems and processes are in place to define the organisational system? What outputs and performance result from this? Questions arising both from the Ostrom principles and from management approaches more generally put great emphasis on the formal structures of institutions, and highlight concepts such as transparency and accountability. They provide much less guidance in dealing with the informal and unstructured aspects of institutions, the way people do things in an organisation, and how these rules and norms have developed. In additional a whole range of issues and questions are raised by the nature of participation, which are reflected by the wealth of development literature about its problems and pitfalls. These arise from inter-related strands of debate about the various types of participation. So, for example Khanya defines participatory relationships ranging from self-mobilisation at one extreme (in which people participate by taking initiatives independently of external

International Seminar on PIM

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institutions for resources and technical advice they need, but retain control over how resources are used) to manipulative participation at the other extreme (in which participation is simply pretence, with representation on official boards by people who are not elected and who have no power) (Khanya 2002). Issues of power and power relationships underlay key discussions about participation, leading us to ideas about the ‘tyranny’ of participation and about modes, methods and outcomes of participation within a single group or organisation. This in turn raises questions concerning the position of individuals within participatory groups such as WUAs. Who participates and why? What are the outcomes for different people within the group or organisation? How can we strengthen participatory organisations such as WUAs whilst at the same time allowing for the important differences that underlay the contribution and commitment of people within the association. In considering capacity-building for PIM, it must be recognised that there is no universal theory underlying institutional strengthening. It is therefore inevitable that any approach to institution building must work not from theories but from a range of questions or issues which need to be addressed. The answers to these questions will vary from location to location, and indeed will change over time. Moreover the process of answering these questions must emerge through a participatory process, if longlasting participative institutions are to result. This process needs to pass through the stages of: x diagnosis (assessing the present situation) x design (proposing changes and improvements for the future) x implementation (initiating and establishing the proposed changes) x evaluation (assessing modifications).

outcomes

and

identifying

the

need

for

further

If truly effective participatory structures are to emerge, there will be need for further consultation and participation at every stage of this process. Overall, therefore, it may become very lengthy, and required sustained effort and support over considerable time. The need for such sustained intervention is constantly stressed in the development literature (Toner and Franks 2006): frequently it requires considerably more time than that for the development or upgrading of the accompanying physical systems. INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT Individual development forms the third level of capacity-building. The capabilities of individuals are essential to the effective operation of systems and organisations and there has therefore been considerable emphasis in the past on developing capabilities through programmes of training and extension. There have been significant successes in training programmes, both for the personal development of individuals and also in making them more effective in their organisational roles. However it is also widely acknowledged that training initiatives are often a default option for capacity-building programmes, since they are relatively easy to deliver and evaluate. Increases in individual capabilities can be demonstrated to be value for money, without having to address the more difficult question of whether they in turn contribute to an overall

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International Seminar on PIM

increase of capacity at the institutional level. Training and extension to support PIM is vitally important and the approaches to successful training are now well understood. A significant feature of modern approaches to individual development is the increasing emphasis being put on non-formal methods and approaches. Whereas in the past the most common option was to work through a programme of formal classroom-based training, it is now recognised that other methods may be more appropriate and effective. This include ideas such as twinning, where individuals exchange visits with others in similar organisations to see how problems can be addressed in different ways, and networking, where individuals share experiences with groups of others to address common problems. Advances in IT have made possible forms of twinning and networking which would have been impossible a few years ago because of the constraints of communication and distance. EMERGING ISSUES Whilst ideas of capacity-building have been with us for some considerable time, the water sector has seen emerging in recent times some new and innovative concepts which can enrich and broaden the range of available approaches. This paper will focus on two of these in particular, concepts of water governance and ideas of social learning. Water governance is gaining increasing attention in the international consensus on water policy. Defined as “the range of political, social, economic and administrative systems that are in place to develop and manage water resources, and the delivery of water services, at different levels of society” (Rogers and Hall 2003), good water governance implies finding appropriate structures for water management which bring into play the different sectors and groups in society, such as government, the public sector, the private sector, together with citizens’ groups and NGOs which will come together through some form of participation. It thus has particular resonance with the ideas of PIM, since it suggests the need to look for structures and processes which work alongside more traditional bureaucratic systems. Recent proposals for a framework for water governance (figure 1) link available resources to mechanisms for access to water, leading in turn to outcomes for people and the ecosystem (Franks and Cleaver 2007). This framework suggests a complementary perspective from which to view capacitybuilding needs, by stressing the importance of understanding how people draw on a diverse range of resources (institutional, social, rights, economic, human, technological and natural) to support their access to water

International Seminar on PIM

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Actors and agents local people, public officials, political leaders, WUAs, traders, technologists and other stakeholders

Resources for water governance

Specific mechanisms of access

Outcomes For people

Non-material

x Local governments

Institutional resources

x WUAs

Social structures

x Social groups

Rights and entitlements

x Land and water rights

Human capabilities

Material

x Communal labour for canal maintenance

Economic resources

x Payments for salaries and operating costs

Technology

x Rotations and schedules

Natural environment

x Water control structures

Access to basic supplies Support for livelihoods (irrigation, fishing, livestock, forestry) Structures of social cohesion and exclusion Political voice and representation by different groups For water systems Pattern of flows and levels in the system and downstream

Processes of management and practice Figure 1. A Framework for Water Governance

A further development of relevance to capacity-building for PIM has been the recent focus on ideas of social learning. Social learning refers to individual learning based on observation of others and their social interactions within a group and has found wide applicability in a range of social and technical contexts. It has only recently come to be applied to water management, but finds particular resonance when applied to ideas of PIM. Specifically it emphasises collaborative and participative learning by individuals within the institutions responsible for PIM, rather than top-down, hierarchical learning which will not be fully owned by the farmer and farmer organisations at the local level. Social learning was the topic for a special session at the Fourth World Water Forum (www.wg-cbte.icidonline.org/ft4_20_report.pdf). In its findings this session emphasised the need for broad partnerships among stakeholders to reach out and involve as many

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people as possible in the capacity development process, and for mechanisms to allow these stakeholders to work together and learn from each other. EXPERIENCES TO DATE ICID’s Working Group on Capacity-Building, Training and Education has been researching issues of capacity-building over a considerable period. Most recently this has been through a series of workshops, mainly co-sponsored and funded through IPTRID, which have studied the whole cycle of capacity-building. Thus, starting in 2003, there was an opening event which set out the basic concepts of capacity-building, as presented in the preceding sections, and brought together an initial series of case studies (ICID and FAO 2004). This was followed in 2004 by a workshop in Moscow which focussed on the approaches and methods of capacity needs assessment, and then in 2005 by the Beijing workshop which highlighted the design and implementation of capacity development strategies. The final workshop in the series, in Kuala Lumpur in 2006, considered approaches to monitoring and evaluation of capacity-building. This brought together some very interesting case studies but, not surprisingly, it was the area where there was least experience. This reflects the fact that M&E is more talked about than practised (very few sponsors or financing institutions are actually willing to put time and resources into M&E, in spite of the theoretical importance it is given), and also by the fact that it is intrinsically very difficult to monitor and evaluate the outcomes of capacity building initiatives, except in relation to the specific output of training programmes (numbers of people trained, in which topics). The workshops brought together experiences over the whole spectrum of capacitybuilding. These included capacity-building for PIM, and a brief reference is made here to the key papers and presentations relevant to this field. In the main these experiences related to capacity building for Water User Associations (WUAs), with the generally unspoken assumption that WUAs are an essential component of IMT and PIM, since it is actually WUAs which will need to take up the functions of management transferred from the public sector. An important set of experiences arises from the Andhra Pradesh Farmer Management of Irrigation Systems (APFMIS) legislation of 1997 (Peter 2003). This was a very large scale undertaking to transfer responsibility for management in the state, involving the establishment of over 10,000 WUAs. Peter’s main emphasis is on the creation of farmer networks to support the overall process of capacity building but importance was also given to exchange visits and study tours, and to an effective communication strategy using information technology and other media. Throughout the process there was an emphasis on empowering WUAs and providing continued support after their establishment. Training formed an important part of the process but more significant inputs came through other formal and informal means of institutional strengthening and individual development. Complementary experience of capacity building in the Andhra Pradesh Farmer Managed Groundwater Systems project (APFAMGS) is described by Rao et al (Rao, Das et al. 2006). Capacity building for this large-scale project was carried out using a variety of methods comprising cultural shows, training, workshops and visits. A key component of the process in this case was farmer field schools, relying extensively on non-formal education methodology. (The need for developing nonformal education methodologies is also explored in the paper by Botha on South

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International Seminar on PIM

African experience (Botha 2005), though Botha’s paper does not directly deal with PIM). Fuqiang and Heping explored issues of large-scale capacity-building for WUAs in their review of experiences of China (Fuqiang and Heping 2006). This review emphasises the importance of an appropriate policy environment. They note in particular that the level of water fees was set so low that most of the fees collected went towards buying bulk water from the irrigation district agency, thus leaving little for supporting the day-to-day activities and operation of the WUAs. They also note that developing participatory systems is difficult in contexts where there was a highly centralised system of control, resulting in very little autonomy for the newly-formed WUAs and a corresponding lack of performance incentive for the managers (a point emphasised in the Ostrom design questions). Other regions of the world which have also experienced transitions from a centrallyplanned economy have met similar difficulties in building authentic capacity for PIM. Van Scheltinga and Zovtonog described the approach on the Watermuk project in Ukraine, involving the setting up of WUAs in a situation where previously there had been strong centralised control (VanScheltinga and Zovtonog 2004). Here, too, use was made of the concept of study tours and exchange visits, to complement formal training and to introduce the officials and participants to contexts in which such organisation can function effectively. Dedja provides an interesting review of the experience in Albania, including the transition from village-based to hydraulic-based WUAs (Dedja 2003), to reflect a more rational boundary for co-operation and participation. Dedja emphasised the importance of technical assistance and training particularly in financial management, to ensure the financial sustainability of the associations. This experience is mirrored in other sectors and in other regions around the world. Ledesma (Ledesma 2003) described a programme to change long-established institutional arrangements for irrigation management in Peru. An international NGO was invited in to lead a comprehensive programme of institutional change, mainly through a programme of participatory training focussing on changes in knowledge, skills and attitudes, both for irrigation agency officials and for some 64 user boards. The training and capacity-building was directed towards encouraging the user boards to take on full responsibility for local water management, including the collection of fees from farmers and to encourage private funding for irrigation. ICID engaged with the issues of social learning, with the paper by Mati presented at the Beijing Workshop. Whilst emphasising the importance of approaches such as the establishment of farmer networks and exchange visits, Mati and her colleagues put stress on the value of identifying farmer innovators who can be supported as champions of change at the local level (Mati 2005). Ideas of water governance and participation lead to a complementary set of considerations for institutional strengthening of PIM. In a recent survey practitioners were invited to develop reflective case studies from their field experience, in which they reflected on the mechanisms which people use to support or enhance their access to water, many of which are in context which imply some form of participatory management. Thus Hill working in Bihar notes the need for sustained support for newly-formed WUAs and also the crucial importance of financial sustainability and some form of financial saving or contribution to pay operation costs (Hill 2006). The

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International Seminar on PIM

need of financial sustainability has been noted by many other commentators, both within the irrigation sector (for example in Bangladesh by Smith et al (Smith 2005)and outside it, in Uchira, Tanzania by Toner (2006) and in NWFP, Pakistan by Tod (2004). Lessons from Africa likewise confirm the potential advantages but also some of the pitfalls of assuming that PIM will operate effectively. In SW Tanzania, for example, the costs of collecting water rates from a number of widely-distributed small farmer organisations far outweighed the revenue collected, thus leaving the Water Office worse off than if no fees had been collected (Lankford 2005). In Nigeria Bdliya notes the importance of a wide-ranging stakeholder analysis to correctly identify the locus of power and influence surrounding irrigation systems (Bdliya 2006). In that particular case, traditional (non-bureaucratic) structures are far more important than government agencies and bureaucracies because they lie closer to the system and because they form part of the daily fabric of peoples’ lives, rather than being connected with only one part of it, the allocation and use of water. In such a context, any form of PIM must work in harmony with existing institutional structures if it is to be successful. CONCLUSION This paper analysed the need for capacity building for PIM at the level of the policy environment, institutional strengthening and individual development. It discussed the importance and relevance of the emerging concepts of water governance and social learning to capacity-building for PIM. Finally it reviewed the experience of ICID and others in the field. From the field experiences a consensus seems to emerge on the need for: x understanding existing institutional and social structures x sustaining support for institutional strengthening x building the financial sustainability of local institutions x identifying local champions for change In general, institutional strengthening provides the most significant issues in capacitybuilding, and there is no blueprint for success. The article outlined approaches to institutional strengthening which build on a set of design questions. The appropriate responses to these questions will vary from location to location. The emerging concepts of water governance and social learning suggest further key challenges for capacity-building. These include the need to: x take a broad and holistic view of institutional strengthening, viewing it not just as establishing the form and structure of appropriate organisations but rather as working across the range of resources for water governance. x understand better how participation works in different situations, and how it can be supported by individual learning in a social context. Whilst much has already been learnt from field experiences, there will always be a need for further learning as the needs for capacity-building change in the constantly evolving context of PIM.

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International Seminar on PIM

REFERENCES 1. Bdliya, H. (2006). Institutional Failures in the Management of Critical Water Resources in the Komadugu-Yobe Basin. Workshop Proceedings, Water Governance - New Perspectives and Directions, Bradford Centre for International Development (http://splash.bradford.ac.uk/files/PDF%20Hassan%20Bdliya%20seminar%205.p df). 2. Botha, M. (2005). Design and Implementation of capacity development Strategies: A South African case Study. Workshop Proceedings on Design and Implementation of Capacity Development Strategies IPTRID, Rome. 3. Cleaver, F. D. and T. R. Franks (2005). How Institutions Elude Design: River Basin Management and Sustainable Livelihoods. BCID research paper 12, www.bradford.ac.uk/acad/bcid/research/papers/ResearchPaper12CleaverFranks.p df. 4. Dedja, Y. (2003). Capacity-Building for Water User Associations in Albania. FAO Water Report no. 26. 5. DFID (2003). Promoting Institutional and Organisational Development, Department for International Development, London. 6. Franks, T. R. and F. D. Cleaver (2007). Water Governance and Poverty: A Framework for Analysis. Progress in Development Studies in press. 7. Fukuda-Parr, s., L. C, et al. (2002). Capacity for Development: New Solutions to Old Problems. , Earthscan/UNDP. 8. Fuqiang, T. and H. Heping (2006). A General Review of the Capacity Development for Agricultural Water management in China. Workshop Proceedings on Design and Implementation of Capacity Development Strategies IPTRID, Rome. 9. Hill, J. (2006). The Poverty of Water Governance: The Case of a Hamlet in Jahrkand. Workshop Proceedings, Water Governance - New Perspectives and Directions Bradford Centre for International Development (http://splash.bradford.ac.uk/files/PDF%20Joe%20Hill%20seminar%205.pdf). 10. ICID and FAO (2004). Capacity Development in Irrigation and Drainage: Issues, Challenges and the Way Ahead, FAO Water Report no. 26. 11. Khanya (2002). Guidelines for Community Participation in Loncal Governance in South Africa. Khanya-AICDD www.khanya-aicdd.co.za. 12. Lankford, B. (2005). Rural infrastructure to contribute to African agricultural development: the case for irrigation. Report for the Commission for Africa, ODG, University of East Anglia. 13. Ledesma, A. (2003). Institutional Strengthening of the User Organisations in the Peruvian Coatsal valleys. FAO Water Report no. 26.

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14. Mati, B. M. (2005). Capacity-Development Strategies: Lessons from Promoting Farmer Innovation (P.F.I) in East Africa. Workshop Proceedings on Design and Implementation of Capacity Development Strategies IPTRID, Rome. 15. Ostrom, E. (1991). Governing the Commons: the Evolution of Institutions for Effective Action., Cambridge University Press. 16. Ostrom, E. (2005). Understanding Institutional Diversity, Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford. 17. Peter, J. R. (2003). Capacity-Building for Participatory Irrigation Management: The Case for Andhra Pradesh. FAO Water Report no. 26. 18. Rao, S. P., G. Das, et al. (2006). Monitoring and Evaluation of Capacity Development Programme as Part of APFAMGS Project, India. Workshop on Monitoring and Evaluation of Capacity Development Strategies ICID/IPTRID, Kuala Lumpur. 19. Rogers, P. and A. Hall (2003). Effective Water Governance. TEC Background Papers no. 7, Global Water Partnership. 20. Smith, L. (2005). Practitioner Reflective Case Study no. 21. Water Governance and Poverty Project http://splash.bradford.ac.uk/files/PDF%20Practitioner%20Input%20Form%2021. pdf. 21. Theesfeld, I. (2004). Constraints on collective action in a transitional economy: the case of Bulgaria's irrigation sector. World Development 32(2): 251-271. 22. Tod I. (2005). Practitioner Reflective Case Study no. 12. Water Governance and Poverty Project http://splash.bradford.ac.uk/files/PDF%20Practitioner%20Input%20Form%2012. pdf 23. Toner, A. L. (2006). Democratising Access of Localising Inequality: The Evolution of a Community-managed Water Supply in Uchira. Workshop Proceedings, Water Governance - New Perspectives and Directions Bradford Centre for International Development (http://splash.bradford.ac.uk/files/PDF%20Anna%20Toner%20seminar%205.pdf) 24. Toner, A. L. and T. R. Franks (2006). Putting Livelihoods Thinking into Practice: Implications for Development Management. Public Administration and Development 26: 81-92. 25. UNDP (1998). Capacity Assessment and Development in a Systems and Strategic Management Context., United Nations Development Programme, New York. 26. VanScheltinga, C. T. and O. Zovtonog (2004). Changes in Irrigation Water Management: the Need for Capacity Development in Ukraine. Workshop Proceedings on Capacity Development in Agricultural Water Management IPTRID, Rome.

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International Seminar on PIM

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

PARTICIPATORY TRAINING PROGRAMME IN CANAL IRRIGATION IN ANDHRA PRADESH, SOUTH INDIA

R. Doraiswamy1

ABSTRACT This paper deals on the field activity of participatory training programme (PTP)/capacity building of various stakeholders undertaken by JalaSpandana in large canal irrigation projects namely Kurnool Cuddapah Canal, Rajolibanda Diversion Scheme and Priyadharshini Jurala Project in Andhra Pradesh (AP). The objectives are to strengthen PIM, sustain WUAs, enhance water use efficiency and livelihoods, etc. JalaSpandana designed Participatory Training Programme (PTP), which build the confidence of farmers and other stake holders and produced good results in taking over the responsibility of collecting water tax/rates/charges, exploring alternates for efficient main system management, sustainable WUAs, tail end deprivation, etc. The design adopted approach to involve users and other stakeholders in the process of preparation, implementation and impact assessment of training modules. Further, the trainings were carried out in an integrated approach to Integrated Water Resources Management with unlimited time bound programmes that is easy to encompass all the complexities of the irrigation system, which again could be registered by the participants. In AP, PTP is supported by Irrigation and Command Area Development, Government of Andhra Pradesh. PTP is extended to irrigation projects that are undergoing modernisation programme with huge expenditure. Establishing model farms and WUAs are fetching good results in developing participatory field channel and other canal structures design. The representatives who were initially discussing only on physical works started exploring alternatives for efficient water management. Establishment of dummy/informal project level committees is yet another technique adopted in PTP.

1- Mr. R. Doraiswamy is working as water resource specialist is with JalaSpandana – South India Farmers Organisation for Water Management, Bangalore, India. JalaSpandana is a non-governmental organisation formed by the representatives of water users associations in South India. Contact: [email protected], [email protected], www.jalaspandana.org, Phone: 91-80-22286161, 09448268401, Address: 72, 7th Cross, Chikkathayappa Street, Vasanthnagar, Bangalore 560052, India. Mr. R. Doraiswamy is thankful to I & CAD, GOAP and to Mr. S.P. Tucker, Principal Secretary, I & CAD, GOAP.

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International Seminar on PIM

1. INTRODUCTION Worldwide the need for farmers to participate in the management and distribution of water for irrigation purposes is recognised. As the water for irrigation purposes is getting scarcer with the passage of time and increase in population the need for optimal utilisation of the resources is felt throughout the world. One of the methods identified is to make the irrigator responsible for his act through an institutional structure in which farmers participate in governance, management and finance of irrigation. Andhra Pradesh is one of the pioneer to adopt PIM in India (Peter 2001). The experiences in investment in irrigation infrastructure in India, including Andhra Pradesh reveals that enormous amount is spent on Hardware component of Irrigation system like construction of dams, canal network, command area development including land leveling and crop loans. The software component of Irrigation system like capacity building exercise, which is essential for the utilization of hardware component of irrigation systems have not been given adequate attention. Thus leading to under utilization of water compared to desired results as envisaged in the design characteristics of the irrigation system (Wade 1982). The Capacity building exercise and strengthening of farmers’ involvement in water management in irrigation system is necessary to increase the momentum of water sector reform. Farmers are generally excluded from the process of preparing training contents, and are mainly conceived as passive listeners or receivers only and implementers of skills and expertise imparted during the training programmes designed by others. It is posited that an explicitly multi-stakeholder training programme process and balanced representation of the different interest groups in that, including farmers, will enhance the quality, acceptability and pace of irrigation system improvement (Narwani 2005). The first section of the paper deals with the Introduction and area profile, section 2 deals with Participatory Training Programme concept including Micro Plan Preparation, Participatory Modernisation Programme and Water Users Research Facility. The third section deals with the Methodology of PTP in which Training Need Assessment, Training Modules and Impact Assessment is discussed. Fourth section deals with Lessons learnt, followed by fifth section which lists References1. Irrigation and CAD, GOAP supported JalaSpandana to carry out capacity building exercise in three major irrigation projects namely Rajolibanda Diversion Scheme (RDS), Priyadharshini Jurala Project (PJP) and Kurnool Cuddapah Canal (KCC)2 in Krishna Basin in Andhra Pradesh3. The PTP was carried out from January 2005 to mid 2006.

1- The detailed report of PTP in RDS, PJP and KCC can be obtained from writing to [email protected]. in or visit www.jalaspandana.org. 2- Rajolibanda Diversion Scheme is fifty year old project, PJP is new project in which the notification and area delineation is yet to be taken up across the command area and KCC is about 130 year old project, which is undergoing modernisation programme with the financial loan from Japanese Bank of International Cooperation (JBIC). 3- Irrigation and CAD, GOAP empanelled NGOs and assigned the task of carrying out PTP in other irrigation projects in Andhra Pradesh (I&CAD forth coming publication on Sustainable Water Resource Development in AP).

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1.1. AREA PROFILE OF THREE PROJECTS IN ANDHRA PRADESH

Table 1. shows JalaSpandana engagement in PTP in AP Name of NGO

JalaSpandana

Irrigation Project

No. of WUA

No. of DCs

WUA area (ha)

Villages

Rajolibanda Diversion Scheme

34

6

35425.00

79

Priyadharshini Jurala Project

5

-

4500.00 ha*

27

Kurnool Cuddapah Canal**

86

14

1,60,000 ha

346

* In addition, PJP provides water for 12,145 ha to the RDS tail end command area. ** JalaSpandana with other two NGOs namely APARD and WCUSS carried out PTP in KCC.

2. CONCEPT PTP The experiences during the field work in irrigation systems reveals that there are number of problems inbuilt in the training programmes imparted in the capital and district centers. These trainings have limited time bound programmes, which are never easy to encompass all the complexities of the irrigation system, which again can be registered by the participants in short duration. The need of the hour is to see the training programmes as continuous process of capacity building. Most irrigation systems have huge command area and to reach all these users needs a thorough investigation while preparing the training module. It is not enough to merely create users institution to turn and take over the responsibility of water management in irrigation systems, which is complex and dynamic features in terms of social, economic, technical and political fronts. The participation of users in any institutional activities do not make any meaning if it confines to members turning out to vote during elections only (Inbanathan, Bhagyalakshmi and Doraiswamy 1997). The task of government and non-government agencies in capacity building exercise is ever increasing phenomenon particularly as we move towards building users institutions. Many times it is felt that the task of capacity building is over with the formation of users’ institution at various levels, but the true fact is that the responsibility to increase the capacity among users’ increases as we move forward. Thus we need to explore the viable institutional mechanism to install training centers in each of these projects on a permanent basis. The attempt will also focus on ‘supply driven and self driven’ training module. The concept Participatory Training Programme (PTP) is evolved to enrich farmers with all the management techniques by involving them in all aspects of the programme. The PTP gives opportunity for the users to understand the problems and its implications in the irrigation project and also enables them to realize the mistakes committed by some farmers. The PTP is more encouraging to clarify apprehensions on different practices and evolve strategies to manage the system efficiently. One of the major attention is to simplify the rules, regulations and other day to day business of WUAs, so that the farmers can manage it like any of their own business. The programme aims to develop

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number of farmers field school, which in turn carry out the training programme and reach many farmers in the region (Doraiswamy and Mollinga 2004). The perceptions of water users and experts on water policies, Irrigation Act, Rules and Regulations help modify and design comprehensive policy and move towards contractual agreement (Mollinga 2004). This training programme undertakes a new type of activities in three parts in the process of developing effective training materials and organizing training programmes for dissemination for efficient water management in irrigation systems in Andhra Pradesh, South India, which has so far been characterized by government-initiated training programmes and managed by few professionals. The training the general advocacy of participatory approaches to its logical conclusion, by initiating multi-stake holders emphasising farmers’ involvement in preparing and dissemination of the training module in order to increase and strengthen their role in water sector training programme formulation and implementation. 2.1. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF PTP

The aims and objectives of the training programme are to carry out training needs assessment in irrigation project area, develop participatory approach in training needs assessment, assess the capabilities of users in water management at various levels, carry out capacity building exercise, increase the productivity per unit of water, food and employment security, reduce brewing water tensions in the region, assess the feasibility of application of computers and simputers and explore the possibilities of viable and feasibility of sustainable training centers in project area 3. METHODOLOGY OF PTP The training programme consists of three parts namely Training need assessment, Training and Impact assessment, which was carried out in participatory approach with participatory monitoring and evaluation mechanism, through involving different stake holders like farmers, department officials, elected representatives in the region at all levels, NGOs and other institutions. STEP BY STEP APPROACH PRE-TRAINING

1. Benchmarking of WUAs 2. Action research on micro and main system/project performance 3. Unstructured meetings with all WUAs at project level 4. Participatory identification and establishment of centre and sub centers for training 5. Social, Physical and Natural capital documentation 6. Involvement of officials of I & CAD and others right from the beginning

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7. Formation of project level informal committees of WUAs 8. Participatory action plan 9. Entry point activity 10. Participatory identification and establishment of model distributary, farm and WUA 11. Participatory training module preparation in an integrated approach on IWRM 12. Preparation of concept note and subsequent action plan for various issues 13. Facilitating the preparation of video documentation on water issues

3.1. TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT

The training need assessment, carried out in participatory action research approach adopting extensive and intensive facilitating and enabling conditions to elicit information required for the training module reveals ground realities and ways to overcome such predicaments (Naik et al 2002). The following are some of the findings that emerged during the training need assessment. x Water users, department officials and other stake holders in the command area have great potential to make PIM success x Extension services related to water conservation technology and agriculture is poor. x Water and crop productivity is below the expected level, for instance, paddy average yield in the region is about 30 bags per acre, which could be increased up to 50 bags by adopting different technologies. x Representatives of WUAs, and department officials do not have holistic picture of project performance since its inception till date. x Modernisation programme lay emphasis on physical works. x WUAs are not involved in modernisation programme, as a result tampering of structures of canal system continues. x WUAs not keen on water tax collection due to mechanism deficiency, Revenue Department is not apportioning the water tax to WUAs. As a result, WUAs are not getting their due share of money to carry out operation and maintenance of canal system. x Sharing of data on the water tax collection by Revenue Department to Irrigation Department and WUAs is missing and cumbersome process. x Wide gap in potential created and utilized in RDS project - Tailenders deprivation x Lack of knowledge on the rules and regulations of APFMIS Act. x Informal arrangements like community lashkars (water man), patrolling on the canal system towards managing scarcity. x None of the WUAs had established WUA offices and only one WUA had records

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pertaining to WUA. x Informal project level WUAs committee formed under FNWSR supported by INPIM showed great potential to develop as pressure group and lobby for PIM (JalaSpandana 2004 & 2005). x

No financial support from Government to make WUAs sustainable.

3.2. TRAINING In each of the irrigation command area, one main training centre and several regional centers depending on the size of the command area were established to suit the convenience of the farmers spread across the command area right from head reach to tail reach. The training components will focus on Social, Political/Institutional, Economic, Technical and Management issues related to irrigation and development. The trainings were given to farmers, representatives of WUAs, department officials and other stake holders. As the capacity building is carried out in major irrigation projects with large number of WUAs spread across large canal network, the training programme was strategically designed in a participatory manner to reach all WUAs and farmers. 1. General training carried out to all WUAs and farmers in project area 2. Intensive training to establish fair representation of model WUAs 3. Too intensive training to establish model farm and farmers field school 4. Participatory approach to modernisation of irrigation project (blending social with technical) TRAINING MODULES MODULE – I (WUA ROLE, RESPONSIBILITIES AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT)

1. Know your project – SRSP project and its modernisation 2. Participatory Irrigation Management and its importance 3. Formation of WUAs and its objectives 4. Andhra Pradesh Farmers Management of Irrigation Systems 1997 Act (APFMIS) 5. Role of Irrigation, Agriculture and Revenue Departments in PIM 6. Functions of Presidents, TC members, sub committees and general body 7. Maintenance of accounts and book keeping 8. Gender issues 9. Sustainability of WUAs

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MODULE – II (IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT + PROJECT VISIT)

10. Warabandi – Rotational Water Supply 11. Irrigation Projects – Water distribution system and maintenance of structures 12. Methods of Irrigation – Surface, Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation 13. Water logging – Salinity and drainage 14. Water balance and Conjunctive use of ground water MODULE III (WATER MANAGEMENT IN DIFFERENT CROPPING SYSTEMS)

15. Systematic land development 16. Soil, water and plant relationship 17. Water Requirement for different crops and critical stages 18. On-farm water management 19. Water management in horticulture crops and fruit crops 20. Water management in ID crops MODULE – IV (SRI PADDY, FARM MECHANIZATION AND FIELD VISIT)

21. SRI (Paddy) method of cultivation 22. Farm mechanization MODULE – V (IMPROVED CROPPING SYSTEMS)

23. Soil testing and its importance 24. Fertilisers and Integrated Nutrients Management 25. Integrated Pest Management 26. Bio-pesticides and Bio-fertilisers 27. Organic farming MODULE – VI DAYS (LIVELIHOODS MANAGEMENT UNDER WUA)

28. Impact of Irrigation Projects on Environment and Environment management plan 29. Livelihoods development – diversification of agriculture, animal husbandry, value addition services to the products, market linkages. 30. Community health and sanitation with reference to water sector TRAINING OFFICIALS The policies and programmes towards decentralization that calls for devolution has created a fear among the section of the stakeholders that they get displaced in the due

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course of accommodating participatory programme. On the day to day activities the existing staff of I&CAD can become more productive and play important role in improving water use efficiency, which is very essential during the take off stage of PIM (Diemer and Huibers 1996). Farmers participation in irrigation do not eliminate the role and responsibility of the Government organisations and agencies in irrigation. This perhaps may be true in the long run or calls for redefinition of roles and responsibilities of different stakeholders in the system. The Government staff can take over the role of mobilizing, organizing, training and provide technical support in design, operation and maintenance of the system through which there could be substantial contribution from their professional background. WURF

2003 -

2000 -

1997 -

1994 -

1991 -

1988 -

1985 -

TMC

One of the main draw back in the irrigation sector is the wide gap in the knowledge between the professionals and the users. Entitlement at Several research topics undertaken by Water Allocation and withdrawals anicut from various researchers from various Tungabhadra River (TMC) 20 professional institutes have not made Drawal at sincere attempt in transforming the 15 anicut from research finding to the users (Pastakia 10 Tungabhadra 2002). The findings of many research River (TMC) 5 topics that concern farmers and system Entitlement to 0 AP managers in their day to day business of irrigation management is not shared with the users from whom the primary Year Drawal by AP and secondary data is collected. Of late, in addition to the existing pattern of research both academic and development, concept like Water Users Research Facility is being propagated. The main proponents of this concept are Dr. Peter Mollinga1 and Mr. R. Doraiswamy2. Attempts are being made to facilitate farmers to identify the problem areas that needs to be researched upon for better understanding and initiate actions accordingly. The graph was prepared and showed to stakeholders to understand how the RDS project is functioning over the years. MICRO-PLAN PTP helps preparation of micro-plan, which constitute detailing of the activities that is intended to be taken up during the pre crop season and crop season period at the level of WUAs. In the past, the micro-plan include budget estimates for the activities like physical works i.e. the repair of the canal networks and other irrigation structures. These estimates were prepared exclusively by the staff of irrigation department, which was not conducive for promoting participatory irrigation management. The threat in the conventional method is that the water users i.e. farmers would take back seat and depend on the staff of irrigation department to identify works and even to obtain the 1- Dr. Peter P. Mollinga, Senior Researcher 'Natural Resources and Social Dynamics' ZEF (Centre for Development Research), Department of Political and Cultural Change, Walter Flex Str. 3, 53113 Bonn 2- Mr. R. Doraiswamy, Water Resource Specialist, JalaSpandana – South India Farmers Organisation for Water Management, Bangalore - India

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basic information about the water tax pricing, demand and collection (Dinar and Subramanian 1997). MODERNISATION PTP enables conceptualize canal modernisation programme that blend socio-economic and political factors with technical factors of irrigation system will be the central focus within the overall agenda. On the socio-economic and political front, we emphasise on the process of design and implementation through participatory and collective decision making approach. The social engineering, which was one of the missing link is roped in the process of irrigation development, that includes establishment of new infrastructure and modernisation of existing infrastructure. Some of the advantages of this exercise is to improve water delivery service to farm, improve water use efficiency and irrigation project efficiency, create we feeling among the users, prevent tampering of canal structures, increased yield, ability to shift to new crops and methods like System of Rice Intensification (SRI), empower farmers to raise resources including water tax/charges/rates for the regular operation and maintenance, improved quality and quantity of work, etc (FAO 2003). In addition, issues like water conflict between farmers and system managers and among farmers is intended to reduce. WUAS AS FARMERS FIELD SCHOOL (FFS) The trainers of JalaSpandana develop WUA as Farmers Field School also to further up the training programme in its jurisdiction. This approach enables us to reach all farmers in the spread out command area. The WUAs as FFS in this approach is felt essential to make considerable impact on the command area. In other words, the linkages among the trainers, FFS and general farmers is strengthened to make large scale irrigation system function effectively. The FFS shall focus on water management, water distribution, SRI paddy cultivation method, organic manure, vermiculture, less cost/no cost inputs like panchakavya, herbal decoction, etc. The trainers or extension service people of JalaSpandana played facilitators role in promoting FFS. LEAD NGO The involvement of NGOs in canal irrigation projects for capacity building is negligible when compared with tanks and watershed programme, especially projects supported by World Bank. JalaSpandana played a role of lead NGO in K.C.C to promote NGOs participation in major and medium irrigation projects. In KCC two NGOs namely APARD and WCUSS were given training on irrigation management in large irrigation projects and encouraged to carry out PTP. STUDY TOUR JalaSpandana organised study tour to representatives of WUAs, department officials and other stake holders to personally visit their dam site and canal structure to know their project.

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FARMER TO FARMER TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER JalaSpandana has promoted farmers as trainers and deployed experience farmers in SRI paddy cultivation and organic farming to train the farmers in command area. This method of ‘Farmer to Farmer Technology Transfer’ has been strength of winning the hearts of the farmers of command area to adapt changes in the existing practices of water distribution and crop management. The mass communication like village drum beats, cable connections, wall paintings, posters, etc will be extensively used in the programme. JalaSpandana has employed representatives of successful WUAs to train the representatives of WUAs. MODEL FARMS

JalaSpandana is engaged in developing Model farms in K.C. Canal in different locations of the command area. This model farm shall be self illustrative in terms of water and crop management with special emphasis on livelihoods. The action plan to develop model farms covers field oriented training programmes with package of practices on using advanced technologies, free cost and low cost technologies, automated water regulation and distribution, IPM, Organic farming, etc. EXIT STRATEGY

JalaSpandana designed PTP with the involvement of officials, farmers and representatives of WUAs with the objective that at the earliest, the PTP become the responsibility of the representatives of WUAs and Department officials. The realization that PTP is the integral part of irrigation management both by department officials and WUAs is crucial for the sustainable PIM. The study tour organised in these projects were designed collectively and the responsibility was taken up by Irrigation Department. The presentation of the progress of PTP carried out by JalaSpandana, after some training was taken over by Irrigation Department officials, this shows the involvement of officials in PTP. 3.3. TRAINING IMPACT ASSESSMENT1 The basic objective of the training programme is to produce good output at the end of the training programme both in terms of quantitative and qualitative. Although, targets were set to undertake the training programme like the number of trainings to be imparted to different stake holders, the experience in the field shows that some of the trainings were required to be conducted more than the days stipulated in the six training modules prepared and circulated by I&CAD and WALAMTARI. We will discuss these issues in detail as we take up topic by topic. x Parameters derived based on bench marking (PIM logistics, tail end deprivation, water use efficiency, office establishment and record maintenance, democratic functioning of WUAs, water scheduling and conflict resolution) and inputs provided in relation to issues identified. x Participatory situational analysis 1- Please note that this is not an exhaustive list.

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The establishment of training centers and sub centers in command area draw good response from various stakeholders in the irrigation projects. It was relatively easy to organise meetings as JalaSpandana was based in the command area and was accessible to farmers 24/7. WUAs who were only complaining against department for not delivering water in time, after PTP realize their roles and responsibilities and became pro active to address water issues. One of the major achievement in PIM domain was the we feeling and sharing of PTP responsibility by representatives of WUAs and department officials in organizing trainings, study tours, data sharing, etc. In RDS project 30 out of 34 WUAs established offices and relevant records including gauge records and water tax. The remaining 4 are in extreme tail end are in the process of establishing offices. In PJP, all the 5 WUAs established offices and other details as mentioned above and in KCC, 78 out of 86 WUAs formed offices and other records. In these projects 28 model WUAs were formed under PTP, which also function as users school. Some of these WUAs are supported with farm equipments to demonstrate income generating activities for the WUAs and enhance livelihoods. These WUAs are making good progress in development of WUAs, participation in water management, water tax collection, etc. Tampering of canal structures have been reduced to large extent. Informal project level committee were formed in PJP and KCC and the existing informal project committee in RDS project formed under FNWSR supported by INPIM was further strengthened. WUAs participate in the water management at primary and main system level. Informal practices like community water man are being scaled up to cover the whole system to ensure efficient use of water. The regular discussions regarding water management is taking place after PTP between department officials and WUAs at various level. The water use efficiency is increasing from 5 acres per MCFT of water to 7 acres per MCFT of water. PTP established 436 FFS covering an area of 1058 ha on SRI paddy method, ID crops and organic farming. Paddy yield increased 10 bags in areas where farmers field schools were established, particularly SRI. In selected distributaries, in these projects volumetric supply is introduced on pilot basis. In some WUAs, like for instance, Wadepally mandal in RDS project has made 100 per cent water tax collection, which is possible only due to WUAs participation. The representatives of WUAs participate in policy recommendation to the government. WUAs are demanding government to hand over the water tax collection responsibility. It is worth mentioning here that prior to PTP, WUAs were not willing to take over the responsibility of water tax collection due to fear. I & CAD is considering transferring water tax collection responsibility to WUAs. All the WUAs in RDS, PJP and KCC prepared micro plan for their WUAs for the year 2005-06 and submitted to the Irrigation and CAD. Irrigation and CAD and JalaSpandana prepared draft version of Memorandum of Understanding to transfer water tax collection to WUAs, which will be signed by the President of WUAs and Executive Engineer or equivalent representing irrigation department. The MOU speaks of the water tax rate and incentives and disincentives in timely collection. This is also translated into Telugu and the same was discussed before representatives of WUAs.

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During PTP, the livelihoods of the tail end farmers were shown and explained to the farmers in the head reach and the effects on soil that would occur due to excess irrigation in the long run. At present the head reach farmers in head reach distributaries of RDS are not facing shortage of water. The issue before the WUAs and Irrigation Department is to undertake operating of sluices and gates. In RDS, which was facing severe tail end problem, is being coordinated with informal project level committee and enforcing rotation system of water distribution called as Warabandhi. The first computerization of WUA administration perhaps in India was attempted in RDS by JalaSpandana and succeeded with the cooperation of WUA representatives. The WUA No. 7, Mandodi of RDS project was selected to experiment computerization of records pertaining to WUA functioning, list of TC members, voters list, project information, etc is installed and being successfully. The recent visit by APERP delegates also took note of this computerized WUA. The computer is being operated in English and Telugu and the necessary training required to operate the computer is being provided to the representatives of WUA by the JalaSpandana. 4. LESSON LEARNT PTP is being carried out for the first time in Andhra Pradesh with commitment by the officers of I&CAD at all levels and WALAMTARI through NGOs in large canal irrigation system. PTP is the right way of training programme as different stake holders realize their roles and responsibilities and in three years period, the project committee of WUAs or Department officials show the sign of taking over the training as part of water management. The department officials and WUAs prove great potential to resolve majority of the issues including tail enders and operation and maintenance issue. The time frame for PTP in these large irrigation projects given the magnanimity of the issues and work in large irrigation project is inadequate, the field experience shows that at least three years is necessary for NGOs to prepare the ground fully and exit. There are issues at policy, project and micro level that need constant support from external agencies like NGOs. Thus arise need to institutionalize PTP for minimum of three years through NGOs and later built into irrigation management by PCs or I&CAD. The modernisation programme right from the beginning needs to incorporate PTP. As the distributary committees are formed in the month of December 2006, the training at mezo level system maintenance should be carried out to the newly elected representatives of DCs. The intensified PTP in large irrigation projects compounded with policy reforms certainly make PIM success in AP, particularly in the wake of policy making WUAs continuous body with every two years election to one third of TC members. The visits made by the higher officers of I&CAD, professionals from FAO, JBIC, INPIM (Hatsuya Azumi), Australian experts, and other field tours boost the morale of the PTP. INPIM may commission study on PIM in Andhra Pradesh both from policy perspective and field situations for the benefit of larger interest of PIM. Further, it would be appropriate for INPIM to support activities like Farmers Network for Water Sector Reforms and Develop PTP.

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5. REFERENCES 1. Diemer G and Huibers PF 1996. Crops, People and Irrigation – Water allocation practices of farmers and engineers, Intermediate Technology Publications, UK. 2. Doraiswamy R and Mollinga P 2004. “Tailenders and other deprived in Karnataka”. In Rajagopal A, Doraiswamy R, Mollinga P Peter, Joy KJ and Suhas Paranjape (eds) Tailenders and other deprived in irrigation in India: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra, CWP Research Series No. 14. Irrigation and Water Engineering, Wageningen University, The Netherlands. 3. Dinar Ariel and Subramanian Ashok (etal) 1997, Water Pricing Experiences, An International Perspective, World Bank Technical Paper No. 386, The World Bank, Washington DC. 4. FAO - 2003, Unlocking the potential of agriculture, www.fao.org. 5. Inbanathan A, Bhagyalakshmi TA and Doraiswamy R, 1997. Democratic Local Governance: The Case of Panchayat Raj in Karnataka (A State in South India), paper presented to the USAID. 6. JalaSpandana 2004 & 2005, Farmers Network for Water Sector Reforms in South India, Unpublished project report, JalaSpandana, Bangalore. 7. JalaSpandana 2006, Participatory Training Programme in Rajolibanda Diversion Scheme, Priyadharshini Jurala Project and Kurnool Cuddapah Canal in Andhra Pradesh, Unpublished reports, separately for each projects. 8. Jalavani 2005, WUAs as Users School, Jalavani- Farmers Newsletter, AP JalaSpandana, Hyderabad. 9. Mollinga P, Doraiswamy R and Kim Engbersen 2004. Capture and Transformation: Participatory Irrigation Management in Andhra Pradesh, India. In Mollinga P and Bolding A (eds) The Politics of Irrigation Reform - Contested Policy Formulation and Implementation in Asia, Africa and Latin America, Ashgate Publishers, England 10. Naik G, Kalro H A, Brewer D J, Samad M and Sakthivadivel R, 2002 Assessing the Impact of Irrigation Management Transfer – Case studies from Maharashtra, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt Ltd, New Delhi and Kolkatta. 11. Narwani G.S. 2005, Community Water Management, Rawat Publications, Jaipur and New Delhi. 12. Pastakia Astad, Kothari Brij and Chand V Sherry 2002, Farmer-led Participatory Research, Cases from Western India, Books for Change, Bangalore. 13. Peter, J Raymond (2001) Irrigation Reforms in Andhra Pradesh, India, paper presented at International Email Conference on Irrigation Management Transfer, June –October 2001, FAO and INPIM. 14. Wade Robert 1982, The System of Administrative and Political Corruption: Canal Irrigation in South India, The Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 18, No 3, April 1982,pp.287-328.

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The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

IMPACTS OF FARMERS' NGOs ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF QAZVIN AREA

Ali Ghasemi 1

ABSTRACT Connoisseurs believe that inefficient management in operation and maintenance of irrigation system is assumed as a key element in weakening irrigation performance. Based on experiences, removal of existing inconsistencies and challenges will not realize without people’s participation. Building capacity for enhancing participation and involving both practitioners and users in water management and in saving of resources and costs, would greatly help settle the bottlenecks. Along this path, developing local mechanism and managerial set-up, shall either pave the way for broader saving of water and optimizing the demands, and/or form the main factor in elimination of local or even international conflictions. The author had the chance, to formulate and implement a strategic plan for establishment and operation of NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) in Qazvin plain mobilized by face to face communication towards further involvement of his staff (Qazvin Irrigation Management, QIM) and target farmers in the process. Later, based on a timing schedule, an action plan became operational to gradually shift exploitation and maintenance of existing irrigation-drainage network to the local community. To this end, various commitments e.g., selling, inspection, registration, distribution and delivering water quotas are to be implemented by corporate Water Users Associations. They are also obligated for maintenance, dredging, and fixing hydro-mechanical segments (Amil) and turn-out structures. The local leaders, apart from foregoing services and continued inspection of structures and operational processes, are responsible for fulfilling the demands, settling the problems on the spot2 and preparing daily reports on possible offending in the network. Implementing IMT (Irrigation Management transfer) initiative in Qazvin, has resulted in numerous cultural, social and economic impacts especially in the area of improvement of irrigation management and has created structural changes towards the great objective i.e. "Equitable distribution of water" in the network. In view to dimensions of the transferred liabilities to local pioneers in Qazvin, and in order to attract supports from national and international 1- M.Sc. in Irrigation Structures, and Managing Director of Qazvin Irrigation Management Co. (QIM), & Initiator and Executive of Qazvin Participatory Irrigation Management Project. Address: Shahid Bahonar Bulvd., Qazvin, Iran. Tel: +98281-2233-187, Email: [email protected] 2-The existing WUAs consist of 7 sub- offices scattered over the main villages along the subsidiary channels.

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institutions for development of participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) in Iran, the existing irrigation system was adopted as a national pilot in Qazvin. Key words: Water Users’ Associations (WUAs), Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT), Qazvin, Local Irrigation Management (LIM), National Pilot. 1. FOREWORD IMT initiative in different countries has led to remarkable achievements including: x

Improved economic status and higher income for farmers;

x

Enhanced maintenance system;

x

Greater irrigation efficacy;

x

Lower public staff ;

x

Upgraded management system;

x

Increased water charge (rate);

x

Decreased political elections for managers; and

x

Lower farmers' conflictions on water quota.

The initial stage in IMT promotion consists of capacity building and institutionalizing for upholding new commitments. There are varying processes and efforts required for empowerment of the target beneficiaries in different cultures and societies. Executive bodies, if abide themselves with following three issues, will succeed in their operation: A. Giving signals: Reaction and affection received by socio-economic messages; B. Balance of interests: Provision of general facilities in favor of beneficiaries’ interests and their promotion; and C. Fulfillment of commitments: Due liability and accountability against the decisions taken. Initially, in 2004, an integrated plan for re–organization and transferring the incumbencies was proposed together with identification and screening of effective details and perspectives in participatory development of irrigation management. Further, the author tried to act as an impetus to mobilize and launch the IMT initiative in Qazvin and then across the country. The work plan became operational in line with human resource development, encompassing QIM staff and its counterpart beneficiaries in Qazvin plain. The first step of the work was documentation of executive methods and regulations, studying and registration of official hierarchy of governmental structures and the rate of their effectiveness in irrigation management. Meanwhile, the needed setups for covering the farming groups in lateral channels IV (10 farmers), common– wealth farmers association in a farming block (200 farmers), local management entity (union) covering the associations (158 associations), and eventually, their provincial irrigation Federation with 30,000 farmers were also taken into account. This task has resulted in incredible gains in the process of management transfer and bureaucratic reduction at provincial level. Outstanding reduction of operation and maintenance cost, as well as saving time in both public and community side, shall also be regarded as the new IMT achievements.

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Many experts and clients recognize that the initiative, in particular, when concerns to improvement of agri–water distribution and promotion of monitoring roles played by local users, is well-designed with dynamic performance. They mainly praise innovation of farming–corporative arrangements, institutionalization in local management of Qazvin water, and its possible impacts on prompt irrigation management at national scale. 2. INSTITUTIONALIZATION FOR MANAGEMENT TRANSFER 2.1. GENERAL DETAILS OF QAZVIN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (QDP)

The “Qazvin Development Project-QDP”1 was approved in 1967 and its first phase composed of deviation checks, main and lateral canals constructed by 1976. The second phase also covered the remaining channels and structures in 1991 followed by the third phase which created the Taleghan Dam and its reservoir in 2001. The project now consists of the dam, reservoir, and deviation dams (Sangban and Ziaran) conveying tunnel and the extensive irrigation system of Qazvin plain. The dam receives the Taleghan River (a sub–branch of Sefidrud ) to shift it to the northern margins of farmlands in the plain, as well as supplying partial drinking water for Tehran . The network comprises of 94 km. main canal, 220 km. canals II (12 branches), 33 km. lateral channels III (158 branches), and 550 km. subsidiary channels IV, with 30,000 branches and related outlets. The operational area covers 80,000 ha. with net 60,000 ha. farm-lands in which, specific farming patterns and water needs are formulated upon climatic particularities. For instance, the approved ongoing pattern spells out for fall crops and cereals in 50% of the total lands, with summer crops allotted in 25% and the rest for fallow and other frequencies as required. The operation focuses on mixed exploitation of surface (Taleghan reservoir) and subsurface resources (water wells). Following, shows the annual water allocation of 460 mm3 for the network operation.

Diagram1. Macro–allocations of water from Taleghan basin 1- Formerly registered as “Ghazvin Development Project - GDP” by The World Bank

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2.2. PLANNING AND TRAINING

A holistic scheme is the ultimate option in preparing an enabling condition for due thinking, identifying and processing of conceptions and wise application of information and tools under an overall synergy towards anticipated progression. No doubt, training conceptions supported by motivation and interaction would also help empower and involve the public staff and communal clients in constructive handling the new obligations. Training and implementing programs have to follow a well-coordinated and group– oriented context with maximum adaptation to the operational procedures of every initiative. Forecasting and identifying the possible challenges of the new working atmosphere and liabilities’ nature have to be well-addressed in advance. Rapid change and replacement of traditional managements or positions in public or community paces seem not practical easily, whereby only the management of change deserves the liability to take action in this regard. Water management strictly stresses on in-dept analysis and communication in the fields of psychology and sociology to pave the way for training and up-scaling the mind- sets towards formation of CBOs(Community-Based Organizations) in agriculture sector. During IMT process, various training sessions were conducted on how to apply and exchange technical information, and on finding the way for maintaining the hydraulic structures. Moreover, it is believed that due capacities were also built to enable people's involvement into the project. Several meetings launched for briefing the experts, staff and farmers' representatives via brain-storming method, in which, creativity posed a high degree of importance. Community–based participatory management incorporates all stakeholders including the QIM staff, farmers’ community, representatives of agricultural bodies and water authorities into all stages of designing, planning and operation with highest viability and feeling towards multilateral collaboration. In the "IMT" project, there seem remarkable indicators in awareness building with a tangible manifestation in the areas of knowledge and action, mainly owing to sense of ownership generated under an overall peer attachment. 2.3. SEARCHING FOR SUSTAINABLE LEGAL SETTING

Calling people's participation stands for retaining and operating the network under the IMT initiative. Normally, observing principles and concerns of the clientele and their social interests and tools, is greatly important in the process of public institutionalization. To this end, neither socio–geographical divisions, nor the scale of hydraulic structures, communication routs, residential areas, ethnic diversification and population are, in any way, accounted individually for strategy determination. In Qazvin project, it is learnt that the best approach shall focus on the canal divisions as the “joint pivot “for setting up the local management order. This approach recognizes agricultural groups and associations on the basis of farming- blocks' borders (as in case of the farm– plots adjacent to inlets linked to chancels III). Similarly, a confidential socio-economic support would strengthen and sustain the CBOs’ milestone. The next business goes to consolidation of the water users' associations (WUAs) shaped around the secondary canals and assuming them under unions and ultimately the Federation of water users’ associations.

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Based on by-laws, executive management position and operation completely differ, so that, Federation managing board is assigned by general assembly followed by picking up the unions managers and experts, associations' water distributors (in farming blocks), and the heads of farmers' groups. Besides, all operational affairs in exploitation and maintenance of the network system are supervised and led by the existing hierarchy. TOR (Turns Of References) for every layer is also subject to general assembly's confirmation. In Qazvin, almost all legal and conventional capacities were experienced for registration and operation of agricultural CBOs. In reality, varying regulations are in action for operation of special or limited corporate enterprises, agricultural shareholdings, rural cooperation, water users associations or else under NGOs’ context, but yet no such entities demonstrated an authentic output in irrigation service management. Moreover, due to lack of viable sample in Iran, several attempts made to find a "reliable legal system" though try and error method. It is strictly obvious that despite the failure of existing organizations, creation of Corporate Associations and their Apex Federation using the ongoing Labor Law of the Islamic Republic of Iran deserves an efficient structure in water exploitation management of Iran. 2.4. SEARCHING FOR EFFICIENT OPERATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Soon after legal structuring and institutionalization (bottom-up), an operational management (top-bottom) was inserted into the agenda with a well–defined and comprehensive flow-chart. This task, unlike the public structure, denies any idle or parallel designation and just recommends operational and administrative posts for the Federation as well as its affiliated unions via carrying out frequent need–assessments. Along this path, other measures were also taken as follows: -

Formulation of legal operation,

-

Creation of maintenance and finance divisions in the executive management of Federation,

-

Forecasting sale officers and water distributors in secondary canals; and

-

Assigning focal persons in the water users' associations of lateral channels III.

Consequently, following diagram shows the 5-year records in Qazvin project under two distinct courses: A. Planning, designing and implementing the NGOs development Generation and development of NGOs' activities under the context of Corporate Association

B. Designing institutional set-up for participatory irrigation management( PIM) Executive management in operation and maintenance of the network system under non- government management style

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(B) Structure and scope of the management

(A) Elective phases

Diagram2. A) Institutionalization & structural setting B) Organization of executive management for WUAs in Qazvin

3. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF IMT ON THE PROJECT More than 35 million USD1 was invested for designing and structuring the irrigation system in Qazvin up to 1978. However, the latest economic reassessment (2006) came up with 475 million USD2 as total project value excluding land–possession and designing charges. Presently, the network withstands excessive depreciation and failures owing to its over-dated segments and requires 15,000 USD for basic renovation and revival of canals, service roads, hydro-mechanical gates which control water surface(Amil), CHO and turn-out structures. 3.1. SAVING IN PUBLIC SECTOR

Pertaining to delay in construction of Taleghan Dam, water supply and its conveyance to Qazvin network had to follow the upstream river regime and has consequently decreased to 160 mm3 per year. The foregoing constraints together will other uncertainties, which mainly rose due to centralized and traditional public management, have led to serious challenges in operation and maintenance of the network system. High current and personnel costs, in line with inappropriate maintenance procedures, were the key constraints before the project operation. Comparing the latest performances realized by 5 Provincial Irrigation Companies, QIM depicts rather impressive output in squeezing the current operating overburden on government. As 1- Based on the then operation and construction prices ( 1$=70 Rls. in 1978) 2- Based on current costs (1$= 9200 Rls.)

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seen in Diagram 2, in absence of PIM initiative, total running cost for QIM operation could have increased to almost 500,000 USD, whereas, it has noticeably reduced to 250,000 USD which means 50% saving in the same year’s expenditures (2005), just because of performing successful PIM in Qazvin. 3.2. SAVING IN PRIVATE SECTOR

Attracting consumers' attention for every development intervention normally accompanies financial incentives, and to this end, the IMT initiative in Qazvin, parallel to expansion of human communications and saving cost and time, has also adopted certain economic motivation to mobilize participatory management pace. In Qazvin, 30,000 farmers enjoy an average land ownership of say, 2 ha while there are 12 large agri-industrial holdings jointly using the irrigation network. Government has operated the network for 30 years and guided all administrative affairs through the provincial company (QIM) based in Qazvin. Prior to the project implementation, farmers were widely suffering of time and cost imposition in referring their frequent requests to the Company .They used to travel long distances (average 60 km) to capital city bearing overburden for doing their water purchase or other affiliated businesses. Soon, these affairs were handed over to 3000 informal agents representing 30,000 farmers, some of them (almost 108,000 p/year), had to refer for transacting daily requirements. Agricultural status of Qazvin plain reflects an extensively residential dispersion pattern encompassing various segments of the network. Therefore, assuming an average 60 km. as round-trip for every agent, they totally have to bear 6.5 million kilometer per year: Number of referrals (trip): 400(average, farmer)*30(day)* 9(month) = 108,000 Total distance each year: 60(Km. each round-trip)*108,000(number of referrals) = 6,480,000 km Total charge for agents’ travel: 108,000 *12.45(USD-minimum salary each day) = 1,344,600 USD The above overburden is almost equal to 130% of the total water rate which used to be unnecessarily imposed on rural households' livelihoods. IMT initiative in Qazvin has come up with remarkable reduction in referral distances (max. 5km.) and times (average 1 hour) for users' in settling their businesses with the local associations.

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Million Rials (1000000Rials=108.69USD)

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2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Year

Diagram3. Comparison of current and personnel costs transacted by 6 main irrigation – drainage companies

3.3. DEVOLUTION OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

One of ongoing discussions on IMT initiative links to the network ownership. Certain countries like Turkey, has successfully experienced the process of networks devolution to the organized associations mainly due to some crisis in operational management. This process, however, was assisted by different universities and the World Bank for smoother implementation. In Iran and upon the National Law for Equitable Water Distribution ( ratified in 1982), the Ministry of Energy was responsible for land acquisition, construction and operation of canals I & II, and the Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture committed in lateral channels III & IV. However, the Ministry of Energy undertook overall commitments after a Bill approved last year by the Cabinet.

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Devolution process shall never rely on financial incentive alone, whereas it has to stress also on enhanced leadership and productivity. Leasing is also assumed for viable mechanism in shifting the network complex to local clients, and in particular, it seems much applicable in case of lateral channels II & IV. Though, the idea would eliminate certain farmers' concerns, but in other spots as Tehran or Qazvin provinces, it may fail mainly for higher land price and possible institutional destruction of the networks segments to substitute them by other commercial holdings. Anyhow, the process, as realized in “Qazvin, Pilot” stands for a viable instance for wisely duplication elsewhere in irrigation schemes. 4. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL IMPACTS Experts have identified the following inconsistencies as the key factors behind failure of irrigation management: -

Shortage of accessible water at delivery spots:

-

Defects in metering devices:

-

Poor financial facilities:

-

Inefficient mechanism for exploitation and maintenance of the system

-

Inequitable distribution of water;

-

Misappropriation in agri–water charge; and

-

Poor incentive for participation and saving in water issues.

In Qazvin, plus the aforementioned disparities, other issues as allocation of partial resource for drinking water purpose in Tehran and its political, population, and consumption burdens have crucial impacts on water management, too. Therefore, it strictly entails appropriate interaction with key social, economic, cultural and political perspectives in the process of changing and reforming the operational set- up. Regulating farmers' relationships and their operation areas with relevant managers in farming blocks’ associations, as well as adaptation of TOR for water distributors in secondary canals with codes laid down by unions, and on top of all, prompt linkage with related public institutions, are all contained in the IMT process. Under this arrangement, the central Federation acts as a local – based parliament, in which, all representatives of secondary canals pose as managing board of the apex body. Due to some small scale unions and their vicinity, they may merge to shape rational sizes. At present, following irrigation service offices (unions) have been stationed over the network premises in Qazvin: L1, L2, L3, L4-A, L5, L6, L7, M3, L8, and MW union which covers western area of the main canal inducing L9, L10, and L20 together with lateral channels. Frequent inspection of the establishments, fulfilling the requests, settling disputes, and preparing daily reports on functions and possible interactions, lie within the unions' management. To this end, a training course titled "Social Prevention and Control Mechanisms" was held for WUAs in Qazvin. Various curricula including basic

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information on CBOs, general laws, direction to lawful actions, and the best ways for optimum exploitation of hydraulic structures, were adopted as training materials by qualified judges and also experts of Qazvin Irrigation Management Co. 4.1. ORGANIZATIONAL PARTICIPATION OF RURAL WOMEN

Paving the way for active participation of local users in water resource development schemes, logic disposal of sewage–water, and water use management, have so long been mainstreamed into the planning processes at global scales with merit cases in certain countries and mainly run via men involvement. Since 1980, poor participation exposed by woman community in water planning and management trend, in line with negative consequences on service delivery and quality, been addressed by decision-makers. General up-scaling of women status and forecasting especial position for their role in socio–cultural perspectives are assumed as enabling mechanisms for water loss reduction and agricultural productivity promotion. Now, much emphasis is given to women's involvement into programming and implementing processes towards better operational management, and hence, constructive transfer of diverse network's functions. Concerning the objective experiences gained in Qazvin project, women community had outstanding impacts on domestication of water industry as well as improvement of participatory management of irrigation system particularly for their appreciable discipline, interest in learning and proper interaction with clients. They greatly shared in successful commencement of the first IMT initiative conducted by QIM. Therefore, it seems much employment opportunities have to be provided for women fraction as to take advantage of potentially creative individuals but practically inactive forces of the society. In line with expansion and progression of participatory irrigation management, reliable conditions shall also be generated for self-sustaining (Home Role) governance of the WUAs in Qazvin with following positive impacts: -

Reduction or elimination of unwanted bureaucratic cycles in decision-making process:

-

Saving in farmers' time and cost;

-

Decreasing current and general costs in network operating ;

-

Lowering expenses for maintenance affairs throughout the irrigation system;

-

Signifying local people's inspection towards equitable water distribution;

-

Enhancing irrigation performance and farming productivity in Qazvin plain.

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Studies reveal that when CBOs are involved, even in semi-active situation, they would improve operation and maintenance of hydraulic structures. Farmers' participation and development of NGOs remark for pre- requisites in productivity assurance and enhancement. On the other hand, locally–adapted and genius methodologies underlie

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development process. Since there existed no local approach in QIM staff or community–oriented participatory research on irrigation system, the new PIM model in Qazvin concentrated the experts and researchers on a consensus in IMT methodology. Implementing structural reforms in operational system of Qazvin plain and substituting farmers' referrals by their Federation have resulted in numerous impacts with satisfactory reaction expressed by users. Many experts and managers who visited the site, always praised the impressive impacts on comprehensive development trend, and hence, signified dissemination of dynamic management visions and mechanisms at national scale. At present, viable interaction and coordination exist in all institutional segments and it is expected that upon supplementary measures including land consolidation, modern irrigation systems, and Remote Control and Management tools, the project can rise productivity indices or fulfill real and equitable water distribution and rapid information transmission. Under such circumstances, local irrigation management in Qazvin has achieved maximum utility and capacity for its sustainability. PIM in Qazvin, as the first successful experience, deserves capability to create a viable ground for sustainable development in Qazvin and consequently across Iran. Following are certain recommendations in this regards: 5.1. EDUCATING THE QUALIFIED MANAGERS

Education process of qualified managers and transferring it from public sector to the society, incorporate participation of QIM staff and local clients within a transparent and accountable pace at various operational levels. Existing background on history of irrigation management and the followed methodologies indicate that problem settlement is not solely contingent upon physical issues, but rafter relies on various managerial elements. Hopefully, IMT initiative would encourage more accountability and productivity as well as rapid return of the costs. 5.2. GOVERNMENT SUPPORT Rational, economic and sustainable use of water and soil resources deems impossible without willing for direct involvement of the end users and their direction towards a participatory management in water and agriculture sectors. In this area, any delay or change, undue interference or denial of responsibility, might collapse this national action and nullify the rights of soil and water resources and manpower. Therefore, stakeholders should emphasize on development of participation and underestimation of marginal issues.

Determination of "types, scales and duration of public support" in favor of agricultural NGOs, as well as extension of their independence and growth, calls for "structural reform in administration" (inaction of new regulations) to be addressed by key policy– makers in water sector. It is expected that upon legal, technical and financial supports followed by unanimity of the local and national bodies, due strategies will be developed for rational decision–making and action–planning. Moreover, concurrent to participation–oriented management, an integrated planning-bed is created to prepare public system and reorganize operational cycles.

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A tangible public support, as specified by the 3rd National Development Plan (Article 107), is realized by partial refund of water charge to clients for financing general restoration and maintenance operations. This support would greatly meet the basic requirements foreseen in a holistic PIM system. 5.3. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PARTICIPATION

WUAs operational area and their TOR are well-determined, while facing certain shortcomings and defects, too. Indeed, setting close relationship and cooperation with national / international GOs and NGOs, shall mobilize the process. Global specialized agencies as ICDI, IWMI, INPIM and ILO can develop due partnership in monitoring and evaluation of PIM process as well as forwarding possible assistance to the project objectives. Under a poly-dimensional consensus and synergy among all stakeholders concerned, the PIM approach may underpin the following priorities, inter alia: -

Implication of credit card system for remittance of water rate (charge): and

-

Installation of 200 electronic metering devices at main spots.

6. REFERENCES 1. Archives, Provincial Office of Jihad –e-Agriculture. 2. Ghasemi, Ali (2003), New Discipline for QIM and the Status of WUAs. Proceedings of the 12th Conference of ICID, Tehran 3. Ghasemi, Ali. (2005). Tehran, Iran. Regional center on urban water management – Tehran. Workshop on Women’s Participation in water Management, (proceedings) 4. Glasser,W . Reality Therapy: A New Approach to Psychiatry. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1965. 5. Habibi. Ali, Translation of "The World Development Institutionalizing for market. Axford university publication

Report

-2002",

6. Nouri Esfandiari, Anoush (2006), Women's institutional participation in water use management, publication of Tarrahan-e-Padideh, Tehran. Iran. 7. QIM Co. Qazvin 8. Researching Institute of Arvin Pajouh (2000), Exposure to participation system as the base for global and Islamic advanced management, publication of the Iranian Oil Ministry. 9. Sustainable Development in a Dynamic World: Transforming institutions, growth and quality of life, The World Bank, 2003 10. Tortajada, Cecila. (2003). Professional Women and Water Management, Case Study from Morocco, I WRA, Vol 28. No.4 11. Tousi, Mohammad Ali, (2000), "Participation- oriented Management" Publication of Industrial Management Organisation, Tehran, Iran.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

RESEARCH PROJECT FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT (THE TAFILALET AREA, SOUTH-EAST OF MOROCCO)

Mohamed Bousfoul and Mohammed Bourass1

SUMMARY 1- The research project for improvement of participatory irrigation management is a concrete follow-up of the Rural Development Project in the Tafilalet (PDRT). The Tafilalet is located South-east of Morocco, in the pre Saharan, south-of the Atlas mountains zone and extends over an acreage of 77 250 km2, of which 60 000 ha are under irrigation. The region encompasses four major river watersheds: the Ziz, Ghéris, Guir and Maîder. It is divided into three major units: a mountainous slope on the southern piedmont of the calcareous eastern High Atlas in the north; an intermediate pre-Saharan region made up of highlands strewn with oases and a Saharan high plateaus region in the south .The area is renown for its natural constraints related to an arid climate and flood and desertification threats for the irrigation infrastructure impacting negatively on the productivity of the cropping systems in use. However, the area can take advantage of assets such as water resources development and irrigated crops. 2- During a mission carried out in the area by experts from the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), it was deemed necessary to undertake actions to upgrade users’ capacities to deal with management of irrigation infrastructure. Based on the results of the mission, plans of the research project for the improvement of participatory irrigation management were developed and implemented. The project, financed through donations from IFAD ($US 490, 000), aims to set up prerequisites to make it possible for users to upgrade their intrinsic capacities through: (i) organizing themselves within Water Users Associations (WUAs) where water resources are available; and (ii) meeting operation and maintenance costs incurred by irrigation systems. 3- A pilot action plan has been implemented in two small-scale irrigation systems falling within the scope of action of the Tafilalet Rural Development Project (PDRT). The project has targeted two localities Jorf and Tinjdad where the problem of water scarcity is most acute. The plan is based on the following three basic 1- Mohamed Bousfoul is head of the department of irrigation network management and drainage in the Office for Agricultural Development in the Tafilalet, and Mohammed Bourass is a rural engineer and IFAD consultant.

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actions: (i) promoting adoption of partnership schemes involving various departments of the Ministry for Agriculture and users as regards the development of water resources and rehabilitation of irrigation infrastructure; (ii) increasingly involve the Regional Office of Agricultural Development of the Tafilalet (ORMVATf) in providing supervision and technical backstopping to the WUAs and (iii) encouraging use of water-saving irrigation strategies. 4- During the four years of project implementation and while aiming at introducing new methodology and a new approach to prompt farmers to contribute to ensuring durability of irrigation infrastructure, the project has been able to reach almost all of the goals set down: (i) organizing and training farmers within the context of their WUAs; (ii) enhancing awareness by means of training courses and field trips; (iii) promoting water-saving irrigation strategies through practical demonstration plots and acquisition of logistics support; and (iv) setting up a database for follow-up evaluation of the WUAs’ performance.

I. INTRODUCTION 1- Tapping the full potential of the biophysical environment is impossible without human resources availability. Indeed human resources do exist in the rural world, and are characterized by features such as the physical ability to discharge work properly, their indigenous know-how and resilience in adversity, innovative capacity and a rich cultural background. 2- Another important basic force factor of the rural world lies in its associative capacity. The latter is part and parcel of a strong and everlasting social tradition, i.e. the village-based jmaa (or traditional form of community organization) which has shouldered among many other things the role of water users associations for irrigation purposes. Real life experience has clearly demonstrated that as soon as the forces of associative capacity are pooled and unleashed, surprising results can be obtained. Today, the wealth of accumulated field experiences is vast and varied. The associative movement is witnessing an increasingly spiralling development pattern resulting in the formation of associations which are quite active in contributing to local development. 3- The various rural development projects carried out in Morocco by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) have always focused on achieving the strategic goal of improving capacity-building of management and enhancing local development of poverty-stricken populations in mountainous areas, with a view to increasing their incomes, standards of living and ensuring food security, together with the overriding preoccupation of sustainable use of natural resources. 4- Indeed, this objective dovetails with the " 2020 rural development strategy ", put in place by the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Marine Fisheries, which aims at implementing a participatory approach to involve the population of the douars (villages) in matters pertaining to soil analysis, stock-taking of assets and constraints, identifying and prioritizing actions to be performed and managing them along the lines put forth by a participatory approach.

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5- Actually among the projects implemented by IFAD in Morocco is the Rural Development Project in the Tafilalet (PDRT1). The Tafilalet is located South-east of Morocco, in the pre Saharan, south-of the Atlas mountains zone and extends over an area of 77 250 km2, of which 60 000 ha are under irrigation. The region encompasses four river watersheds: the Ziz, Ghéris, Guir and Maîder. It is divided into three major units: a mountainous slope on the southern piedmont of the calcareous eastern High Atlas in the north; an intermediate pre-Saharan region made up of highlands strewn with oases and a Saharan high plateaus region in the south .The area is known for its natural constraints particularly with regard to an arid climate, a flood and desertification prone area with real threats to the irrigation infrastructure impacting negatively on productivity of the cropping systems in use. However, the area can take advantage of assets such as water resources development schemes and irrigated crops. 6- As stated earlier on,the PDRT seeks to achieve the following set goals: i) increasing crop yields by improving irrigation efficiency; ii) increasing acreage under irrigation; iii) increasing productivity of collectively-used rangelands, while contributing to ensure environmental protection; iv) protecting villages and irrigation networks against sand-dust storms; v) building rural facilities and vi) promoting gender equity in economic and cultural development . 7- The total project cost is estimated at USD 30,02 million, financed by an IFAD loan of 11,8 million Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) (16,45 million USD), an IDB loan of USD 7,04 million . The Government’s contribution totals approximately USD 5,63 million. Beneficiaries have contributed USD 0,90 million in the form of labour . The irrigation component represents 69 % of the total cost of the project. 8- During a mission carried out in the area by experts from the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), it was deemed necessary to undertake actions to upgrade users’ capacities to deal with management of irrigation infrastructure. Based on the results of the mission, plans of the research project for the improvement of participatory irrigation management were developed and implemented. 9- The current document is a progress report on the research project for improvement of the participatory irrigation management. After a brief overview of the project (in terms of goals, components and implementation strategies), the results and achievements are presented. Conclusions and recommendations are put forth.

II. PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH PROJECT FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT. A. AIMS.

10- The project which has benefited from an IFAD donation2, aims to put in ballast the prerequisites to make it possible for users to upgrade their capacities pertaining to: 1- PDRT is financed by the Government of Morocco, The Islamic Bank for Development (IDB) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD 2- The project is jointly financed by ORMVATf, through making staff and facilities available to the project, and by IFAD through a donation of $US 490.000.

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(i) getting organized within the structure of an association to deal with water resources; and (ii) meeting operation and maintenance costs of irrigation systems. 11- A pilot action plan has been implemented in two small-scale irrigation systems falling within the scope of action of the Tafilalet Rural Development Project (PDRT). The project has targeted two localities Jorf and Tinjdad where the problem of water scarcity is most acute. The plan is based on the following three basic actions: (i) promoting adoption of partnership schemes involving various departments of the Ministry of Agriculture and users as regards the development of water resources and rehabilitation of irrigation infrastructure; (ii) increasingly involve the Regional Office of Agricultural Development of the Tafilalet (ORMVATf)1 in providing supervision and technical backstopping to the WUAs and (iii) encouraging use of water-saving irrigation strategies.

B. IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY.

12- In order to achieve the set goals stated earlier on, the following courses of action have been followed: (i) ORMVATf engaged in consultations with irrigation system users in the area to gauge their predisposition to take part in the program. The consultations were used as a platform to shed light on the program goals and the criteria underpinning the participation of grass roots populations. On the basis of results accruing from these consultations, geographical units were identified in joint collaboration with IFAD; (ii) ORMVATf helped to organize users in associations according to the type of irrigation resource available: khettaras (underground galleries)2 allowing storage and transport of inflow water from aquifers located several kilometres away from the irrigation system, also from wells and floodwater for combined use of these resources; (iii) The IFAD/ORMVATf working group took part in the workshop hosted by Bari, Italy from 12-16 June, 2000. It finalized the project action plan and identified the course of action for its implementation; (iv) ORMVATf in joint collaboration with IFAD organized a workshop and a study tour program for staff in charge of the Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM), the WUAs’ members and farmers with a view : (i) to developing a common understanding of the goals pursued by the program; (ii) facilitating training and orientation on regulatory and procedural measures in force; and (iii) providing assistance to ensure promotion of co-operation and conflictmanagement mechanisms in the field of PIM;

1- The Regional Office of Agricultural Development of the Tafilalet (ORMVATf) is a regional structure of the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Marine Fisheries in the area of Tafilalet. 2- It is a system which has been cleverly engineered and is well- developed in the arid regions of Morocco and Algeria; it is also known in Central Asia (i.e. Iran...). Khettara, originally from Iran and is known as “Qanat” is a traditional mechanism for harvesting underground waters and introduced into Morocco by Arabs in the 12th century.

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(v) The study trips abroad were prepared in such a way as to give a chance to all participants to benefit from the experiences of other countries in the field; (vi) Reinforcing the unit in charge of PIM through creating a multidisciplinary team made up of community-based organizations, communication and management workers as well as agents with expertise in the technical specificities and in the social magnitude of the irrigation systems peculiar to the area; (vii) Implementing an institutional development programme for WUAs and ORMVATf employees to allow them to upgrade their skills in planning, assessment and financial management of projects and improvement of irrigation water efficiency. (viii) Also implementation of a follow-up evaluation system of the program: (i) to monitor users’ participation rates in management of irrigation systems ; and (ii) to study the impact of this integrated approach on irrigation systems efficiency in the project areas; C. PROJECT COMPONENTS

13- The major project components are: (i) promoting awareness building, organizing and establishing associations; (ii) supporting NGOs in their efforts to ensure operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure; (iii) equipping demonstration plots with drip irrigation; (iv) organizing study tours and training courses; and (v) acquiring logistics support III. PROJECT ACHIEVEMENTS A. BUILDING AWARENESS, PROMOTING ESTABLISHMENT OF ASSOCIATIONS

ORGANIZATION

AND

14- CIHEAM, Bari, Italy, provided technical support for project implementation through organizing workshops, orientation missions and consensus-building. ORMVATf ensured project monitoring and implementation by calling upon national experts when needed: (agreements with the Horticultural Complex of Agadir of Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Sciences (IAV), the Office of Co-operation Development (ODCO) and the Office for Vocational Training and Promotion of Employment (OFPPT)). 15- Awareness-building and training campaigns provided for within the project framework were carried out totally. On the whole twenty-one training courses were administered and their breakdowns are as follows: (i) Two awareness-building sessions involving 31 associations and co-operatives which fully endorsed the project and agreed to sign a management contract; (ii) Three follow-up workshop sessions organized in Bari and two training sessions on accounting;

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(iii) Two institutional and organisational training courses aiming at strengthening capacity building of WUAs’ in institutional and organisational areas to improve their management skills; (iv) Seven technical training sessions to promote irrigation water-saving strategies; and (v) Six training sessions on computer-based techniques: (Excel, Access and Autocad). B. SUPPORT TO NGOS FOR ENHANCING PROTECTION OF IRRIGATION INFRASTRUCTURE

16- This action aims to support WUAs to protect and take ownership for irrigation infrastructure. Two agreements were signed and carried out: (i) The first agreement pertains to digging and equipping a well with a motor pump for drip irrigation: 700 ml pipe in addition to a network of calibrated hydraulic nozzles for biological protection against sand dusts of the Guefifat flood water canal spill; (ii) The second agreement consists in purchasing two cisterns to the Tinjdad NGO for irrigating plantations intended for protecting irrigation infrastructure in the Tinejdad irrigation system; 17- Two other agreements are being implemented. They target the rehabilitation of inlet gates in Tinjdad and irrigation networks in Jorf. The agreements are scheduled for implementation within the framework of the budget allowance of IFAD donation. C. EQUIPPING ON-FARM DEMONSTRATION PLOTS WITH DRIP IRRIGATION

18- Infrastructure deployment and equipment of on-farm demonstration plots has concerned equipping five farms with drip irrigation using water from pumping stations (2 in Tinjdad and 3 in Jorf). As regards khettaras, equipment of 2 farms was performed through construction of a geomembrane storage pond capacity of 2000 m3 and setting up a drip-irrigation network for optimizing water rights from khettaras.. Within the project framework, the total acrea equipped with drip irrigation amounts to 10 hectares. D. ORGANIZING STUDY TOURS AND TRAINING SESSIONS

19- The study tours and training sessions scheduled by the project were intended to help farmers and technicians to have access to and share experiences with similar associations operating in irrigated systems using state of the art water-saving strategies. Thus, 3 in-country field trips (lasting over 12 days) were organized to the irrigation systems of Moulouya (North-eastern Morocco), Haouz (Center-southern) and Souss Massa (South-western) involving150 people (WUAs’members and technicians affiliated with ORMVATf). 20- A trip was also organized to Valence in Spain for 2 presidents of WUAs, 4 farmers (who were provided with drip irrigation implements by project), 2 directors of the

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centres for agricultural development, one coordinator of the subdivision activities of Goulmima and an officer in charge of WUAs’ follow-up unit. 21- These field trips made it possible for participants to draw benefits from homegrown experiences as well as from those of foreign countries as regards participatory irrigation management and water-saving strategies. 22- In addition, during project implementation period, four workshops were organized: (i) A project start-up workshop to address issues related to creating appropriate conditions for better participatory irrigation management; (ii) Three other follow-up workshops were convened to accommodate project implementation: (i) Tunis from 28/02/04 through 3/03/2004; (ii) Cairo from 15/02/2005 through 17/02/2005; and (iii) Morocco from 30/05/05 through 3/06/2005. 23- During the workshops, previous achievements were surveyed and proposals for approval of the program for the following year were tabled. E. FOLLOW-UP EVALUATION SYSTEM:

24- A database for conducting follow-up evaluation of participatory irrigation management was developed with project support. Setting –up of database was carried out in the subdivisions of ORMVATF. Data processing is underway. F. ACQUISITION OF LOGISTICS SUPPORT:

25- To ease implementation of project work, four vehicles in addition to computer and audio-visual equipment were purchased. IV. RESULTS AND PROJECT IMPACT 26- Thanks to the efforts made within the framework of the project, a very positive impact was recorded with regard to three main aspects. A. ORGANISATIONAL ASPECTS OF FARMERS CLUSTERED IN ASSOCIATION OR COOPERATIVES:

27- The number of farmers targeted by the project amounts to 13. 200. They are organized in 20 associations and 10 water pumping co-operatives. The table below shows the membership of WUAs. Jorf

Tinejdad

Total

Number of prospective members

8. 107

5. 080

13. 187

Membership

5. 685

2. 914

8. 599

Membership percentage

70 %

57 %

65 %

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28- About half (15) of the 30 WUAs are regularly active. One third (11) of the WUAs still face some organisational problems- problems which yet are not a major hurdle to their being operational. 4 WUAs (13%) are confronted with operation difficulties. B. NATURE OF USERS’ CONTRIBUTIONS INFRASTRUCTURE REHABILITATION.

TOWARDS

IRRIGATION

29- The most striking impact of the development of WUAs is reflected through their large-scale contribution towards rehabilitating and maintaining the irrigation infrastructure initiated by ORMVATF. This is also illustrative of the reorganization and approval made of 30 WUAs within the two areas targeted by the project. These have become partly responsible for a variety of maintenance activities and for settling conflicts for ensuring efficient water management. 30- The users’ contribution towards maintenance of irrigation infrastructure is one of the aspects worthy of consideration. This contribution is provided through labour. The table below shows the financial value of WUAs’ contribution in rehabilitating irrigation infrastructure.

ORMVATaf

WUAs

(in 1000 hectare)

(1000) Dirhams

Diversion weirs

10

12.8

Main canals1

69.6

152.5

Khettaras

51

145

Pumping stations

135

52.2

Sand control

981.4

386

Aggregate total

1247

784.5

%

62

38

C. NATURE OF IRRIGATION IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

31- Farmers running the demonstration plots expressed their satisfaction regarding the introduction of this new irrigation technique (i.e. drip irrigation) into the targeted areas. Irrigation is mainly associated with market gardening crops which is viewed as a highly beneficial short- term type of farming. The long-term objective is to use drip irrigation for date palms and other adjoining key cash crops. 32- The water savings made through the newly- introduced irrigation pattern (i.e. drip irrigation) enabled farmers: (i) to grow two or three crops per year; (ii) to expand cropping to involve previously insufficiently watered plots using the conventional 1- Users take full charge of maintenance of secondary and tertiary canals.

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irrigation system (i.e flow irrigation); (iii) to sell excess water to the khettaras; and (iv) to decrease water pumping from wells, therefore contributing to ensure stability of the water table. 33- The total acreage of demonstration plots equipped through project support is 10 hectares. Fully convinced of the benefits accruing from drip irrigation, farmers took the initiative to equip their farms at their own expenses. Over a two years’ period, 12 additional hectares of acreage currently under equipment with drip irrigation by farmers will be made available, amounting to a 120 % increase through project gradual support. 34- The project has impacted positively on the area. The table below shows the evolution pattern of drip irrigation:

Area outfitted in 2002 (ha)

Area outfitted in 2004 (ha)

Area currently being outfitted (ha)

Expressed requests (ha)

119

285

412

909

Total

D. A Sample of Achievements Recorded by some Farmers 35- The table below shows a sample of some of the accomplishments performed by some farmers

Farm n°

1

2

3

4

5

6

Rural commune

F.Oulia

F.Oulia

Fezna

Jorf

Jorf

Hanabou

8

22

8

13

6

4,5

1.8

19

1 .7

1.25

1.16

2.5

9.5

2.5

40%

60%

Cropped acreage (ha) Total Outfitted by projet Outfitted by farmers

Outcomes Water savings

50%

40%

60%

70%

Labour savings

85%

80%

90%

60%

65%

Imrovement in productivity

60%

50%

80%

75%

65%

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36- Thus, after two years’ training and experimentation, we have noticed the following features: (i) Farmer n°1 was able to set up his own nursery to produce good quality plantlets which he distributed to farmers in the area; (ii) Farmer n°2: Being persuaded that localised irrigation is advantageous, he proceeded to gradually outfit 9. 5 ha acreage at his own expenses. (iii) Farmer n°3 bought and outfitted 2. 5 ha, in addition to producing plantlets. His aim is to equip and crop a 6 ha acreage with high quality date palms and other key cash crops.

V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS: 37- After four years of program implementation, and while still focusing on introduction of a new methodology and an approach for involving farmers in securing the durability of irrigation infrastructure, the project can boast of accomplishing the goals set down: (i) organizing and training of farmers within the framework of their WUAs; (ii) raising their consciousness through training and study trips; (iii) improving irrigation water management through setting up demonstration plots and purchasing logistics support; and (iv) setting up a database to be used in the follow-up evaluation of WUAs’ performances. 38- The experience gained by all partners, i.e. ORMVATF (project team members and staff), NGOs and WUAs as regards implementation of participatory irrigation management and water-saving strategies, will be generalized to cover the whole of ORMVATF area and will certainly have a positive impact on water management policy at the scale of the region. 39- However, because of some shortcomings in terms of implementation of follow-up evaluation and in terms of capacity building of the co-operatives and associations, a consolidation programme in the form of a research-oriented development project is deemed necessary – a project geared toward: (i) Pursuing the project action plan related to water- saving strategies, particularly from khettaras, the pumping stations through use of storage basins. (ii) Consolidating water demand management (i.e. through technical and institutional measures and through capacity building of technicians and farmers); (iii) Designing effective strategies for the management of the water tables and khettaras that are subjected to inopportune uses through excessive pumping; (iv) Seeking more effective ways to keep within an associative framework management of floodwaters and water from storage dams. (v) Within water management issues, incorporating a research component on ways and means to integrate rural gender within association-based groups for increasing the returns on water in economic terms.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

PRDA: A PARTICIPATORY METHODOLOGY FOR ANALYZING AND IMPROVING IRRIGATION PERFORMANCE: CONCEPTUALIZATION AND EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION IN KENYA

Philippe Lemperiere1

ABSTRACT In Sub-Saharan Africa, agriculture is the backbone of the economy and employs approx 70% of the active work force. Rain-fed agriculture is largely dominant and agricultural production is increasingly vulnerable to erratic rainfalls and recurrent droughts. Although irrigation development is still in its infant stage in most countries and its performance remains largely below expectations of policy planners, it is believed it has a strong potential for rural development and economic growth. The APPIA project is implemented in several countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. APPIA is a French acronym for “Improving Irrigation Performance in Africa”. One of the major activities of the project was to develop and test in the field a participatory methodology for analysing and improving the performance of farmer-managed irrigation scheme. This methodology has been named PRDA for “Participatory Rapid Analysis and Action Planning of Irrigated Agricultural Systems”. A manual published by IWMI and the FAO presents the details of the methodology. The present document aims to illustrate the approach of the project in one of the APPIA countries. This paper first describes briefly the situation of smallholder irrigation in Kenya and the numerous questions regarding the performance of such schemes. PRDA is then presented and a case study of its application in one Kenyan scheme is given. In conclusion this paper suggests a set of recommendations for effective use of PRDA based on the lessons learnt in the African countries where it was tested. This paper discusses the issues at stake at different level: government, Water Users Association and individual farmers for successful smallholder irrigation. It highlights the following key principles of the PRDA methodology: x A systemic approach of irrigation management using a conceptual framework including irrigation technology; individual and collective farmers’ practices, institutional and economic issues; x Adapting Participatory Rapid Rural Appraisal tools to the specific context of smallholder irrigation;

1- Office for the Nile Basin and Eastern Africa, P.O Box 5689 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Tel: +251 116 463 215 ; Fax:+ 251 116 461 252, E mail: [email protected]

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x Establishing multi-disciplinary partnerships between farmers’ organizations, engineers, agronomists, extension agents, economists, decision and policy makers; x Acquiring a shared vision of irrigation management and of a long term sustainability of irrigation systems, including economic, social and technical perspectives; x Promoting information, collective awareness and mutual learning processes amongst irrigation stakeholders. Finally and based on the results obtained during the course of the APPIA project, the present document suggest that PRDA may be one tool to achieve successful participatory irrigation management that can be used by multi-disciplinary / multi purpose organization such as National Irrigation and Drainage Committees. INTRODUCTION In Sub-Saharan Africa, agriculture accounts for approximately 70 percent of the economically active population. In this part of the World, rain-fed agriculture is largely dominant and its productivity has been stagnating over the past forty years. Volatile rains, soil degradation together with continuous price depreciation of agricultural products on the World market explain the stagnation of rain-fed agriculture and the increase of rural poverty in Sub Saharan Africa. Irrigation can significantly improve agricultural productivity and is unquestionably one option for economic development. However in the time of cost recovery, farmermanaged irrigation and increasing competition over the limited water resources, irrigation productivity and sustainability must be assessed with care. It is now widely recognized that irrigation performance depends on managerial and technical capacities of the concerned communities as well as the nature of relationships between irrigation technology, institutions and economics. Hence the need for tools to understand the key factors of irrigation performance and establish partnerships with irrigating farmers and their organizations to provide them more effective and demand driven support services. This paper relates to the experience of the APPIA project. This project was launched in March 2003. APPIA is a French acronym for Improving Irrigation Performance in Africa. ARID1 ensures the project coordination for the West Africa component: Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal; while IWMI (office for Nile Basin and Eastern Africa in Addis Ababa) implements the project together with national partners in Ethiopia and Kenya. The principal objective of APPIA is contributing to the development of a productive and sustainable farmer-managed irrigation in Sub-Saharan Africa. An important activity of the project has been developing and testing in all concerned countries a methodology named PRDA for “Rapid Diagnosis and Action Planning of Irrigated Agricultural Systems”. The present document aims to illustrate the approach of the project in one of the APPIA countries. This paper first describes briefly the situation of smallholder irrigation in Kenya and the numerous questions regarding the performance of such schemes. PRDA is then presented and a case study of its application in one Kenyan scheme is given. Finally this paper suggests a set of recommendations for effective use of PRDA based on the lessons learnt in the African countries where it was tested. 1- ARID: Association Régionale pour l’Irrigation et le Drainage based in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

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1. SMALLHOLDER IRRIGATION IN KENYA: ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES 1.1. PRESENT SITUATION

At present Kenya has 105,000 Ha under irrigation for both smallholder and large commercial irrigation. As described in table 1, different types of irrigation systems have evolved in the country. Irrigation consumes approximately 75% of the available water resource of the country and covers about 2% of the total cultivated area (5.2 million Ha) and almost 20% of the irrigation potential estimated at 539,000 Ha. The agricultural sector contributes to 30% of the GDP, 56% if agro-based industries are included. According to the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, smallholder irrigation schemes cover 62,000 Ha. It mainly consists of group-schemes (total area: 35,000 Ha) with gravity or pump water supply in which horticulture or rice crops are grown. In smallholder individual schemes (total: approx 11,000 Ha), the water supply is manual (buckets) or pump-fed (motorized or treadle pumps) from open water source and the production concentrates on horticulture crops. Centrally managed schemes (Total area: 16,000 Ha) are managed by public agencies but the process of management transfer to farmers is underway, water is abstracted by river diversion or pumping and rice is the predominant crop. In spite of such a relatively small contribution, it is believed that smallholder irrigation could play an important role in rural development, since it can potentially provide food security, income and employment opportunities. Table 1: A typology of irrigation in Kenya Type of scheme

Commercial schemes

Smallholder schemes

Sub-type

Individual schemes

Group-based schemes

Centrally managed schemes

_

Period of development

Rapidly increasing since the 1990s

1970s & 1980s

1950 - 1970

Rapid development in the 1980s and 90s

Number

--

About 1,000

10

--

Total area

About 11,000 Ha

35,000 Ha

16,000 Ha

43,000 Ha

Range of scheme size

0.1 – 0.5 Ha

10- 900 Ha

350 – 6,000 Ha

4 – 3,000 Ha

Average farm size per beneficiary

As above

0.25 – 1 Ha

1 – 1,5 Ha

--

Operation and maintenance

Individual farmers

Water Users Associations

Public agency (on-going transfer)

Private enterprise

Land tenure

Private

Private

Public with tenant farmers

Private

Source of funds

Farmers

Government or NGOs

Government

Kenyan and foreign investors.

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Currently irrigation development is led by the private sector: smallholders and investors who supply the domestic market and export horticulture products to the European Union. Kenya has thus become since 1999 the first flower exporter to the European Union. Factors identified to have contributed to the success of vegetable, fruits and flowers production aside from favourable geography and climate are (a) improvements in transportation infrastructure, (b) Availability of low cost irrigation equipment such as pumps, (c) rapidly growing urban population, (d) an improved environment for private and international investment, (e) macroeconomic stability and realistic exchange rates and (f) development of international commercial links. 1.2. AGRICULTURAL AND ECONOMIC PRODUCTIVITY OF SMALLHOLDER IRRIGATION.

Yields are generally low when compared to FAO benchmark for Sub-Saharan Africa as indicated for some crops in table 2. Low yields result from a combination of factors: difficulty in sourcing inputs, poor access to credit, problems related to insecure irrigation water distribution, inadequate extension service and marketing risks. Table 2: Examples of average yields in smallholder irrigation schemes in Kenya Crops Average yield (range: t/Ha) Benchmark (t/Ha)

Sweet potatoes

French beans

Cabbage

Onions

Tomatoes

8 - 11

5-7

10-14

8-10

8 - 12

15

10

25

25

30

Bananas 15 – 20 Per year 40 Per year

Rice 2-4

6

Gross margin per Ha of smallholder irrigated horticulture (excluding depreciation of equipment and family labour) varies between 1,700 and 2,800 USD/Ha according to yields and type of crops grown. Thus irrigated horticulture is an attractive option for Kenyan farmers if compared to the competing rain-fed cultivation of maize where gross margins are about 570 USD/Ha. However, labour productivity remains quite low, 2 to 3 USD/family man-day, and quite comparable with labour productivity of rain-fed maize (2.70 USD/man-day) and daily rate of unskilled labour in rural areas (2 USD/day). 1.3. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE (O & M)

O&M is the weakest link in smallholder irrigation scheme in Kenya. There are generally four causes to this problem. The fist one is poor feasibility, planning and design (especially choice of technology) of many irrigation projects. The second is the weak management structure and low capacity of Irrigation Water Users Associations. The third is shortage of funds because farmers are unwilling to pay the O&M fee because the service is poor or they have not seen clear benefits from previous payments. Finally the fourth problem is associated with siltation of canals due to poor management of river catchments.

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1.4. ISSUES AT STAKE

The above raises a series of questions and demands investigation at three different levels. ¾Government level x Policies and measures that accompany irrigation development: Extension services and research, design of training programmes, legal framework for water users association, input supply and credit, market information; x Improvement of preparation, design and construction of irrigation projects with a view to reduce costs and enhance benefits of irrigation development; x Irrigation cost recovery / subsidies policy or in other words to which extent can capital costs be covered by farmers’ contribution; x Enabling economic environment for marketing agricultural production. ¾Water Users Association (WUA) level x Formation of representative WUAs for negotiation with external players; x Capacity of WUAs for managing technical and financial aspects of operation and maintenance; x Operation & Maintenance charging system taking into account farmers’ capacity to pay and cost recovery requirements. ¾Farmers’ level x Increasing productivity of cropping systems to make them compatible with a cost recovery approach of irrigation management or in other words so that farmers are able (and willing) to pay O & M fee; x Improvement of on-farm water management. 2. PRDA: PARTICIPATIVE RAPID DIAGNOSIS AND ACTION PLANNING OF IRRIGATED AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS. 2.1. PRDA MANUAL

This paper gives only a synthetic presentation of the methodology. A manual (Van der Schans, Lempérière; IWMI-FAO-IPTRID 2006) explains in details and in a simple way how to carry out a PRDA. The manual explains the methodology in a practical manner. Chapter 1 is a general presentation. Chapter 2 summarizes the overall method and the different steps of its application. In chapter 3 the conceptual framework (the constituents of irrigation systems) is introduced. Chapters 4 and 5 give information for organizing a PRDA and some practical advices to conduct a PRDA. The tools to be used during PRDA are described in annex A. Finally in annex B, a series of Reporting Sheets are provided to write down and analyze results after fieldwork.

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2.2. WHAT IS PRDA?

PRDA is an approach for analyzing and improving irrigation performance together with farmers. The diagnosis aims to identify the limiting factors of performance: irrigation productivity and sustainability. Action plan to improve performance can have three components: (a) increase capital investments and inputs, (b) improve organizations responsible for O&M, and (c) enhance individual farming skills. PRDA methodology and tools are an adaptation of several participatory methods to the situation of irrigated agricultural systems: ¾Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA): rapid assessment according to criteria set by the researcher ¾Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): facilitating discussion amongst farmers and sharing of information with and amongst farmers. ¾Participatory Learning and Action (PLA): Farmers and researchers learn throughout the project cycle and use these lessons to engage in individual or joint action. These participatory approaches are combined with existing methodologies for Benchmarking that have been modified to suit the scale and limited quantitative data availability of farmer- managed irrigation schemes. 2.3. TARGET PEOPLE AND ORGANIZATIONS

PRDA is primarily meant for extension organizations wanting to improve their services to irrigating farmers and their organizations. Combined results of several irrigation schemes can also be used to formulate more general policy recommendations. A PRDA team consists ideally of four people, but it may be smaller when dealing with small irrigation system. Team members should have different disciplinary background, for example: irrigation engineer, agronomist, economist and specialist of farmers’ organizations. 2.4. OBJECTIVES OF PRDA

x Identify the main limiting factors of the productivity and sustainability of agricultural irrigated systems x Evaluate extension services and other supporting services provided to farmers x Identify interventions to improve performance x Describe the main characteristics of selected systems in order to enable more extensive monitoring of performance in the future. 2.5. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Irrigation performance results of interplay between irrigation technology, farmers’ practices, institutional arrangements and economics. PRDA uses a conceptual model for irrigated agricultural systems to help classifying collected information in a structured

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manner and process it to make a diagnosis and propose sound solutions to improve performance. For PRDA four constituents are identified to represent an irrigated agricultural system.

Plot use

Irrigation Scheme

Socio-economic Environment

Organization

Figure 1: The four constituents of irrigated agricultural systems

2.5.1. Irrigation scheme

It is the physical system to convey and apply water to irrigated lands. For PRDA, it is assumed that the type of technology strongly determines the manageability of the scheme by farmers and their organizations. The constituent irrigation scheme can be seen as a sub-system with six constituents as shown in figure 2. On the left-hand side are the constituents that refer to the land; they should be consistent with each other. On the right-hand side are the “water constituents” that should be fitted to the “land constituents”; at each horizontal there is a close link between each “land constituent” and “water constituent” that should ensure the cohesion of the irrigation scheme. Land sub-constituents 1. Site Soils, climate, topography

3. Lay-out Shape and size of secondary & tertiary units

5. Plots Size and shape, levelling

Water sub-constituents 2. Water resource

Nature and availability of resource and mean of abstraction

4. Water circulation Water conveyance and distribution structures

6. Water application Discharge at plot level Irrigation depth and intervals

Figure 2: Sub-constituents of irrigation scheme

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2.5.2. Plot use

This constituent includes all agricultural practices and production of irrigated plots. Usually decisions regarding plot use are made at household level in relation with other farming and not farming activities implemented by household members. Characteristics of “plot use” are the cropping system (type of crops, crop rotation and use of inputs, labour and farming equipment), land and labour productivity and farmers’ income. PRDA does not seek to impose adoption by farmers of recommended practices such as ready-made “technology package” but rather highlights and explains the actual farmers’ practices and seek opportunities for their improvement considering farmers’ objectives, knowledge, skills and constraints. 2.5.3. Organization

Group-based irrigation systems imply an organization (e.g. a Water Users Association) of individual farmers who wish to undertake irrigation management related activities for their mutual benefit. For PRDA, analysis of organization involves the objectives or functions (water distribution, maintenance, planning of cropping seasons, etc.), the structure (members and organizational chart), assets (office, equipment), technical and managerial capacity to perform its functions and rules of the organization. Owing to the increasing complexity and dynamics of irrigation organisations, and to the increasing uncertainty of their economic environment, PRDA does not seek bringing ready-made solutions and one-way prescriptions or “recipes”, but rather promotes effective and flexible tools and practices for technical, social and financial management. 2.5.4. The socio-economic environment

This is not exactly a constituent of irrigated agricultural systems but rather a range of relations between individual farmers and their organization with various organizations and individual, i.e. irrigation agencies, extension services, inputs providers, credit institutions, traders or cooperatives, etc. 2.6. PROCEDURE: A THREE STEPS APPROACH. Figure 3 show details of the three steps of PRDA: (a) Preparation: review of secondary data and consultation with farmers to seek their cooperation and with potential partner institutions that may assist in fieldwork, provide expertise and help implementing solutions); (b) Diagnosis: collection of primary data using PRDA tools with farmers, assessment of performance, identification and ranking of constraints of productivity and sustainability and detailed analysis of constraints (causes and consequences); (c) Action planning: Identification, assessment of solutions (their impacts, costs and benefits) and formulation of action plan. It may not be possible to arrive at a well-structured action plan (including a logical frame) during PRDA itself, which takes less than one month. The action plan can also be finalized just before the next irrigation season with other potential partner institutions that could provide technical or financial assistance.

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Table 3: Estimated time required to do PRDA on irrigation schemes of different size Scheme size

10 ha

100 ha

1000 ha

Preparation

4 days

5 days

8 days

Diagnosis

6 days

8 days

13 days

Action planning

2 days

2 days

4 days

Total per person

12 days

15 days

25 days

Recommended team size

2 persons

2 to 4 persons

4 persons

Preparation

Primary data collection

Performance assessment

Diagnosis

Constraint analysis

Solution identification

Constraint identification & ranking

Action planning

Action plan Monitoring & evaluation

Figure 3: PRDA procedure

Impact & cost / benefit assessment

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3. EXAMPLE OF PRDA APPLICATION IN MWEA IRRIGATION SCHEME, KENYA. 3.1. MWEA IRRIGATION SCHEME

The irrigation scheme is located at the foothills of Mount Kenya, about 100 Km to the Northeast of Nairobi. The irrigated area of 6,000 Ha supports a population of 4,000 farming households. Mwea is the largest centrally managed irrigation scheme in Kenya. It gets its water by gravity from two rivers originating from the watershed of Mt Kenya. Rice is grown for only one season per year. It uses the flooded paddy irrigation method. The history of Mwea goes back to 1953 when it was developed under the British colonial government using captive Mau Mau (freedom fighters) labour. Soon after independence in 1963, the scheme was handed-over to the National Irrigation Board (NIB) a public irrigation agency. The NIB treated farmers as passive recipients of strict instructions regarding the management of the scheme and the role of farmers was limited to labour provision in paddy fields. There were quite a number of areas of conflict between NIB and farmers regarding cost of irrigation services (agricultural inputs and O & M fee) and absence of farmers’ voice in the management of the scheme. These conflicts heightened in 1998 when farmers rebelled against NIB and their cooperative took over the management of the scheme in 1999. In the following years the scheme (and the cooperative) almost collapsed and in 2003, farmers and NIB reached an agreement. Under this agreement, a process of partial irrigation management transfer was initiated. It redefines the role of NIB to operation and maintenance of the major irrigation and drainage infrastructure and includes the formation of a Water Users Association. PRDA was conducted in 2004 to support the process of irrigation management transfer. 3.2. DIAGNOSIS

PRDA was carried out in Mwea in the fist quarter of 2004 by 2 NIB officers (irrigation engineers) a specialist of Farmers’ organizations and an agro-economist from the ministry of agriculture. Inadequate water delivery at farm level was identified as the main constraint faced by farmers. As a consequence approximately half of the scheme stopped production and average paddy yield in cultivated area dropped from 5 to 3 tons / Ha. The diagnosis allowed making a comprehensive analysis of the causes of water shortage: 1- The flow of the two rivers supplying the scheme has been decreasing due to deforestation of the slopes of Mount Kenya (and perhaps climate change affecting East Africa). The intake work no longer makes it possible to supply the scheme during the peak irrigation periods. In addition irrigated area has been quickly increasing in the upper part of the watershed without real control by the Government authorities. Conflicts between Mwea farmers and water users upstream seemed inevitable if the Government pursues its “business as usual” policy or does not make investments aiming to increase the water resource. 2- High conveyance losses resulting of poor (quasi absence of maintenance); neither the cooperative or NIB was able to collect an O & M fee.

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3- Absence of organized water distribution in the scheme 4- Poor on-farm water management: due to insecure water supply and absence of irrigation schedule, many farmers tended to irrigate their plots with as much water as possible when water was available and without considering actual crops water requirements to extent to which that approx 600 Ha were affected by water logging and salinity problems. Such a diagnosis could have been made by a team of experts in a few days and without much consultation with farmers. Value added of PRDA was to favour information sharing, discussion, learning processes and collective awareness amongst farmers and between farmers and the evaluation team. Validation of the diagnosis by farmers was of crucial for the design and implementation of solutions. 3.3. ACTION PLANNING

Based on the diagnosis farmers and the evaluation team designed together an action to improve irrigation performance in Mwea irrigation scheme. Objective of the action plan was to improve and secure water availability within all plots by implementing the process of irrigation management transfer (IMT). Action plan for the IMT process included the following steps: 1- Formation of a Steering Committee for defining a strategy for IMT, the members were local government officials, NIB officers, elected farmers, representatives of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation and Ministry of Agriculture. 2- Organization of farmers meeting to discuss about issues and approve strategy for IMT. 3- Formation of the Water Users Associations (WUAs) and election of leaders by farmers: 62 WUAs at block level and an umbrella Association for the entire scheme. 4- Training of elected WUAs leaders. 5- Establishment of a water charging system for maintenance of main water infrastructure by NIB. 6- Development of WUA’s By-Laws by all member farmers. 7- Starting of Operation of the WUAs. 8- Capacity Development of WUAs (offices, equipment, management tools, etc.) 9- Consultations between NIB and the WUA to find solutions to the water shortage problem. 3.4. RESULTS

Following IMT, The National Irrigation Board (NIB) has now been accepted to be a water service provider. It has improved the canal system through proper maintenance and collects the O & M fee. Farmers now maintain canals in the tertiary units.

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Water shortage has also been alleviated through the implementation of a plan for staggered cropping: planting dates are now phased in fields / sections of the scheme. This planning is done by both the NIB and the WUAs. New crops (soya, peas and maize) have been introduced by the Ministry of agriculture through demonstration plots belonging to voluntary farmers. They are planted immediately after rice is harvested. Thus the cropping intensity is increased. Water shortage has also been alleviated through the construction of a water reservoir by NIB. This reservoir collects water from canals at night and during off-peak irrigation season. Stored water is then used for irrigation during peak water requirement periods. Construction of a second reservoir is planned. Mwea umbrella Water Users Association has approached the local governmental authorities for the formation of a river-based Water Users Association to improve water management at the catchment level. As per today consultations of concerned players have been initiated. Average paddy yields in the scheme are now 5.4 tons/Ha and almost all the command area was cultivated in 2006. The annual O & M fee for NIB service is 80 USD/Ha and represents 3% of the total value of production for the average yield; a level that seems quite acceptable to farmers since the recovery rate in 2006 was 95%. 3.5. LESSONS LEARNT

The case of Mwea irrigation scheme is now cited in Kenya as an example of successfull Irrigation Management Transfer, while a few years back the situation of the schemes seemed hopeless. However some conflicts remain between the NIB and the cooperative and between farmers and the cooperative. The main contribution of PRDA approach is very likely that it has helped a lot re-establishing a dialog and mutual trust between farmers and the NIB for redefining their respective tasks and responsibilities within the framework of Irrigation management transfer. Once again, information, discussion, learning processes and collective awareness are the key words for participatory irrigation management.

CONCLUSION When compared to other participatory methodology, practitioners of PRDA in SubSaharan Africa have noted the high level of professionalism and special focus the method has on irrigation issues. The conceptual framework of the method is easy to understand. However, some practitioners found it difficult to understand the whole process. This may require the development of a training curriculum based on the manual and a greater attention to the educational background and experience of individuals when constituting PRDA teams. Within an irrigation scheme, diverse strategies may develop, depending on each household’s history, composition, objectives, and so on. When doing a PRDA, it is impossible to take account of each and every household’s characteristics; however, it may be irrelevant to consider the scheme homogeneous. Hence we recommend adding

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to PRDA approach making a typology of farmers that groups households with similar strategies and characteristics. Such a typology should be of a simple and practical nature and focus on landholding size, land tenure and production and marketing styles. Institutional stability is strong factor of success of PRDA. In Ethiopia frequent institutional change and staff transfer in extension and other supporting services to irrigating farmers has hampered the process and caused losses of information. PRDA takes root in the context of smallholder irrigation scheme in Africa. It relies on a number of background principles, orientations and concepts among which it seems important to highlight the following: x Establishing multi-disciplinary partnerships, meaning that farmers’ organizations, engineers, agronomists, extension agents, economists, decision and policy makers have been involved in the process. x Acquiring a shared vision of irrigation management and of a long term sustainability of irrigation systems, including economic, social and technical perspectives. x Promoting information, collective awareness and mutual learning processes amongst irrigation stakeholders. In Kenya, the APPIA project and PRDA approach raised a strong and sustained interest of various stakeholders (farmers, engineers, economists and policy makers) and offered a unique opportunity to do fieldwork collectively and in a multi-disciplinary manner. Technicians and policy makers realized that there was no organization in country that can address all issues related to irrigation management. Hence the Ministry of Water and Irrigation decided the formation of a professional association to enhance networking amongst irrigation players, implement multi-disciplinary approaches and develop further Research & Development programs. In countries where they exist this could be one role of the National Irrigation & Drainage Committees.

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The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

THE NECESSITY OF FARMERS PARTICIPATION IN CONSTRUCTION OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS FOR PIM SUSTAINABILITY IN IRAN

H. R. Hejazi1

ABSTRACT As a developing country, Iran has several large-scale irrigation and drainage networks under study and operation. These networks are often constructed in small-scale farmlands, and because of water deficit, inappropriate topography and incentive policies, they are equipped with pressurized irrigation systems in which operation is more complicated, comparing with surface irrigation method. On the other hand, government policy is to develop private sector and therefore transferring operation of the networks to farmers organizations is highly considered. Regarding considerable costs of project execution which is provided by public credits also bank facilities by farmers commitment establishing a sustainable PIM is highly important. Nowadays, national policy is often accelerating construction in large-scale pressurized irrigation projects, as a result all components of pressurized irrigation systems being performed by government, so farmers do not play such an important role in this process. This theorem would cause some problems in transferring the irrigation system management to farmers organization. In the present paper, the results obtained from performing under pressurized irrigation systems by government is compared with the one constructed by farmers organization, also offers some suggestions with regard to changing the present procedures and participating farmers organizations in project execution. 1- INTRODUCTION Iran as a developing country has 250 mm precipitation, often with arid and semi-arid climates. There are irrigation and drainage systems in areas about 2 million hectares under study, planning and construction. Because of water resources deficit and inappropriate topography, most of the projects are equipped with pressurized irrigation systems. On the other hand, having small-scale farmlands and the necessity of constructing an independent pump station and pressurized irrigation systems at usual areas of 100-300 1- Msc. In Irrigation and head of irrigation and drainage section of saman-abrah consulting engineers company Tel: 88681507, 88683975 fax: 88693074 e-mail:[email protected]

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hectares, will result in an independent irrigation unit which involves more than 100 farmers. With regard to government policy after project execution, operation and maintenance of pressurized irrigation systems must be done by farmers organizations. Now, the costs of constructing pressurized irrigation systems are provided by public credits and bank credit, so that farmers don’t need to cash investment but they only must undertake to pay their loans. Project construction will be done by contractors which are selected by government organizations of provinces like agriculturel–jahad organizations. At the end execution, project will be transferred to farmers organizations. But some experiences show that if participation is consistently emphasized in all phases of the project, local people will increasingly become the owners of the changes they propose (Natasha van dijk1999) and farmers participation in construction can gain farmers a stronger basis for insisting that construction is done to good quality standards and using designs which better serve their needs(Bryan Bruns and Helmi 1996). 2- CONSTRUCTING PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN AREAS WITH PERSONAL OWNERSHIP Such a project in which farmlands belong to one farmer, if farmland owner tends to install a pressurized irrigation system, after a necessary examination and consulting with experienced experts he can choose an appropriate system, then after making a request to public organizations, they will start to design his farmland .According to costs of project, bank facilities with the progress of execution will be paid. Therefore, farmers will be involved in all phases from choosing irrigation system, designing, providing equipment until project execution. At the end of project execution and obtaining O&M guideline, due to having enough information by farmers, he often can operate the system successfully. 3-CONSTRUCTING PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS AT LARGE AREAS WITH SMALL SCALE FARMLANDS In extended project with about a few thousands hectares areas and small-scale farmlands to constructing pressurized irrigation system, government organizations select consultant engineers to study and designing the project, so farmers will not be aware of the project details. Usually small-scale farmlands with areas about 1-5 ha, and the necessity of constructing an independent pump station in an area of 100-300 ha, will result in an independent irrigation unit which involves more than 100 farmers. On the other hand, pressurized irrigation systems won’t be operated until all canals, pump stations, main, sub-main and lateral pipelines are installed. Hence, for a prompt operation of soil and water resources, government undertakes constructing all parts of projects and farmers only will pay back the loan. In such conditions instead of small projects in which farmer is directly involved in choosing irrigation system, design, providing equipments and construction, in large scale projects which may include over 1000 farmers , these farmers wouldn’t have determent role in project and usually these projects would be constructed uniformly for all of them. In such projects, during execution, farmer organizations will be established by cooperation of government organization and consultant engineers. These farmers organizations, meanwhile settling down opponent farmers at construction phase and they will learn about irrigation system operation and maintenance, and after project

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execution accomplishment, the project will be transferred to farmers organizations. Thus because of farmers are not involved in construction, the operation phase will face some problems and may not achieve success. The advantages and disadvantages of construction without farmers' involvement are: A- ADVANTAGES:

1- By an intensive management, project execution will be performed rapidly and all project components including: pump stations, main, sub-main and lateral pipelines will be installed simultaneously and operation of project after that will be conceivable. 2- Due to supervision by expert engineers, the quality of equipment and project execution will be suitable. 3- Project performance is uniform through the farms. 4- In the absence of farmers, decision-making in construction would be easier and faster. B- DISADVANTAGES

1- If farmers do not participate in construction they will be disappointed and inattentive about the system and this, in turn, may lead to some damages to systems during cultivation. 2- Since farmers don’t have enough knowledge about the irrigation system and are not involved in construction, in some of projects, they may not be interested in operation and project probably won't be operated completely. 3- Since the whole project is constructed in limited period, some problems and disadvantages of system regarding the region conditions and social affairs wont be identified. 4- Because farmer organizations don’t participate in construction phase, system maintenance by them will be difficult. 5- Since construction depends on government organizations, it may continue the dependency during operation phase and as a result it may delay irrigation management transfer. 4- CONSTRUCTION OF TOBA PROJECT IN SMALL SCALE FARMLANDS BY FARMERS ORGANIZATION (CASE STUDY)

In recent years, some projects were executed on small scale farmlands by farmers organization in Iran that one of them is Toba project in Ben town, Chahar mahalo bakhtiari province, south west of country, and its general specifications are as follow: Area: 470 hectares Water resource: Zayandeh rood river Pumping head: 385 meter with 2 pump stations Discharge: 188 lit /sec Conveyance pipeline: 4 km steel pipe with 500 mm diameter Crops: Almond and Peach trees

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Irrigation system: Drip Irrigation Numbers of farmers: 670 persons Farmlands area for each farmer: 0.5 to 0.8 hectares 4-1-PROJECT EXECUTION

The project area, before construction belonged to Natural Resources Organization, which is transferred to Ben town people for job and occupation purposes. The project execution initiated in 1999 and finished in 2004. Haj Ali Akbar Salimi was involved in some contractors companies so he has valuable experiences. Hence he undertook the project construction and irrigation management as managing director of farmers organization and project is constructed directly by farmers organization. Agri-bank started to pay the loan to the farmers organization gradually from 1999. and after 5 years farmers started to refund the loan and this will last for the second 5 years. In order to get the loan from bank, farmers should first pay 1300 million rails to farmers organization but just 280 million rials was paid by farmers and the rest were provided by farmers working on construction activity. Following to receive loan from bank, farmers began to purchase equipment and project execution. With farmers activity and their participation in construction also decreasing the costs, parts of money was saved in bank, so that some of installments were paid by these savings. In addition, for the last 3 years, costs of irrigation system operation are provided by bank interests of that savings. 4-2- OPERATION & MAINTENANCE

The operation of project started from 2004 .Farmers organization is on the basis of 6 parts. Each part includes 2 groups and each group consists of 54 farmers (farmers organization chart is given in diagram (1)). Managing director Pump station operators (4 persons)

2 Water-masters (water distributors)

2 Sardangs (head group 1& head group 2)

2 Sardangs (Head group 3 & head group 4)

2 Sardangs (Head group 11 & head group 12)

Head group 1

Head group 2

Head group 3

Head group 4

Head group 11

Head group 12

54Farmers

54Farmers

54Farmers

54Farmers

54Farmers

54Farmers

Diagram (1): operation chart of Toba

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Irrigation is done by 2 water-masters (water distributors). Their job is controlling main and sub-main pipelines as well as opening and closing valves, but farmers are responsible for operation and maintenance of manifold and lateral pipes that are in their farmlands. Watermsters and pump stations operators are responsible for maintaining the main network, pump stations and filtration equipment. If some technical problems like electrical problems occur, they will call for active technicians in Ben town. Managing director and sardangs (the responsible person for each part of six parts is a sardang) will undertake accounting procedures. The advantages and disadvantages of construction with participation of farmers organizations involvement are: A-ADVANTAGES

1- Construction costs would be economical. 2- Economized construction costs will lead to saving money as farmers organization support. 3- Since government is not involved in project construction, the dependency of farmers organizations will decrease in operation phase. 4- If the project doesn’t have a suitable prospect in farmers point of view, it won’t be constructed. In other words, the presence of farmers in construction is a sign of PIM sustainability. 5- The presence of farmers at construction phase will increase their knowledge about operation and maintenance. 6- The cooperation of technicians with farmers organization during construction, will simplify solving technical problems which occur during operation and maintenance. 7- Farmers cooperation at project construction will reinforce the relationship between members and will inspire them to participate in collective activities. 8- The presence of farmers during construction leads to identifying active and committed people who can play effective roles in operation phase. 9- Farmers participation cause some changes in planning which, in turn, will result in the project be more adapted to farmers interests and desires. B-DISADVANTAGES

1- The quality of equipment and construction will decrease because of not having a contractor and experienced supervisor. 2- The time of construction will be longer because of the necessity of farmers participation and their full acceptance.

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5- CONCLUSION As mentioned before, usually at pressurized irrigation projects in large areas which are constructed in small scale farmlands, all of the project execution are done by government and after accomplishment of project execution, will be transferred to farmers organizations. This issue will result in farmers irresponsibility, and it will, in turn cause their dissociation during project operation so that after transferring the system to farmers organizations, farmers will ascribe the organizations` managers to be responsible for all the system's problems. 5-1- THE PURPOSE OF CONSTRUCTING THE PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

It is presumed that final purpose is PIM sustainability of project. Whereas in large projects, often executing in short period of time is now the main goal and project operation is purpose defined in parallel with main goal also it will become more important when the project is approaching its final stages of execution. Therefore, these dilemmas will arise within the project: -

In order to achieve a time schedule and to accomplish the projects timely, there will be an attempt toward minimizing the need for arrangement with farmers.

-

In order to accept project construction by farmers, it is necessary that a considerable part of construction costs be gratuitous. However in small projects in which people make the request for construction, financial support is less than the one in large projects

If farmers organizations are to be involved in executive procedures, some changes as the following will be necessary in order to achieve sustainable PIM: 1- 1-In order to encourage farmers to accept project construction, they should be well informed of irrigation system and operation procedures, for this purpose constructing pilots is inevitable and it is one of the priorities, also promoting activities as well as informing people will be done comprehensively. 2- 2-If the project be accepted by farmers organizations and if they must participate in project construction, the system should be accepted by the majority of farmers that will lead to changing the project layout according to farmers opinion and characteristics of farmers society. 3- Project execution by farmers organization will result in gradual on-farm system construction and the experiences achieved from last constructed areas, will improve the project execution in other areas. 4- 4-If farmers organization are constructing the on-farm irrigation system , it is necessary to use local contractors or train farmer organizations the necessary instructions that will lead to localizing the construction knowledge of pressurized irrigation systems. 5- In order to attract farmers interests and increase their motives to accept the project, economic sustainability will become more important, so that this will cause the companies, government organizations and research institutions give a special consideration to decrease the costs and increase farmers incomes which results in PIM sustainability.

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Therefore farmers' participation will have positive effects in project construction and sustainability of PIM. There is no doubt that farmers participation should be precisely studied and the level of such cooperation should be on the basis of project`s conditions and characteristics of farmers society. 5-2-DIFFERENT LEVELS OF OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Before changing the execution procedures of pressurized irrigation systems, it will be useful to identify different levels of operation and maintenance management. At present, usually a rural producers cooperative company is established in farmlands in area of 1000-3000 hectares and that company is responsible for the management of irrigation and cultivation of the farmlands. At higher levels, water users association (WUA) or government organizations are involved but they are not related to the present paper. The lower levels of operation and maintenance management of pressurized irrigation systems are shown in diagram (2). It shows the responsibility of operation and maintenance in different levels:

Diagram (2). A typical chart of operation organization for pressurized irrigation projects and different levels of operation and maintenance management Level 1: irrigation department of the cooperative company is directly responsible for operation and maintenance of the main pump stations, reservoirs, canals usually in areas about 1000-3000 hectares. Level 2: In farmlands areas covered by secondary pump station (usual areas of 150300 hectares) a farmers organization will be established in which one person is responsible for this organization. This organization will be directly responsible for operation and maintenance of secondary pump station and main pipelines.

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Level 3: It will be necessary to establish a group in covered farmlands with one or more sub-main pipelines in usual areas of 50-100hectares. And in each group, one person will be chosen as the group representative. Hence, in every operation organization covered by an independent pump station, usually there are 3-5 representatives of a group so that one of them can be chosen as organization undertaker. Level 4: farmers will be in the fourth level of operation and maintenance of pressurized irrigation systems and usually the farmland area for each of them is 1-5 hectares. 5-3- CONSTRUCTING IRRIGATION SYSTEM AT FIRST AND SECOND LEVELS

Irrigation network in first and second levels includes main pump stations, canals, reservoirs, secondary pump station and main pipe lines. At present, it Is not possible for farmers organization to construct this part of system with proper quality, so it is better to continue the construction in these levels by experienced contractors and consulting engineers. In this regard, the construction of main pump station, canals and reservoirs, should be arranged by producers cooperative company and farmers organization representatives, so they will be involved in project construction as much as possible.The employer should also inform them properly. Regarding the construction of secondary pump stations and main pipelines, in addition to producers cooperative company and the agents of farmers organization, the representatives of groups should be involved and contribute to the project as well. 5-4- CONSTRUCTING ON-FARM IRRIGATION SYSTEM IN THE THIRD AND THE FOURTH LEVEL

Irrigation system components at the third and the fourth levels include sub-main pipelines, manifold (in micro irrigation) and lateral pipes. In small-scale lands with very small areas, all of the pipelines even laterals will be constructed jointly and in a few farmlands, but in large-scale farmlands, only the sub-main pipe is jointly constructed. Constructing this part of system have less complications, compared with the first and the second levels, and it will be possible to involve representative groups and farmers in planning. Diagram (3) offers a flowchart for on-farm pressurized irrigation system construction. 6- SUGGESTIONS The participation of farmers in constructing the project may result in PIM sustainability, for this reason, the necessary laws should be approved, also the extent and method of participation of farmers organization should be studied in every project by consulting engineers. Changing the construction procedures as well as farmers participation in constructing the pressurized irrigation projects in short term, will slow down the construction and defer initiating the project operation, however, farmers participation in long term leads the farmers creativity, attitudes, energy and their machines and equipment, into a suitable way and use them for developing the project purposes. The important issue in constructing on-farm irrigation system by farmers organizations, is observing the standards and qualification measurements in providing the equipment as well as constructing the project, for this purpose, the necessary guidelines and supervisions should be available.

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To inform the boundaries of the areas covered by each secondary pump station and submain pipelines to farmers

To constitute groups, and choosing groups representatives undertaker by farmers

and organization's

To introduce groups and organization representatives by cooperative company to government organizations

To announce the farmers readiness for on-farm irrigation system construction

To make necessary arrangement between cooperative company and government organizations in order to accept construction of the project

To allocate the necessary credit by government organizations

To make decision for project construction method by farmers organization ( construction by farmers, contractor or both)

Providing the necessary equipment and on-farm irrigation system execution

Supervising the executive operation by government organizations and approving the construction quality

Paying the costs in proportion with equipment provisions and progress of construction by bank

Testing and starting the system by farmers organization and obtaining the water right from government organizations if there is not any technical problems in system

Diagram (3): Suggested flowchart of constructing phases for on-farm pressurized irrigation system by farmers organizations

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REFERENCE: 1. Natasha van Dijk. 1999. Interaction for irrigation: how analysis guided a construction project in Peru. PLA Notes(1999),Issue 34,pp.37-42. 2. Bryan Bruns and Helmi. 1996. Participatory irrigation management in Indonesia: lessons from experience and issues for future. Electronic learning guidebook for participatory irrigation management, 1997: 1-24

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

DRIVING AND RESTRAINING FORCES IN IMPLEMENTING PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN THE LITERATE STATE OF INDIA

George Chackacherry1, K Madhavachandran2

ABSTRACT Kerala, elongated coastal state of India, lags behind many states in the country in participating farmers in the management of irrigation, and implementing PIM. It has no rich tradition in community management of irrigation, may be due to rich water resources it enjoyed (annual average rainfall 3000 mm). Government manages the irrigation projects and distribution of water to its 0.3 mha irrigated area, which includes wetland crops like rice, and garden land crops like coconut. Fragmentation and subdivision of land and resultant small size of holdings (average 0.3 ha); part-time cultivation of farmers who are literate (literacy rate 91%); lack of sufficient labour availability and high labour cost; and lack of coordination among various departments are the major threats to irrigated agriculture in Kerala. PIM pilot projects being implemented at Neyyar and Malampuzha Irrigation Projects of the State have shown that, in spite of all the above issues, farmers are highly motivated and are ready to share responsibilities of PIM. Since spouses of farmers are also inducted as members of WUAs, enthusiasm shown by women in managing irrigation is encouraging. Preference ranking of institutions to manage operation and maintenance (O&M) under different water availability conditions, carried out at the pilot project area through Trade-Off Method, shows that majority of the farmers have given preference to WUAs to manage O&M under both ways, as well as sometimes adequate, timely and equitable water availability conditions. The pilot project experiences are also encouraging. But the hesitation of officials to depart from the existing system, the reluctance of operational staff to involve users in management, and lack of legislative backing, are the main blocks noted.

1- Scientist & Officer in Charge, Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM) Sub Centre, Trivandrum, Kerala State – 695121, India Tel.& Fax: +91-471-2222319; Mobile: +91-9446404780; email: [email protected] 2- Scientist, Water Management Division, CWRDM, Kozhikode, Kerala State – 673571, India

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INTRODUCTION Kerala State is one of the smallest states of India located at the southernmost tip of the Country. It lies between 8° 18 ' and 12° 48' North Latitude and between 74° 52 ' and 77° 22 ' East Longitude, with a geographical area of 38,863 km2. The State is a narrow stretch of land 566 km in length. The settlement pattern is linear along roads and water ways, and the typical village dwelling is not seen in Kerala. Due to this fact, the State is called as an ‘elongated village’. Though no distinct urban-rural dichotomy is found, now urban values have strong hold in the State. Better transportation facilities, educational status, and income from abroad (Remittances from Keralites working abroad, mainly in the Middle East, make up over 60% of the state's gross domestic product) are believed to be the reasons for this situation. The total population of Kerala is about 318 lakh, with a density of 819 persons per km2 (national level it is 324 persons). Women outnumber men in the State. The sex ratio is 1058 females per 1,000 males. Literacy rate of the State is high compared to all other states of India. When the national literacy rate is 65%, in Kerala it is 91%. Striking difference is not found with regard to the literacy rate of male and female in Kerala; it is 94% for male and 88% for females; whereas it is 76% (male) and 54% (female) in the national level (Census Report, 2001). Although Kerala accounts for only 1.18% of the land surface of the country, her water potential accounts for 5.4%. The State receives an average annual rainfall of 3,000 mm; it is bestowed with 44 rivers and several lakes and ponds. However, 60% of the rainfall in this humid tropical region is received during the south-west monsoon (June-August), 25% during the north-east monsoon (September-December) and the rest 15% during the non-monsoon period (January-May). The net area irrigated (20% of total farming area) from all irrigation sources in Kerala works out to 3.81 lakh hectare (ha), out of which the contribution of major/medium irrigation projects is about 3 lakh ha. Rice is the main crop cultivated in the command areas of irrigation projects. Except one project, all others are designed for irrigating wetland crops, mainly rice. However, the area under upland (garden land) cultivation under irrigation is increasing tremendously in almost all the irrigation projects. For example, in the Neyyar Irrigation Project, it is estimated that 70% of the irrigated command area is occupied by upland crops (GoK, 1990). Most of the lands here have been reclaimed to cultivate coconut. Within a period of 15 years from 1980-81, the proportion of area under rice declined from 27.79% to 16.51%. During the same period, the area under coconut increased from 22.58% to the 29.88% (Thomas, 1999). The average land holding size in Kerala is only 0.33 ha, whereas it is 1.68 ha at the national level. More than 90% of all the holdings are below half hectare in size. However, the State is predominantly an agriculture state where more than 60% of the population is engaged in farming and the processing of agricultural produces. For India, Kerala is the main producer of perennial crops such as coconut, rubber, black pepper and areca. COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT AND PIM Kerala has no rich tradition in the management of irrigation systems by farmers, though farmer-managed traditional systems are present in various parts of the country, for hundreds of years. This may be due to the better availability of water resources in

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Kerala in the past, which might not have encouraged community action for irrigation management (Chackacherry, 1995). Though the command area development (CAD) programmes started in Kerala during 1980, the activities gained momentum only after 1986. According to the CAD Act 1986 (GOK, 1986), the ‘beneficiary’ farmers of one or more outlets, ordinarily an extent of about 40 ha of command area, have to form together a beneficiary farmer association for looking after the operation and maintenance (O&M) of sluices and field channels, and distribution of water to the command area. Accordingly a total of 4,011 associations were formed in the 16 project commands till the end of March 2005 (CADA, 2006). As reported by several studies, CAD Authorities (CADAs) in various states of the country, though was envisaged to improve the irrigation and agricultural productivity through effective farmer participation and system managemen, could not achieve their targets due to several reasons. Kerala also followed the same line. The major reasons for the shortfalls of CAD activities in the national level are: (i) inability to achieve adequate, reliable and equitable distribution of water; (ii) failure to ensure participation of farmers in the management of the irrigation systems; (iii) inadequacy of existing organisational set up; (iv) limiting the concept of CADA to a field channel construction programme; and (v) lack of coordination among the Irrigation Department and CADA, and also among various disciplines of CADA. The study conducted at Neyyar Irrigation Project for three years during 1990 – 92 found that though operation plan was made, it was not followed, thereby the very purpose of irrigation is questioned. As a result, a cropping pattern based on the irrigation supply, which is the most important prerequisite for improved productivity could not be adopted in the command areas (Chackacherry, 1993). Though there have been more than 4000 farmer associations formed in the irrigation commands, most of them are non-functional. Studies have shown that most of these organisations are either defunct or mal-functioning. 25-30% of them are only functional (Chackacherry, 1995; CWRDM, 1999), and they could not play a significant role in the irrigation management processes. However, the main reasons identified for the nonfunctioning of farmer associations are: (i) the associations were organised on a warfooting through ‘government order’ ignoring the farmer initiatives; (ii) non-availability of water in their areas at required time; (iii) discontentment of the farmers, as they lost faith in the officials who promised assured water, and also since they failed in making profits; (iv) weak farmer-officer relations; (v) lack of incentives; (vi) political interference; and (vii) insignificant role of the farmer organisations (Chackacherry, 1993). It has been felt that no part of the irrigation system can be handed over to these organisations, if at all they are functioning, as they are not socially capable of taking over the tasks assigned to them (Chackacherry & Madhavachandran, 2006). Either they should be reorganised/restructured or adequately strengthened. On the other hand, the government agency concerned with these activities is neither physically nor socially conducive for taking up a joint management with farmers (CWRDM & CADA, 2001). Therefore, Kerala lags behind many states in the implementation of PIM. Inclusion of a Chapter on PIM in the Kerala Irrigation and Water Conservation Act 2003, and two pilot projects on PIM implemented in two irrigation projects of the State are the only achievements in the history PIM in Kerala.

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PILOT PROJECT ON PIM The pilot projects on PIM which are almost completed in Neyyar (mostly catering garden land crops) and Malampuzha (mostly catering rice) Irrigation Projects, which are almost completed, expect to evolve a strategy for the implementation of PIM in all irrigation projects of Kerala, by demonstrating its possibility and convincing officials, farmers and other stakeholders concerned. The programme envisaged is to transfer O&M of one branch canal each at Neyyar Irrigation Project (Olathanni branch canal – 6.41 km length, 501 ha of ayacut area with garden land crops) and at Malampuzha Irrigation Project (Kuthannur branch canal – 14.63 km length, 1664 ha of ayacut area with rice crop) to farming community. Since the existing farmer organization structure and government set up are not congenial for the implementation of PIM, changes are brought in. Three-tier system with sluice based Water User Associations (WUAs), branch/distributary level WUAs, and project level Project Management Council are the structure tried in the farmer organization set up. Land holder and his/her spouse are members in the sluice WUA, and 1/3rd of the leadership positions at all levels are reserved for women. Overseer, Assistant Engineer/Assistant Executive Engineer, and Executive Engineer, respectively, are attached as competent authorities to these associations to help them in implementing their decisions. Works in the irrigation systems are identified, prioritized and implemented by the WUAs. The payments are made from the bank account jointly managed by President of the Branch WUA and Assistant Engineer of Water Resources Department. The competent authority concerned renders technical advice and ensure that the works are carried out as per technical specifications. Encouraging group farming, bringing women to the mainstream of irrigated agriculture, establishing relations with panchayats, creating opportunities for coordination among the departments/agencies concerned, mobilizing tie-ups with marketing establishments, etc. are other allied activities carried out under the project. The programmes are carried out through five different phases – Preparation, Organisation, Rehabilitation, Capacity Building and Turn-over. Projects at present are in the turn-over phase, where the O&M responsibilities are being transferred to the Branch WUAs. The experiences of pilot projects so far are encouraging. Impact assessment of PIM from farmers’ perspective was done initially using the trade-off model (Naik and Karlo, 2000) in the pilot project area. The results show that farmers have high preference for WUA to manage water allocated to them under PIM. Location of WUA on canals, which influences water availability, was found to be significantly associated with their preferences for WUA. The relative importance assigned by farmers was found to be more for adequate and timely water availability than the agency to manage water under PIM, which indicated the need for adequate maintenance of canals to be handed over to WUAs, and delivery of the required quantity of water at the appropriate time. The farmers attach higher utility to WUA in all the reaches of both the irrigation projects. In all the reaches in Malampuzha project farmers prefer WUA as the agency, even if water supply becomes sometimes adequate and timely. However, in Neyyar project, preference for WUA is seen only when water supply is always adequate and timely. In Neyyar project, farmers in all the reaches have second preference for Panchayath (local self government) as the agency, but only under always adequate and timely water availability condition.

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The sluice WUAs have taken over the management of control structures and field channels in both the pilot project areas. The Branch WUAs are in the process of taking over the branch canal systems. Interventions made through the pilot projects have contributed to irrigate an additional area at the rate of 35% and 26% at Neyyar and Malampuzha, respectively. Other positive responses are, better attendance in WUA meetings, promptness in meetings, direct involvement of women in matters related to irrigated agriculture, control over the misuse of canals, improvement in the farmerofficer relations, etc. Another aspect worth mentioning is that the farmers agreed for need based fund allocation for rehabilitation works, though they insisted for equal allocation of the funds initially during prioritization workshops. The allocation ranged from Rs. 0.3 lakh to Rs. 3.0 lakh. The feeling of sense of belonging created through community organisation motivated the WUA leaders to circulate leaflets and pamphlets on the hazards due to the misuse of the canals, and the legal measures taken against that. At Neyyar, where the misuse of the canals is more, the WUA leaders conduct inspections and report to the authorities concerned. In some cases they directly give warning to the violators. Based on the experiences of the pilot projects on PIM and other studies carried out in Kerala, the contributing and hindering factors specific to Kerala for the implementation of PIM are identified and are discussed below:

CONTRIBUTING FACTORS BETTER EDUCATION STATUS OF FARMERS

As mentioned earlier, Kerala is the highest in literacy rate than all the states of the country (91%). The State was declared as 100% literate in 1991. In the pilot project areas it was found that less than 2% of the farmers are only illiterates; more than 60% of the farmers have Secondary School Leaving Certificate and above. This capacitates easy communication and understanding, which is one of the major contributing factors for the introduction of PIM. EXPERIENCE GAINED FROM DECENTRALISATION

Decentralised planning and implementation of development activities is a landmark in the history of Kerala State. The State has established precedence in institutionalising decentralisation and democratisation in development programmes. The experiment on the participatory decentralised planning and implementation started in Kerala during 1997 has obtained tremendous achievement so far. At present, more than 40% of the State Government funds are made available to the local self governments, where the development programmes are planned at the grassroots level. Since PIM enunciates user management at the local level, the existing climate of democratic decentralization could also stimulate PIM.

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EXPERIENCES OF CAD AND IMT IN MINOR IRRIGATION

Though the State does not have a long tradition of farmer management, command area development programmes started during 1980s, and community irrigation projects implemented during 1990s, mainly through international funding, have their own contribution in the history of PIM in Kerala. Though CADA could not yield the expected outcome, it provided a platform for change in the outlook of farmers and officials towards a decentralized and democratic system of irrigation management (Chackacherry & Madhavachandran, 2006). Efforts to catalyze farmers will definitely stimulate their initiatives further. SCOPE FOR WOMEN INVOLVEMENT

Since majority of the men farmers in the command areas of the irrigation projects in Kerala are part-time in agriculture, they have limited interest in irrigated agriculture. Customary gender roles still usually conceive of irrigation management as work for men. But women have great interest in agriculture. Gender Assessment Study conducted earlier by the first author in Kerala has pointed out that when only 25% of men are directly depended on agriculture, as much as 46% of women are involved in it in one way or other (Chackacherry, 1995). In the PIM model tried in the pilot projects, women are members of sluice WUAs as land holders and their spouses are members in them. 40 – 45% of the office bearers of sluice WUAs are women. 1/3rd of the positions in the branch WUAs are women. In most of the training programmes, main participants are women. They show great interest to know about agronomic practices, fertiliser application, water management, etc. In the pilot projects, It has been observed that the men did not have any problem in bringing women to the irrigated agricultural activities. In fact, Kerala women have more influence over their own lives and those of their families than many women elsewhere in the Country. Maybe this is because of better education level of both men and women (Chackacherry & Sudhamony, 1995). All these have great significance, especially when men tend to neglect farming in their small pieces of land. REPLENISHMENT OF OPEN WELLS BY CANALS

About 79% of the households of Kerala depend on open dug wells (average density of wells is 220 per km2) for their drinking and domestic water demands, though public piped water supply is there to about 67% of the households (SPB, 2006). Though the State gets high rainfall, as it is spatially and temporally uneven, many of the dug wells dries during summer season (February – May). Discharge through the canals during water distribution often helps to recharge these open wells. Therefore, the people need the canal system, at least for recharging the groundwater source.

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HINDERING FACTORS PART-TIME FARMING

The problem of fragmentation and subdivision of land, contributed by the high population pressures combined with the State Land Reforms Act, is a very serious problem in Kerala (ETS, 1996). As mentioned, the average land holding size is only 0.33 ha, and therefore farming may not be the major income source for many farmers. Majority of the farmers are part-time in cultivation, and therefore, they have to engage in some other vocation for their livelihood. Study conducted among the farmers of an irrigation command in Kerala has found that almost 74 % of farmers in the area are parttime in cultivation (Chackacherry, et al., 1994). Severe decline is observed in the area of rice cultivation. It declined from 7.42 lakh ha in 1952-53 to 6.04 lakh ha in 1987-88. Conversion of rice land (wetland) is occurring in Kerala at an alarming rate (Prakash, 1999). Shortage of labour, and the resulting high labour cost, is another major problem faced by irrigated agriculture in Kerala. More than 55% of the total investment in farming is for labour charge alone (CWRDM & CADA, 2001). All these aspects have led irrigated agriculture to a secondary activity in the State. LACK OF POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORIENTATION

It is necessary for the political, administrative and irrigation agency leadership to take interest in adopting PIM. It has been reported that though the administrative and technical personnel had satisfactory level of perception regarding participation, attitude towards the same was below the minimal desirable level. Government staff working with command area development programmes, community irrigation projects, and even with the pilot projects on PIM found problems in adapting to the concepts and requirements of the programmes with a clear social dimension. This difficulty to accept social dimensions precludes effective coordination among the staff drawn from different disciplines. There is also considerable reluctance, if not opposition, from the operational staff of irrigation agencies to involving users in management. Reluctance of irrigation officials to organize farmers is yet another concern. In general, Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) are not accepted either by farmers or officials, mainly because NGOs are not much appreciated in Kerala, and there are very limited successful NGOs in the State. With all their shortcomings, farmers prefer government officials to NGO personnel as ‘Catalysts’ and ‘Facilitators’ (CWRDM & CADA, 2001). That is one of the reasons why the Competent Authorities of WUAs have been given a key role in the PIM model evolved for Kerala. Since the local self governments (panchayats) have a strong hold in the local level water resources development, their involvement also is expected to fill the gaps. MOTIVATIONAL GAPS

There is no incentive structure for the officials to go for PIM. Officials in the pilot project areas tried to ignore the projects and even to delay their implementation. Many officials felt that if the pilot projects are successful, it might lead to retrenchment of positions. Another concern is about funds for rehabilitation works before the systems are handed over to farmers. The impact on agencies depends on whether within their

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bureaucratic structure they have incentives for solving problems and improving performance, or whether revealing the extent of previous problems only creates difficulties. If agriculture is more profitable, then the farmers will be more interested in irrigation management and scientific agriculture. Increasing incentives and better aligning of PIM with farmers’ incentives is essential if participation is to have any hope of being sustained. Without post-turn over support, the goals of turnover will not be achieved and the project effort would largely be wasted. Adequate guidelines, resources and incentives are needed, if guidance and support are to be provided after turnover and the performance of turnover systems sustained. PAUCITY OF FUNDS FOR SYSTEM REHABILITATION

The paucity of funds and resultant deferred maintenance has caused serious defects in the canal system. The financial outlay for irrigation sector has shown severe decline during the years. When the IXth Five Year Plan (ended during March 2002) outlay for irrigation sector was 6.8% of the total budget of the State, it is only 3.88% during Xth Five Year Plan (ending in March 2007). In Kerala, the water rates are very low compared to the costs of maintenance of major irrigation projects. Though the returns from the irrigation supply have improved over the years, even then it is only about 1/10th of the maintenance expenses. During 1999 – 2000 the maintenance cost was Rs. 2177 lakh, where as the receipt was Rs. 70 lakh (3.4%). During 2002 – 2003 the cost was Rs. 1614 lakh and receipt Rs. 102 lakh (6.3%) and during 2003 – 2004, the cost was Rs. 1401 lakh and receipt was Rs. 157 lakh (11.2%). In fact the water rates collected are based on the estimates of 1974. There is no Irrigation service fees concept formulated in Kerala to support O&M. WUAs are not involved in the collection of fees. In the pilot projects also effort was not taken for it as it may create protests and hinder the implementation of the projects. The Revenue Department is expected to collect the water cess, which most of the time is not done systematically. Rehabilitation of the irrigation systems are important because the average rehabilitation cost of existing canals is worked out as Rs.0.1 lakh per ha, whereas the investment required for creating new capacity of irrigation potential is Rs. 1.2 lakh per ha (Anonymous, 2006). For rehabilitation of canals in the pilot projects the amount spent is only Rs. 3040 per ha. INSUFFICIENT LEGISLATIVE BACKING

While other states have enacted exclusive PIM Acts with all necessary details for the implementation of PIM, Kerala has only a chapter on PIM included in the Kerala Irrigation and Water Conservation Act 2003. Many of the provisions required for the implementation of PIM are yet to be included in the Act. It appears that the PIM Acts of other states, guidelines issued by the National Government on PIM, CAD Act of the State, etc. were not referred when the Act is prepared. The model evolved by CWRDM and CADA for the implementation of PIM in the State, after a one-year long study, was also ignored. This, in effect, reflects the lack of interest and/or reluctance of some corners to accept the concepts of empowerment of farmers and PIM. There is only one tier organization mentioned in the Act, namely, WUAs at the sluice level. Transfer of the irrigation system, agreement between Government and WUAs, etc. are not mentioned. The Act 2003 does not speak about the involvement of women, handing over of O&M, etc (Chackacherry & Madhavachandran, 2006). Therefore, PIM can not

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be implemented in the State effectively without improvements/changes in the Act, or bringing out a separate Act for PIM. CONCLUSION There are several problems that may hinder the implementation of PIM in Kerala, as mentioned above. But prospects are not too bad, as there are several contributing factors. If the irrigation agency supports and nourishes, PIM will nourish in Kerala also. Almost at all levels, it is accepted that there needs a change. But their apprehensions regarding job security and loss of mandate compel them to opt for maintaining the status quo or keep away from the efforts to initiate change. It is expected that the lessons learnt from the pilot projects on PIM may help to gear up the political and administrative will to counter this. ACKNOWLDEGMENT The authors gratefully acknowledge the encouragement given to by Dr E J James, Executive Director and Ms V Padmini, Scientist, CWRDM, Kerala, India in conducting the studies and preparing this paper. REFERENCES 1. Anonymous, 2006. Note on Command Area Development and Water Management, India. 2. CADA. 1996. An Evaluation Report on the Impact of CADA Programme on Production and Productivity of Important Crops in the Commands of the Ten Irrigation Projects under CADA in Kerala State, Command Area Development Authority, Kerala, India. 3. CADA. 2006. Annual Report 2005 – 2006, Command Area Development Authority, Thrissur, Kerala, India. 4. Census Report, 2001. Government of India. 5. Chackacherry, George. 1993. Farmer Participation in Irrigation Management, PhD Thesis, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India. 6. Chackacherry, George. 1995. Trends in Decentralisation in Water Management in Kerala, Proceedings of the International Conference on Water Management, Tamil Nadu, India, Confederation of Indian Industry. 7. Chackacherry, George; M Nazimuddin; K M Varadan. 1994. Impact of Command Area Development Authority: A Case Study from Kerala, Proceedings of the Southern Regional Workshop on Integrated Development of Irrigated Agriculture, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, India. 8. Chackacherry, George; and K L Sudhamony. 1995. Involvement of Women in Agriculture: Experiences from Kerala State, India, International Conference on Agrarian Questions, The Netherlands.

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9. Chackacherry, George; and K Madhavachandran. 2006. Improving Irrigation Efficiency in Kerala through Participatory Irrigation Management: An Analysis, International Journal of Environment and Development, Vol.3, No.1, p55-63. 10. CWRDM. 1999. Evaluation of Beneficiary Farmer Farmers’ Associations under Command Area Development Programmes in Kerala, Final Report submitted to Indian National Council for Irrigation and Drainage, New Delhi, India. 11. CWRDM and CADA. 2001. Implementation of Participatory Irrigation Management in Kerala, Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kerala, India. 12. ETS. 1996. The Policy Review of the Land and Water Sector in Kerala, Report, Ecotech Services, New Delhi, India. 13. GoK. 1986. The Kerala Command Area Development Act, Government of Kerala, India. 14. GoK. 1990. National Water Management: Detailed Project Report on Neyyar Scheme, Department of Irrigation, Government of Kerala, India. 15. GoK, 2004. Kerala Irrigation and Water Conservation Act, 2003, Government of Kerala, India. 16. Gopal, Naik; and Kalro, A H. 2000. A Methodology for Assessing Impact of Irrigation Management from Farmers’ Perspective. Water Policy 2, 445-460 17. Madhavachandran, K; and George Chackacherry. 2004. Factors influencing farmer participation in irrigation management. Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 42 (1-2), 77-79. 18. Prakash, B A (ed.). 1999. Kerala’s Economic Development: Issues and Problems, Sage Publications, New Delhi, India. 19. SPB, 2006. Economic Review 2005, State Planning Board, Kerala, India. 20. Thomas, P M. 1999. Agriculture Performance in Kerala, in Prakash, B A (ed.). Kerala’s Economic Development: Issues and Problems, Sage Publications, New Delhi, India.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

EVALUATION OF PERFORMED NEW IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN THIRD DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM IN ZANJAN PROVINCE AND INTRODUCING THREE SUCCESSFUL SAMPLES

Gholamreza Dawarpanah1

ABSTRACT Increasing water efficiency in agriculture part is the most important solution to reduce law water bad effects and it is crises and will be in future too, because by improving new water sources in all success degrees, wouldn’t meet that part’s different needs because of wasting 70 percent of using water in agriculture. So firstly it’s necessary to focus our best tries on programming and performing irrigation designs and projects. Regarding to the obtained information from evaluation in irrigation new projects in five years third program in zanjan province performed by organization in contribution with investors, the results of effect amount have been ranked in four levels including excellent, good, moderate and weak, that the projects in zanjan have been evaluated in quantity weak, in quality good, and from these projects, three successful contribution projects have been elected and we introduce them in this article. INTRODUCTION Today’s, evaluation debate is one of basis in designs and projects which seems that they are measurement and efficiency tools in designs and programs, regarding to aims noted in that design performed and the degree of projects conformity with aims has been shown by observation in performing place and the way of doing and we can obtain result for providing amending acts by strength and weakness points for changing weakness to strength point in points for changing weakness to strength point in future projects, and will be performed as pattern for other designs in future. (1,6) since about 93 percent water from provided water is used in agriculture part and in this part we use only 30 to 35 percent of water efficiency and about 65 to 70 percent water has been wasted (global output in using water is 40 percent), so using new irrigation approaches or improving traditional ways, wasting is reduced and its additional water is used in another parts so that if our country’s mean efficiency will be increased about 1 percent, about 0.9 milliard mm3 is saved. So any little change in irrigation efficiency increasing 1- Scientific member of Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center of Zanjan Province. Zanjan km. 28 Transit Road, P.O.45195/474, Tel: 0098-242585-3361 Fax: 0098-242585-3351

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effect very deep on reducing water crises. Any way, evaluation topic and following it in new irrigation designs is very important.(5, 3) MATERIALS AND METHODS Used materials and methods in this evaluation include; using exsiting sources in library archives and studying reports and experiences in quantity and quality evaluation from performed new irrigation projects during third deve lopment program in zanjan province, by con for mity in projects with defined aims, visiting and using expert experiences, interview with experts and investors, finally it was gathering data and obtain the result and offer the suggestions. STUDY AREA Zanjan province with area about 22164 km3 in north west of Iran plateau is placed on geographical coordinates between 8, 47 to 35 and 48 east length and 37 and 35 to7 and 36 north width, and in north is restricted to Ardebil east Azarbaijan and in south with Hamedan and Kordestan is confined. COLLECTING INFORMATION For evaluating new irrigation project, first in collecting information by referring organizations such as region water organization and water and soil management in agriculture and program, all of activities have been recognized by these institutions and it was defined that in spite of this fact that many innovational projects in order to increase irrigation efficiency such as making irrigation canals and drainage and irrigation net in Mazid Abad and Nor Abad, underground wall projects (cut off-wall) in Kahrizbeik, transfer project of Kazabar water, Mahneshan pumping, water canals in Dehbahar village, soil dam in Yengije, Vanisar pumping Chavarzagh pumping by water organization, but because the aim of evaluation projects in pressured irrigation during third program in zanjan and these projects have been done only by water and soil management in agriculture organization, so in two next steps, defining valuation standards will be noted. DEFINE INDICATORS AND EVALUATION In evaluation step, three basic topics were noted: 1- Quantity evaluation; In this evaluation, The province share amount defined for third years program with performed amount has been compared in this province. 2- 2.Quality evaluation; In this evaluation, comparing static safe projects using unstable destructive or repair projects and feature were noted which include technical features, innovations and results design compared with designed basic aim and little or basic technical deficiencies. 3- Contribution evaluation; In this evaluation, the degree of exploiters contribution in design, contribution in performance, financial contribution and exploit contribution have been noted.

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CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION Regarding to evaluation approach, the results obtained have been offered as this table. Table of quantity evaluation in new pressured irrigation projects during third program in zanjan province

Number

design kind

1

study

2

perform

sum

-

defined performed success deduction Result Respected Deduct Result level share in relative to from of degree From Of organization degree organization organization evaluation according Respected Province during develop indicator Indicator to the developed develop third indicator ( percent ) program (ha) indicator ( percent ) 12500 ha

7750 ha

% 62

7500 ha

2573

% 34.3

20000 ha

10323

% 51.6

% -38

good

-

-

-

% -65.7

weak

10624

76

weak

% -48.4

moderate

-

-

-

Based on third development program in agriculture part, it was seemed that water products under culture land totally 28600 would increase that it needed 307 million mm3, which in 192.8 mm3 from ground water and 114.9 mm3 from underground water will be provided. If only 2 percent of this number and 10 percent of the under culture lands are irrigated through new irrigated (pressured), expected lands to pressured irrigation would be 10624 that regarding to performed lands amounts 2573 that it’s 24 percent of expected lands, so effect of irrigation in saving water usage and increasing performance from quantity point is weak and contribution and evaluation of quality has been good. As a general suggestion, we can note that in order to motivate in investors, it’s necessary to use encourage policies for using new irrigation approaches comparing to those who don’t use them. For example we calculate water and power costs in different ways for two parts. It must be noted that agriculture share from the underground water sources (by deep and semi deep wells) that is 324 million mm3 (85 percent of all wells), is from nation mean for retardation compensation. Table of perfumed new irrigation (pressure) project’s quality evaluation during third program in zanjan province. number

description

evaluation

evaluation result

positive negative excellent good moderate weak

1

defined aim in performed project

*

*

2

useful life in performed project

*

*

3

defined function in project

*

4

perforce of technical and engineering parameters

*

* *

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Table of contribution degree of exploiters in performed new irrigation (pressured) project during third program in zanjan province.

number

Evaluation

description

positive

Evaluation result

negative excellent

good

moderate

1

contribution in design

*

*

2

contribution in execution

*

*

3

financial Contribution

*

*

4

Contribution in exploiting

*

*

weak

GENERAL CONCLUSION Since the aim of reconstruction project execution in time section aims in development program and effect degree for exploiters, so when these project can be base of a region development that in addition to meeting quantity and quality for people acceptance, contribution will result in better keeping and stable, would be made. Regarding to performed evaluations from pressured irrigation in third program in zanjan, it was realized that these projects aren’t conformities in contribution degree from quality point. SUGGESTIONS AND ADVICES 1- Improve and equip statistic networks from nation water sources must be provided accurately from quantity and quality point to continuous evaluation in times. 2- Measurement networks install and improve of water usage in agriculture part. 3- Increasing irrigation efficiency and exploiting water and increasing under culture lands as successful level in efficiency. 4- Performing the artificial feeding projects in province lands by ground water’s specially in non culture seasons. 5- Help to farmers unities for correct exploitation from water sources and increasing irrigation efficiency and attract investors contributions in water designs investments. 6- 6.Regarding to obtained result from studies about comparing evaluation of pressured irrigation ways and groove way and difference in irrigation efficiency (at least 20 percent) it’s necessary in pressure way to use more lands from irrigated farms.

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REFERENCES 1. Evaluation of water projects in sirjan area, Ghaem Maghamian, Shahram shahvavi, mehdi, first global water conference, water and soil management ordibehesht 1383, Bahonar university of Kerman, P. 14. 2. Evaluation soil dams in Golestan, Saneii, Mojtaba Ghoraishi zade, Seid Hamid Reza, science journal in soil and water management, first year, no.1 spring1384, p21. 3. Technical comparing the rain and groove irrigation. Sohrabi, teimor, Asli manesh, reza, second nation conference articles, water and soil, Tehran, bahman 1375, p. 131. 4. 4.water food safety source, Asadi, Mohamad Esmail, global conference and soil and water management, ordibehesht 1383, Bahonar University, p.73. 5. Water use function and beet root crop performance in two leakage and tip irrigation system, Ghasemi firoazabadi, Mirzaii Ali, Mohammad Reza, national water conference and soil and water management, ordibehesht 1383, Bahonar university, p.77. 6. Using rain irrigation in sand soils, Riahi, Hamid, national water conference and soil and water management, ordibehesht 1383, Bahonar University, p.83.

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The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

MEASURING SUSTAINABILITY: MONITORING & EVALUATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF WATER USER ASSOCIATIONS

Ele Jan Saaf1

ABSTRACT Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) has been introduced in a large number of countries worldwide. In many cases much attention was given to establishing or developing water user associations (WUAs). Many resources have been spent on analyzing and standardizing an approach to introducing PIM. However few resources have been allocated to developing indicators for monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of the performance of WUAs. The sustainability of WUAs within the specific sociocultural context of the countries in which they have been introduced/developed requires more consideration. This paper consists of three consecutive themes. These themes are, (i) international experience with measuring performance of WUAs, based upon the experience of the author and other relevant case studies, (ii) common pitfalls for sustainability of WUAs, and (iii) main technical and institutional indicators for measuring WUA performance. The paper presents concrete and practical indicators for measuring WUA performance, and links these to the sustainability of WUAs and PIM. The objective of the paper and the presentation is to share these indicators and to generate discussion on the feasibility of the indicators in light of the specific socio-cultural circumstances in different countries. The paper finally presents institutional arrangements for M&E of WUA performance, such as Federations of WUAs, the role of national, regional and local authorities in measuring WUA performance and the maturing of PIM as a process of development. This paper puts forward a hands-on approach for policy makers, implementation experts, academics and consultants for ensuring and improving the sustainability of PIM.

1- Mr. Saaf is General Director of Saafconsult B.V. (Dillenburgerstraat 9a, 5652 AM Eindhoven, The Netherlands, fax: +92 51 2101167, @: [email protected], tel: +92 51 2101151, url:www.saafconsult.com), senior consultant for water management and a member of the Commission for Ecosystem Management of the World Conservation Union (IUCN).

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INTRODUCTION Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) has been introduced in a large number of countries worldwide, with mixed success. PIM was developed by the World Bank as a workable concept to introduce community based participatory management of irrigation infrastructure. However, community based development and management of irrigation infrastructure has been practiced in many countries of the Middle East and South Asia region for centuries. One beautiful example is the construction of Khettara’s1 in Morocco, Syria & Pakistan (Balochistan), which were built and maintained by communities centuries ago. Families actually attained water rights on the basis of the comparative effort or resources they invested in the construction and maintenance. Whereas much time and effort has been invested by a large number of donors and development organizations in the establishment of Water User Associations (WUAs) as a manifestation of PIM, less time and effort was attributed to the post-intervention period, during which continued institutional and technical assistance to WUAs is required. Furthermore, WUAs are placed within an institutional framework that is usually dominated by the public sector. Whereas WUAs are non-governmental organizations (NGOs) they are given an important chunk of tasks and responsibilities that were initially owned by the public sector. It is therefore important that the performance of WUAs is monitored periodically. However, monitoring of performance of NGOs by the public sector can lead to serious complications due to different frames of reference and modes of operation. This paper presents three themes: (i) international experience with measuring performance of WUAs, based upon the experience of the author and other relevant case studies, (ii) common pitfalls for sustainability of WUAs, and (iii) main technical and institutional indicators for measuring WUA performance. The paper attempts to make a case for increased attention to the post-intervention phase of introductory processes of PIM and for fair and effective monitoring and evaluation of the performance of WUAs. INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE WITH M&E OF WUAs Performance and sustainability of WUAs can be measured on the basis of two key determinants; (i) legitimacy, and (ii) relevance. Legitimacy is defined as, “organisations that are recognised by all third parties with which they interact and are considered the legitimate organisation for its’ defined purpose.”i Relevance is defined as, “organisations are accepted by their beneficiaries as the organisations representing their interests and address issues that are recognised and considered relevant for and by the beneficiaries (are addressing “actually felt needs”)”ii. Through monitoring of these two key determinants, many other determinants and parameters can be extrapolated. Some of these are autonomy, legality and accountability. In Egypt, the Netherlands Development Cooperation has been funding a series of projects aimed at developing and institutionalizing concepts of PIM. The Waterboards Project has developed a complex system of monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of 1- A system of vertical wells in the alluvial fans at the foot of the mountains interconnected by a horizontal underground tunnel that intercepts the water table near the head of the alluvium, and provides a dependable source of water flowing under gravity to valley alluviums where agriculture is mostly practiced. They are also known as Karez or Qana’at in Balochistan and the Middle East.

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Waterboards on the basis of the two key determinants described above. They are currently in the process of field-testing the M&E system. Problems have arisen regarding calibration, as those WUAs established by the project score better than those established by government or other projects. The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) has financed a four year programme called, “Action Research Programme on the Identification and Testing of Methodologies and Approaches for Effective Introduction of Participatory Irrigation Management”. This programme was implemented by the International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies (CIHEAM) in Bari, Italy. The main objective of the programme was to help member countries (of IFAD) to take advantage of proven lessons emanating from international experience with PIM to contribute to sustainable rural development. The four countries in which the programme was implemented were Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt and Armenia. In Armenia, special attention was given to the development of indicators for monitoring of performance of WUAs. The main constraint identified when measuring the performance of WUAs in Armenia was that there was a gap in terms of understanding, expectations and feasibility of the tasks and responsibilities. This gap existed between the monitoring party, i.e. government, and the object of monitoring, the WUAs. Whereas the WUAs were established by law within a very short period of time, government divested itself of its tasks to maintain irrigation infrastructure and simultaneously imposed Value Added tax on water sales. The WUAs did not have the experience and capacity to generate sufficient revenue to initiate the necessary O&M, as a result of which the whole process came to a standstill, especially in the poorer upland regions of the country. Performance indicators measured unacceptably dismal performances, as a result of which the process of introducing PIM was questioned. This example illustrates quite nicely how a government apparatus can be convinced by external donors and consultants to expect unrealistic benefits of introducing PIM, as a result thereof develops ambitious plans and finds that after the projects introducing PIM are finished that things are not as expected. Often the result is that governments subvert WUAs by minimising their legal status and their options for revenue generation. As a result these WUAs lose their legitimacy and relevance and become unsustainable. M&E of WUAs has to take place within a context of mutual understanding and cooperation between the monitor and the object of monitoring. This in turn pleads the case for continued institutional support for WUAs after establishment. This institutional support has to be embedded within the national structures to ensure that the support provider grows along with the WUAs. This will ensure that support will always be geared to the needs of the WUAs. COMMON PITFALLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY OF WUAs To enable WUAs to be and remain sustainable, legitimacy and relevance are crucial. Since WUAs are usually membership organisations, their interventions must be credible and seen to provide a beneficial service to (a large number of) members. Government policies for maintenance of irrigation infrastructure are often of the “Build – Neglect – Rebuild” kind. This has caused most users of the irrigation infrastructure to lose faith in government policies and interventions.

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For WUAs to become accepted as the legitimate and relevant organisation within the community to take charge of O&M of the irrigation infrastructure, which is so crucial to their daily survival, they must be able to provide better and more timely services than government did. This means that they must be able to generate sufficient revenue to sustain these services. To generate this revenue they must be paid for the service that they provide. Instilling a sense of payment for service in rural communities is often difficult, as water is seen as a free commodity and often as a gift from God. A second crucial element of sustainable WUAs to enable them to attain and maintain their legitimacy and relevance is a conflict resolution mechanism. A common pitfall during the establishment of WUAs is to limit their revenue generation capacity and their legal status, whereby the attainment of legitimacy and relevance is much more difficult. On the other hand, if during establishment of the WUAs the focus is too much on legal and financial issues, other crucial elements of the functioning of WUAs can be neglected, such as social mobilisation and conflict resolution.1 Another common pitfall for the introduction of PIM is the, “Rehabilitation – Dependency – Deterioration Trap”.iii This trap is sprung when selected WUAs are given financial support by external parties such as donors. Infrastructure is rehabilitated and the operational basis the WUA is optimised. As a result water provision to beneficiaries is improved and a process of payment for service is either initiated or re-instituted. However, peripheral WUAs that were not selected for additional financing still have to struggle along the traditional ways. As a result government often steps in to help them solve their immediate problems and a dependency on government continues. Very often beneficiaries of these systems are disgruntled and pay little or nothing to the WUA. A situation of perceived inequity arises, whereby the beneficiaries of the operational systems ask why they have to pay so much for a service that the government is providing (more or less) free of charge for neighbouring WUAs. As a result they start reducing payments and the rehabilitated infrastructure deteriorates and the situation is back to square one after a few years. This trap again shows how important it is to continue support to WUAs, including awareness and continued assistance. MAIN TECHNICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL INDICATORS FOR MEASURING WUA PERFORMANCE The measuring of performance of WUAs can be sub-divided into three areas: (i) efficiency of services, (ii) institutional and financial sustainability, and (iii) impact of services. The first area measures whether the WUA is “doing things right”. The second area measures whether the WUA is institutionally and financially sustainable. The third set of indicators measures whether the WUA is “doing the rights things”. For the development of indicators on efficiency of services a performance variable has to be compared to the “cost” of the performance. For efficiency the question, “are we doing things right” in terms of cost (financial, organisational, societal, etc.) is relevant. The indicators are therefore by nature often compound indicators that associate a

1- A case in point is Egypt, where WUAs at present do not have a legal status that allows them to generate revenues, but nonetheless they are active in conflict resolution and water use optimization activities.

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number of phenomena. Two of the most common indicators for efficiency of services are: 1. The actual cost per m3 of irrigation water provided; 2. Labour costs of the WUA vs. irrigated area. For indicators that measure institutional and financial sustainability, reference is made to the two key determinants of legitimacy and relevance mentioned above. Two indicators that can measure institutional and financial sustainability are: 1. An increase in farmers that refer to the WUAs as the relevant organisation for water management in their area; 2. Increased cash flow (payments for water and/or membership fees) to the WUAs. Finally, indicators that measure performance of WUAs in terms of impact of services have to be compared to targets to analyse changes over time. Two indicators for impact of services of WUAs are: 1. Changes in the ratio of irrigated vs. irrigable area; 2. Changes in water use (m3/crop/ha). A final note on the validity and relevance of the indicators is essential. It must be kept in mind that the performance of WUAs is affected by a large number of variables. More indicators are needed as “checks and balances” and triangulation indicators to ensure validity and relevance. Furthermore the performance of WUAs should always be seen in the socio-economic context in which they operate. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR M&E OF WUA PERFORMANCE. As already indicated in earlier sections, the post-intervention phase following the introduction of PIM is crucial for sustainability of WUAs and PIM. Whereas PIM can be a very effective tool for divestment of task and responsibilities, if not followed-up properly it can fail dismally. In many developing countries there is a general apprehension of privatization and commoditization of natural resource management services. This is especially true for water provision. Once the introductory process of PIM has overcome the initial hurdles and apprehensions of civil society it has to prove its case. The risk is that if the introduction fails, adversaries of PIM will be able to prove their case, as can be seen in Pakistan, where initial introduction was difficult and both donors and the government more or less abandoned WUAs and Farmer Organisations after the initial introduction. At present it is likely that the complete process of Irrigation Management Transfer will be abandoned as a failure and the management of irrigation will revert back to the centralized provincial system. To continue providing support to WUAs there are several options that can be followed: 1. Establishment of a “Federation of WUAs” that would pursue the interests of WUAs and would be a direct “window” for government to address WUAs. Such a Federation would also provide continued capacity building support and relevant training.

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2. A cell within the relevant regional or national governments that has as its main task the support and capacity building of WUAs, without being a top-down control mechanism; 3. Private sector M&E of WUA performance linked to a multi-stakeholder platform consisting of civil society and government organizations that periodically review WUA performance and advise the government on capacity building and support activities for WUAs. To conclude, M&E of WUAs is crucial for their legitimacy and to provide information on performance. However, M&E has to take place within a context of joint efforts and interests to improve irrigation and water management to alleviate poverty in rural areas, and not as an objective as such.

i- Royal Haskoning, 2002, Waterboards Project. ii- Royal Haskoning, 2002, Waterboards Project iii- Vermillion & Sagardoy, 1999, Transfer of Irrigation Management Services, FAO, Irrigation and Drainage Paper 58: 28.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

TACTICS FOR CREATING PARTICIPATORY MANEGEMENT IN IRRIGATION NETWORKS AND STUDING THE FACTORS EFFECTIVE ON ITS STABILITY

Mohammad Ali Rahimi Jamnani1, Ehteram Ghelichzadeh2, Hossein Taghipour2, Hossein Abouali3

ABSTRACT Participatory management in irrigation is among the issues which were provoked for discussion in recent decade for exploiting the irrigation and drainage networks of different countries irrespective of their involving infrastructural facilities. Considering the competition in consumption of agricultural water and optimum use of accessible water resources, generally the governmental management faces serious challenges in meeting the needs of users. On the other hand, the private sector looks at it doubtfully because of high risk in investment on agricultural water. In this study the manner of creating participative irrigation management in Foumanat Irrigation Network (Gilan Province) and Soufichai Irrigation Network (East Azerbaijan Province) has been studied and discussed. Foumanat Irrigation Network is a network with an age of more than 30 years and covers an area approximately 50,000 hectares. The main crop of the area is rice. Soufichai Irrigation Network is about 8 years old and covers an area about 12,000 hectares. The main crop of the area are cereals and fruits. Key Words: Participatory Management, Agricultural Water, Risk Taking, Governmental Management, Foumanat, Soufichai

1. INTRODUCTION Participation is one very important issue in developing countries. Participation of the people in administering the villages and their participation in decision making in macro level especially in long-term policies, demand the achievement of the aims and stability of the achievements. In our country, in past two decades participation in its general 1- Expert in Tehran Water-Soil Consultant Engineers Company E-Mail: [email protected] Tel.: +98 261 2500208-11 Fax: +98 261 2505600 2- Expert in Tehran Water-Soil Consultant Engineers Company 3- Expert in Regional Water Organization of East Azerbayejan Province

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sense was somehow pale in all socio-economic fields. At post-war period when the development projects started, the lack of participation culture in people was considered a vacuum. Gradually the culture grew among the people to some degree. Perhaps the expansion of apartment dwelling is one of the aspects of promulgation of participation culture in urban communities. Of course, still the place of a cohesive organization for promotion of participation level of people in urban problems is felt. Different ministries and organizations call more participation of people in their projects and aims. In rural areas, because of poverty and strong agricultural culture and other reasons, participation culture has developed in lesser degree than urban areas. However, recent years witness some common activities in villages. Election for Village Council Members is an example. Considering the above facts, if the administration manner of villages and its restrictions be not deeply studied and reconstructed, participating in one constituent of rural life such as irrigation actually faces problems. In a word, promotion of participation shall be a process coming down from the top and without making the needed infrastructures it will be fruitless and instable to expect participation. The relevant infrastructures, for instance legal issues and necessary laws for respecting the participation council, shall be institutionalized so strongly that all individuals and organizations have no choice but comply with that culture and respect it. This research has studied and appraised the participation in irrigational affairs of Foumanat and Soufichai Irrigation Networks in a 10-12-year period and compared these two with each other. 2. FOUMANAT IRRIGATION NETWORK Foumanat Irrigation Network consists of irrigation networks of Soumesara, Fouman, Shaft, and Toulam Shahr areas with surface area of about 50,000 hectares in north of the Iran. The main crop is rice, that is, about 90% of the area is used for rice growing. In primary plan, the needed water was estimated to be 32 m3/s and it was provided from Tarik Dam at downstream of Sefidroud Dam through a water tunnel that is stretched to Foumanat. Increased cultivated area in recent years was so high that produced difficulties, the difficulties which will be explained later. Figure 1 shows the layout of Foumanat Irrigation Network. In this network, water distribution is controlled and regulated by six Irrigation Bureaus.

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Figure 1. Layout of Foumanat Irrigation Network 2-1- PARTICIPATION IN FOUMANAT IRRIGATION NETWORK

Studying the participation process of the users of Foumanat Irrigation Network in present situation and studying the manner of assigning water distribution management of this network were among the aims of this research made in years 1994 to 1996. The opinions of the users have been obtained by local interview and filling the questionnaires. Photograph 1 is a scene of local interview in the area.

Photograph 1. A Scene of Local Interview in the Area Covered by the Research 2-2- PRESENT SITUATION OF PARTICIPATION

At present (at the time the studies were being made), water for agricultural purposes is distributed by “water distributors” and “assistant water distributors” elected by the farmers. However, there is no special organization for this election. A person who intends to be “water distributor” or “assistant water distributor” collects the signatures of the farmers and submits the signed nomination form to Irrigation Bureau and

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Irrigation Bureau confirms his position. The remuneration of “assistant distributors” is paid by the farmers in proportion to the water they receive and manner of water receipt. This arrangement has been common since very old time and even it may go back to preland reform era. As seen above, the farmers are familiar with their role in irrigation participation but there are some marginal problems related to the degree of participation which are connected to physical system and management of Foumanat Irrigation Network. 2-3- STUDYING THE FUNCTION OF IRRIGATION NETWORK IN PARTICIPATION PROCESS

Foumanat Irrigation Network is about 35 years old. During this period of exploitation, some faults that have been observed by the users have been occurred. The most important faults are as follows: A). Non-completion of the irrigation and drainage network so that not all lands are covered. B). Increase in cultivated lands especially after Revolution because of dividing land of the forest area and bodies water which were effective in misbalancing of water consumption in irrigation network. C). Cultivation on the limits of main and secondary canals whose solution is a real problem. Providing water for these plots of land is among the problems facing the network management. What is seen in Photograph 2 is an example of cultivation on canal limits. D). Non-sufficient maintenance of main and secondary canals of the network (The main canals are concrete and subsidiary canals are semi oval and aerial type). Obstruction in canals because of accumulated sediments and growing plants in the canals have been showed in Photograph 3. E). Increase in cultivated lands and non-provision of a modern irrigation network for those lands and since supplying water in consumption peak of water is not certain, the farmers have broken the canals and or have created blockages in sections of canal entrance to get water for their lands sooner. Photograph 4 shows this reality. F). One of the network problem is illegal off take that in present is as right for whom used water in this method.

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Photograph 2. Example of Cultivation on Canal Limits

Photograph 3. Obstruction Created by Accumulated Sediments and Growing Plant in the Canals

Photograph 4. Creating Blockage in Canal Sections for Getting Needed Water

2-4- GETTING RESULTS FROM PARTICIPATION STUDIES IN FOUMANAT IRRIGATION NETWORK

The main question was that how the management of second class canals and distribution water up to the fields may be assigned to the farmers. If the above mentioned points be considered, it is clear that the farmers by no means are ready to accept participation in exploitation and maintenance of the network. Based on the questionnaire filled by the farmers, they look at participation as an acceptable and practicable thing but the situation of the network prevents them from daring to participate. Also, there are some principal questions whose answers must be provided in advance.

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1. What is given to the farmers and what is expected from them against such grant. 2. Up to what level the management on second class and water distribution is assigned to the farmers and there is not any legal vacuum for such powers. 3. How the farmers will become certain for solving the water shortage problem. What is most disturbing for the farmers is that the network management shall not be able to guarantee water supply for agriculture. In years of this study none of above questions has been answered convincingly and it was not clear that which tools should be introduced to the farmers to create the belief that their needed water would be supplied and distributed by a reliable system. We have to note that in years of study (1994-1996) none of participative institutions such as elected city councils and village councils did not exist. 3. SOUFICHAI IRRIGATION NETWORK The water of Soufichai Irrigation Network is supplied from Alavian Dam. This network locates at extreme part of the southwest of East Azerbaijan Province and covers the lands of Maragheh and Bonab areas. The dam and the network started to be used in 1996. The surface area of the project was estimated to be 12,500 hectares. The dominant agricultural activity of the area is growing vines, fruit trees, and wheat. Figure 2 shows the layout of Soufichai Irrigation and Drainage Network

Figure 2. shows the layout of Soufichai Irrigation and Drainage Network. 3-1- PARTICULARS OF SOUFICHAI IRRIGATION NETWORK

As it is seen in Figure 2, this network consists of four different districts. District I which Covers a surface measuring 2500 hectares locates at downstream of the dam and at present is irrigated by traditional irrigation streams. There is no underground water in this district. In Districts II and III whose surface areas are 3,600 and 2,500 hectares, respectively, modern irrigation network has been constructed and water in transferred to

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the farms through concrete (job-mix concrete) canals. In these two districts underground water is used extensively. Further, water in district III is supplemented by water of Varjouchai River too. In district IV which locates at the end of the network area and covers about 3,900 hectares, the traditional irrigation streams are used for distribution of water. Among restrictions existing in this area, high level of underground water, extreme use of underground water, and flow of salty water through Urmia Lake (existing adjacent to the area), may be mentioned. Underground water provides about 40-50 percent of the needed water. Further, potable water of Maragheh City is supplied from Alavian Dam. As it is observed the irrigation particulars are different in four irrigation districts and there are different interactions between the irrigation exploitation management and farmers. 3-2- PARTICIPATION IN SOUFICHAI IRRIGATION NETWORK

When exploitation of the network started in 1996-97, participation was seriously discussed in the country. Though the discussion was running in academic level but gradually different strata of the population were involved and ordinary people were getting familiar with concept of participation. Elections of city councils and village councils and assigning the urban and rural activities to elected persons of same city or village have arisen in all levels of the society the discussion on participation of people in decision makings. In line with these developments, formation of Cooperative Societies of Water Users have been designed by Regional Water Organization of East Azerbaijan and Ardebil Provinces for Soufichai Irrigation and Drainage Network and its implementation is followed up. 3-3- PRESENT SITUATION OF PARTICIPATION

At present some 21 cooperative societies of water users have been formed and are active in the area covered by Soufichai Irrigation Network and 12 other societies are in process of formation. The area covered by each society spans between 72 and 1,770 hectares. The members of each society are 32 to 576 persons and each member has about 2.1-3.4 hectares of land. In irrigation districts II and III, are villages have cooperative society of water users and in districts I and IV, the societies are being formed. Of course, in district No.IV, four villages have already formed their cooperative societies. The process of cooperative societies formation in Soufichai Network started in 1995-96 and is continuing. 3-4- REQUIREMENTS OF PARTICIPATION IN SOUFICHAI IRRIGATION NETWORK

As it was pointed out, in all areas the creation of participation depends on their environment and social structures. Based on this approach, in respect of developing participation in Soufichai Irrigation Network situation is as follows: 1. Being Newly-Founded Network: Since the network is newly-founded the farmers are not mentally ready to assume responsibility of maintenance and exploitation of new canals. The maintenance cost of the canals in beginning years is low and so

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the farmers and newly-founded cooperative societies have lesser engagement with each other and with mother exploiting on company. 2. In beginning years of exploitation of the network the social environment was more suitable for accepting participation and creating capacities of participation for involving the farmers in exploitation and maintenance of the irrigation network. Therefore, the two poles of this participation, that is, the main exploiting company (the mother company) was more ready to assign the responsibility and the farmers were more willing to assume the responsibility. 3. Increased number of the degree-holders, especially those graduated in agricultural engineering and irrigation fields, drove them to private sector and many of them are working as managing director of the cooperative societies of water users. Since they are familiar with the local situation of water and agricultural activities they have been effective in enriching the insight of the farmers toward optimum use of water in agricultural sector. 4. Existence of participation approach in Regional Water Organization of East Azerbaijan Province and seeking the opinions and proposals of the water users in implementation of irrigation projects too have played important role in formation of the cooperative societies of water users. 3-5- STUDYING THE PROBLEMS OF FARMERS’ PARTICIPATION IN SOUFICHAI IRRIGATION NETWORK

Participation of the users in exploitation and maintenance of irrigation networks is a newly established institution and so naturally the problems and difficulties are less likely to show themselves. The most important problems in continuation of the activities of the cooperative societies of water users in Soufichai Irrigation Network are as follows: 1. Lack of sufficient training and conception in the users about the place of these societies in respect of interaction with mother exploiting company. 2. The fact that the users are not familiar with their roles in the cooperative societies in respect of attending in general meetings, electing the managing director, and … 3. The members are not familiar with the legal role of these societies in civil institutions. 4. The users are not familiar with the interactions between the water users cooperative societies. 5. The users are not sufficiently trained and familiar with system for allocating and distributing agricultural water. 6. The mother exploiting company has not fulfilled its obligations toward water users cooperative societies in delivering the allocated water. As it is evident in above sections, in Soufichai Irrigation Network the allocation and distribution of agricultural water are among the instances which may originate a lot of problems in the activities of water users cooperative societies. The issue has been under discussion in Regional Water Organization of East Azerbaijan Province since 2-3 years ago and it was tried to find a way for systematizing water allocation and distribution in

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such a way that the obligations of mother exploiting company toward the water users cooperative societies can be fulfilled with minor changes. The mother exploiting company has also thinking about the possibility of designing a system which makes the cooperative societies certain about their needed water. It is sure that such certainly will facilitate the planning and will minimize the problems and disputes between farmers who are member of water users cooperative societies and these societies. As it was pointed out earlier same problem was stated by the farmers covered by Foumanat Irrigation Network too. In other words, the necessity of a tool for estimating the needed water and manner of distribution exists in both networks under study. For meeting this necessity, a model has been developed for estimating the needed water and manner of distribution in Soufichai Network. The model is recommended as a pattern for other networks too. 4. MODEL FOR ALLOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN SOUFICHAI IRRIGATION NETWORK Based on above discussions and for strengthening the stability of water users cooperative societies, a model has been developed as a tool for allocation and distribution manner of water in Soufichai Irrigation Network. The model estimates the flow of Soiufichai River into Alavian Dam and predicts the allocation and distribution of water in each irrigation area of Soufichai Irrigation Network on monthly base. Figure 3 shows a scheme of the model. Further, Figure 4 shows outflow which is the water allocated to each product at any time in each irrigation area. By applying this model, the mother exploiting company will be able to predict the water needs of coming crop year and determines for each area the maximum surface of land which match with that amount of water. At present, this model has been used in Soufichai Irrigation Network and as a primary appraisal aiming to improve the predictions of the model in estimating the flow of Soufichai River, the results of the model are in process of calibration. The model may not be operational unless with getting the directors of water users cooperative societies familiar with the model and showing them the process of the calculations related to water allocation and distribution.

Figure 3. Scheme of the Main Page of the Water Allocation Model of Soufichai Irrigation Network

Figure 4. Scheme of the Output of the Water Allocation & Distribution Model of Soufichai Irrigation Network

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4-1- ADVANTAGES OF EXPLOITATION MODEL:

1. Simplicity of the model for being applied. 2. Accessibility of the process of the calculations related to allocation and distribution in the network through observing the outputs of the model in each calculation step. 3. Creating common look in mother exploiting company and water users cooperative societies as far as the prediction of water resources in coming water year is concerned. 4. Becoming aware of the amount of surface and underground water sources accessible in each irrigation area and thus, for each water users cooperative society. 5. Preventing non-expert interventions of persons not being responsible in distribution of network water. 6. Paving the way for participation of the water users cooperative societies for overcoming the probable water crisis in coming crop year based on identification of new water sources in the network. 7. Optimum use of agricultural water in the irrigation network 5. CONCLUSIONS Participation in exploitation and maintenance of irrigation networks is not independent from ways of participation in rural and urban societies. The ways and degree of participation in irrigation networks depend on two poles or two arms. The first arm is the degree of willingness of the mother exploiting company to assigning part of its responsibilities and the second arm is the users who are going to accept the responsibility. For explanation of common issues especially the ways of allocation and distribution of water in irrigation networks, both these poles need a tool. In irrigation networks, applying a model which is able to demonstrate water allocation to each product at any time in each irrigation area is among the means that would calm the tension between the users especially in low-water years and this, in turn would lead to more activity and stability of water users cooperative societies. 6- SOURCES 1. Tehran Water-Soil Consultant Engineers Company, 2005, Socio-Economic Assessment of Water Allocation Policy in Soufichai Irrigation and Drainage Network, Part 1, Basic Studies,. 2. Tehran Water-Soil Consultant Engineers Company, 2004, Developing the Dynamic Model of Applied Exploitation of Alavian Dam and Optimum Allocation of Water to Downstream Consumption.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

FORMULATION PROCESS OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PLAN IN SEMI-ARID AREA

Michimasa Menjo1, Tomoki Hotta2, Takahiro Kato3

ABSTRACT This paper presents agricultural and rural development policy of the Government of Morocco in the arid region located at the southeast of the Atlas Mountains. The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has completed the Master plan study for irrigation and community development plan in the Tafilalet region, and the author, study team presents lessons of policy-makers how they have been coordinating rural development schemes in the region. The region severely lacks rainfall, with only 50 to 200 mm per annum and agricultural activities are fully dependent on torrential water and groundwater through subsurface tunnel structures, which are called "the khettara" in Morocco. A recent inventory study indicates that the productive khettara has reduced to about 190 khettaras compared to about 570 khettaras in 1970s because of decrease of water discharge due to consecutive drought especially since 1997. Decrease of available water has accelerated desertification and depopulation in the region. Since the region has left behind development among several regions in Morocco, improvement of farm productivity is essential to secure living conditions in the rural area, especially for the communities scattered in the region. In formulating regional development plan, the Government puts emphasis on community development through "capacity building" of beneficiaries. Experience, knowledge will be a strong base for future development. Interdependence system has been established on the basis of mutual reliance between the Government and communities. 1) Faithful response to beneficiaries' needs and 2) equal opportunity to access to the governmental support program, these policy directs farmer's motivation to self-reliance on irrigation management, consequently it mitigates devastation of social system and harnesses the solidarity of rural communities. This paper presents of the Government of Morocco agricultural and rural development policy in the arid region located at the southeast of the Atlas Mountains. The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has completed the Master plan study in the Tafilalet region under the technical cooperation program, and the author, study team presents lessons of policy-makers on how they have been coordinating rural 1, 2, 3: Nippon Giken Inc. (JICA Study Team) Kokuryu-Shibakoen Bldg., 2-6-15, Shibakoen, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan, Tel. +81-3-3438-1333, Fax. +81-3-3438-1455, E-mail address [email protected]

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development schemes in arid region. On the regional level, there are 40 Provincial Agricultural Directrates (DPAs) and 9 Regional authorities of agricultural development (ORMVAs) under the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Sea Fisheries. The ORMVAs are called upon to promote and implement development schemes for the improvement of agricultural productivity, supporting service for farmers. The ORMVA/TF (Tafilalet) has its service area located in the Tafilalet region. The study area (Tafilalet region) is indicated in Figure 1. 1. INTRODUCTION In arid regions, water is most essential factor influencing small-holder farming systems. The study area, Tafilalet region is located southeast of Atlas Mountains and has annual rainfall of 50 to 200 mm. Comparing to surface water use such as rainwater and perennial river flow in the west regions of the Atlas Mountains, torrential flow and subsurface water are solely available for irrigation and potable water use in the region. Subsurface water is utilized by pumpage or subsurface tunnel structure, which is called the "khettara", widely recognized as a qanat, karez and foggara in East Asia, Middle East and North Africa. Typical section of the khettara system is illustrated in Figure 2 The farmers have been maintaining water right for several hundreds years and established firm operation and maintenance system of the khettara, however it became difficult to maintain the system as well as the rural community life as such due to water shortage and depopulation in the region. A khettara community has been established based on individual water user group. Recent inventory study by the JICA study team indicates that there are about 410 khettaras with total number of the 241 khettara villages, 17,100 households and 129,500 population in the study area. The ORMVA/TF has been implementing several support programs for the community development considering great account of giving an equal opportunity to access to the development scheme by the government, i.e., khettara rehabilitation, flood irrigation and communal pump station construction in the irrigation sector.

MOROCCO

Atlas Mountains

Study Area ALGERIA

Figure 1. Location of the study area

2. HISTORY OF ACCESS TO WATER RESOURCES There exist several water resources of surface and subsurface water origin. Surface water is utilized through dams and diversion weirs, and groundwater is exploited by pumps and gravity system of khettaras. More than 60 diversion weirs have been constructed in major streams since 1960s to divert flood water into farmland for irrigation, however its further development potential remains limited since few weir sites were proposed considering the overall water resources amount in the basins. It is often observed in surface water use, irrigation water is limitedly utilized in farmlands located along the rivers (wadi), and other areas far from the rivers have been deprived of

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the water resources development as well as social investment. In addition, continuous drought resulted in decease of farm products for several years since 1970. To cope with these situation, groundwater use through pumping was accelerated to secure water supply for irrigation since 1980s, however rapid shifting to pump irrigation further caused continuous decline of groundwater table due to excessively large extraction. Drawdown of water table to more than 50 m deep from the ground surface caused high fuel consumption, consequently many farmers discontinued farming within a few years after pump irrigation was excessively developed in the beginning of 1990s. Besides these problems, regional disparity of social investment left many khettara communities behind the development and severe drought accelerated depopulation and devastation of social system of the khettara communities. To preserve the social system as well as the natural environment, such as groundwater, the ORMVA/TF has launched the khettara rehabilitation program in region-wise. Table 1 shows water volume of various water sources in the area. It is noticeable point that water through khettaras provides about 38 percent of total water supply, and whole groundwater use including pump-up water is beyond dam storage water in recent years. Since surface water excessively depends on flood occurrence, unstable climate reduces farm production. This fact advocates for re-appreciated of khettara water use because of its stable flow condition through the year.

Table 1. Water volume in the study area Dam1

Diversion weir2

Pumpage3

Khettara4

Total

Water volume (MCM)

80

28

11

73

192

Percentage (%)

42

15

6

38

100

Source: 1

Hassan Addakhil dam (2003/04) Study report, ORMVA/TF

2

3 major diversion weirs (2003/04) Study report, ORMVA/TF

3

Yield of 360 pump stations (2000) Ministry of Equipment and Transports

4

Yield of 191 khettaras (2005), JICA study report

3. PROCESS TO PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT 3.1 IRRIGATION BY KHETTARA WATER

Inventory survey indicates that the productive khettaras have decreased to about 190 khettaras at present compared to about 570 khettaras in 1970s because of decrease of discharge. The average discharge of 190 khettaras is only 5.9 lit/sec, and some communities have already migrated to urban area because so little water could not sustain their living. In the meanwhile, farmers make efforts to effectively use water for irrigation, for example, the rotation irrigation corresponding to the traditional water right is applied to water distribution of khettara water for 24 hours. Although some farmers have water right of only one hour or less in two weeks, they distribute water to their farmlands

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under kerosene lamps even in cold midnight in winter. For maintenance works, farmers periodically remove sediment and protect gallery and vertical shaft wall at their own expenses. Farmers abide by the local rule agreed on with adjoining khettara groups to equitably draw water. Local rule restricts extension of gallery, degradation of gallery bed and pump installation upstream of mother well so as to secure water flow of each khettara. A little financial support will increase irrigation water by reducing leakage loss, and lighten financial and laborious task of maintenance works for khettaras and irrigation canals.

Mother well Vertical shafts Ground water recharge

Outlet of gallery

Villages

Farmland

Regulating basin Gallery Groundwater surface Aquifer Rock foundation (impermeable)

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of khettara system 3.2 IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

In general, Government adopts participatory irrigation management to 1) reduce the dependence of farmers on government, 2) improve sustainability of irrigation systems, 3) improve efficiency and cost effectiveness of government expenditures, 4) improve agricultural productivity and so on, and for these purposes, Government would give higher priority to projects that are economically vital. On contrary to this, the ORMVA/TF has selected khettara communities without a clear distinction, e.g., water availability, number of beneficiaries and farm productivity during project implementation. Budget has been equally allocated for whole communities even though some khettaras have less water flow and locality have been severely depopulated. For irrigation and community development, "mutual reliance" between the Governments and beneficiaries is essential to realize participatory management. The ORMVA/TF constructed diversion weirs and communal pump stations to equally distribute water to all beneficiaries, but not to individual beneficiaries. In addition, the ORMVA/TF has launched khettara rehabilitation works with close communication between farmers groups. Upon the request of the community, the ORMVA/TF willingly provides technical support including topographic survey, discharge measurement gratis. Beneficiaries steadily continue maintenance works so as to provide maximum benefit for their farmers groups. The emphasis must be on participation of government and beneficiaries, and a bottom up approach that harnesses the solidarity of rural communities. Rural development must be local and community- driven within a coherent framework. Table 2 indicates typical approach by the ORMVA/TF observed during the study:

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Table 2. Activities of the ORMVA/TF and beneficiaries by ORMVA/TF

by Farmers

1) Instruction of irrigation method to the farmers including water saving and rotation methods aiming at improving water use efficiency

1) Preparation of water right paper to show present condition of water supply schedule to the engineers of the ORMVA/TF

2) Consultation of rehabilitation method of khettara and irrigation canal from technical and economical points of views

2) Periodical maintenance works such as dredging of sediment and gallery protection by their own expenses

3) Rehabilitation works including material supply in emergency

3) Investigation procurement maintenance

4) Capacity building of farmers' groups and dissemination of farming skills

4) Actual activities of income generation and extension of farm skills to neighbors through farmers' groups

5) Introduction of support programs by local and international donors

5) Establishment and strengthening farmers organizations (Associations)

of of

the facilities labor force

and for

of

3.3 FORMULATION PROCESS OF THE ORMVA/TF

The ORMVA/TF is composed of five (5) Departments and ten (10) Sub-Divisions, and closer to beneficiaries, 22 Local development centers that provide extension and support services to the farmers. In response to the information from Sub-Divisions and Local development centers, the Departments allocate annual budget for 1) planning and program service, 2) equipment procurement and management of irrigation and drainage network, 3) agricultural production service, 4) extension of institutional service, etc. The ORMVA/TF emphasizes importance of participation of farmers to realize region-wise community development, thus irrigation and agro-industrial support programs are extended to all communities. In the small- medium irrigation program for surface irrigation canals, communal pump installation and khettara rehabilitation, capital amounts of half to one million US dollar has been equally distributed to the communities every year since 1990. As for khettara rehabilitation, the work has extended to most of the khettara systems even though rehabilitation length was limited to several hundreds meters against overall length of several thousand meters in each khettara. Almost the same budget was input for agro-industrial schemes such as date palm and vegetable cultivation, animal production, food processing, etc. Extension service by mobile team was offered to beneficiary secluded population in remote mountainous areas. Experience, knowledge of farmers' groups accumulated through their activities will be a strong base for future community development. 1) Response to beneficiaries' needs through dialogue between farmers and 2) distribution of benefit to all communities, this policy enhances farmer's motivation to self-reliance on irrigation management, consequently it mitigates devastation of social system and generates a communal society in regional level. Figure 3 indicates flow of formulation process for khettara rehabilitation scheme.

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"Mutual Reliance"

ORMVA/TF

Dialogue between beneficiaries

Departments

ORMVA/TF makes effort to secure financial source: • Local budget • Budget from International donors • Subsidy system

Sub-Divisions

Communities

Annual budget for community development

Local development centers

1) Response to beneficiaries' needs through dialogue between farmers, and 2) Distribution of benefit to all communities

Discussion with farmer group to bring benefits to a large number of communities (Public interests)

Equity to access to government support

-

Rehabilitation records

Surface and subsurface irrigation Agricultural extension service Crop production Animal production Agricultural loans

Inventory

Improvement of farm income, poverty reduction

Selection of khettara

Basic survey ORMVA/TF is responsible for design and construction planning Implementation

Offer of labor works by farmers

Maintenance works

Figure 3. Formulation process of khettara rehabilitation scheme 4. ACTIVITIES OF JICA In line with the development strategy of the ORMVA/TF, the Master plan on khettara rehabilitation and rural community development was formulated by the technical assistance program of the JICA. Following studies were conducted to verify relevance, effectiveness of the proposed components in the Master plan: 1) Technology transfer on khettara and canal rehabilitation method 2) Water saving irrigation (furrow, drip irrigation) to maximize irrigation efficiency 3) Improvement of farming skill to boost agricultural productivity (cultivation of cash crops, compost production, etc.)

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4) Food processing and animal husbandry as income generation activities (date palm and vegetable processing and rabbit, pigeon breeding) 5) Improvement of rural life (improvement of water quality of khettara, public health and hygiene) 6) Capacity building of the ORMVA/TF and farmers' groups (Water Users Associations, women groups, etc.) Before the study, the farmers scarcely accepted new farming skill and also did not put their income into irrigation and agricultural investment because benefit obtained from investment was uncertain. In the course of study, the farmers could directly see visible impacts, i.e., increase of khettara water, high crop production as well as market value, then they recognized new farming skill and positively joined to workshops and seminars. It is lesson learned that giving a trivial motive to farmers is most important to accelerate their activities, and the Government should prepare certain program that decrease financial risk on the farmer side, including subsidy scheme. Through workshops and study tours held by the study team in the field level, farmers not only learned farming skills but had an opportunity to participate several governmental supporting programs, which had not been widely prevailed throughout the region previously. Both Governments and farmers have begun to put in serious efforts to cope with several constraints for development of oasis agriculture. With strong support by the ORMVA/TF, the farmers can have many opportunities to receive governmental assistance and their opinion shall be reflected to the Government's strategy.

Photo 1. Discussion with beneficiaries on khettara rehabilitation method

Photo 2. Exchange of opinions with beneficiaries on water distribution method

5. CONCLUSIONS Khettara system resembles tertiary canal of a large irrigation system in end water distribution system. Poor operation and maintenance of the tertiary canal causes lower water use efficiency as commonly observed in a large irrigation system. Contrastively khettara system has been well operated for several hundreds years because community itself was established on the basis of khettara water. Khettara and irrigation canal are maintained periodically according to the water right. The Government respects their

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self-reliance and provides technical and financial support within the extent of his autonomy. Since khettara flow is indispensable to maintain communities in arid region, it is desirable to improve present situation through efforts of local people with assistance of local governments considering the major significance of the khettara rehabilitation, i.e., 1) less cost and safer water sources, 2) sole water source for stable agricultural production, 3) source to preserve social system, and 4) heritage for the future. Since each community is economically weak and vulnerable to climate change, community is expected to expand his activities to other communities based on their accumulated trust with local people and ability on managing and coordinating development works in the community. In the light of these facts, it is expected that the Government will continuously support communities and unify them into more large organization such as "communal society" to stabilize and increase farm income of the rural communities under their initiatives.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

SUSTAINABLE PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

Mirshoja Mir Charkhchian1

ABSTRACT To make proper decision on irrigation management transposition, "sustainability in irrigation management" and specifically participatory irrigation management, which is the result of transposition program should be taken into consideration. In irrigation management transposition process, as the management transposition mechanism and the assured responsibility delegation method are important, the sustainability and persistence of activities are the main issue. Specially, since the stakeholders as the future caretakers for operation and maintenance of irrigation installations do not have enough experience for the acceptance and performance of the given responsibilities. Therefore, the persistence of these activities in the form of new operational system, which is the subject of sustainable management, is focal point of the transposition program. The main elements in the sustainable participatory irrigation management are: 1) Strategies; 2) Training and Extension; 3) Monitoring and valuation. In all the three abovementioned main elements, it is recommended that the rational advisory models to be substituted for the common governmental trends, which requires: -

In policymaking, new guidelines with no consideration for administrative caution, but correspond to requirements of local developing society to be submitted;

-

In training and extension, in addition to formal education in agricultural and irrigation activities, the issues relevant to reconciliation of technical specifications of the network with social requirements of an operation unit to be clarified for the stakeholders.

-

By the assistance of a specialized support system (e.g. in form of a nongovernmental specialized/advisory organization) a diligent plan for monitoring and valuation of the performance of modern management to be designed to

1 - Senior Expert in Social, Economical Department, Yekom Co., B.Sc. in Management Email: [email protected]

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overcome the conditions resulted from establishment of the participatory operational policy instead of the past one. In this article, each of the main effective elements of sustainable participatory management have been analyzed, the limitations and strength points described along with the required organizational relations Key Word: Sustainable Participatory Irrigation Management PREFACE With implementing irrigation management transposition program from public sector to private sector and forming participatory irrigation management which the stakeholders (agriculture stakeholders) are involved in organizing the operational affairs and maintenance of irrigation network, a significant stage in management is commenced. Proper forming of participatory management and rational continuation under the expected efficiency is the sustainable and continuation issue in participatory irrigation management. Achievement of this issue is a test for the accuracy of decisions made for the method of management transposition. In transposition plan, not only the management transfer mechanism and the method for granting responsibilities and planning for support from transfer process is very important but also endurance of operation managing from the network in the frame work of participatory irrigation management has a twofold importance. The sustaining issue in management by stakeholders depends on 2 general factors and includes" continuation of activities" and "activities efficiencies". Considering lack of necessary experiences in the important issue of irrigation network managing by stakeholders in the past, we must always be aware about unexpected issues or those which are out of transfer program mechanism. Even, the system may face pause or recession in its activities. Every above general events in the process of participatory management is directly related to "Sustainable Irrigation Management" and therefore to prevent the above issues and assurance of "Sustainable Irrigation Management" some elements must be considered to help to be far away from them and help to achieve the sustainability. These elements which are the base for sustainable irrigation management in transposition plan include: policymaking, training and extension, monitoring and evaluation. It is necessary that in each of the above mentioned elements, advisory intellectual models substitute the common public frameworks; therefore, public organization should pave the way for the following fundamental steps in order to utilize the above elements properly: 1- Adopting modern strategies with assurance of advisory method and accepting the role of mere supervisory, away from administrative expediency 2- Providing a new educational plan (separated from the formal education related to agricultural activities) in order to make required changes in arranging land sections in an adoptable framework of network technical specification with social necessities at irrigation unit.

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3- Using specialized support system and assistance of non public specialized and advisory organization, preparing and executing the required plan for continuous monitoring from participatory management efficiency. In this way, the deficiencies will be recognized and solved by the stakeholders. So, it is possible to confront the probable impacts caused by substituting the participatory operation policy instead of past traditional system MODERN STRATEGIES IN POLICYMAKING The existing experiences in transposition of irrigation management defines that in making basic decisions related to policy making in design and establishing modern irrigation network and assign the management to stakeholders, one aspect is just considered. It means to explain the predestined objectives only one of the multiple aspects in the complicated issue of making and managing network is considered. For example, among the financial policies, only "providing share of financial cost for plan stakeholders" is the focal point or it is possible to consider the fixed and inflexible rates for water cost. Regarding organizational policies, it also emphasizes merely the role of public executors within the system which is apparently private while this role can be assigned to a non governmental supporting and specialized company or expert consultants. One-dimensional observation represents not only in financial and organizational constraints but also in the shape of financial allocation on areas which does not have efficient role but just supportive one in the system implementation .The dominated view in providing financial resources in establishing operational participatory management is out of integrity, but It doesn't mean that no organizational decision is taken in this regard .It means that these decisions are entitled to change during the design and implementation period. In the financial participation of irrigation network for Aidoghmush dam downstream lands (East Azerbaijan-Miyaneh city), the financial participation share of stakeholders in ha. has been changed repeatedly to provide minor network costs. This issue left unsuitable effect in social studies at second stage (design stage) and making ground for mutual trust with stakeholders in order to specify later steps. According to organizational view, policy makings depended on short time decisions and no attention was paid to the suggestions of plan consultant in making future steps for implementing "Action options" which clearly will cause to make a role "social supervision" in shaping and making participatory management cores from the consultant. Another aspect of one-dimensional observation in policy making is the way to determine plan regions and prioritizing the regions (agricultural plains). In determination of irrigation regions, the downstream lands and water right holders are generally considered. Of course, this measure is right based on agricultural and technical aspect but, for policy making only one aspect of social issues is paid attention. For prioritizing to plan regions, is there a need for social study of the neighborhood

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plains? Are parameters like income sources, employment groups, population changes, irrigation crisis and race and regional prejudices considered? In this way, it is observed that in the policy for determining plan regions; Since it is possible that priorities may be given to the neighborhood and downstream plains of the selected plain through more exact studies; considering direct and water right holders' plains which the studies are not merely focused on them; might not be enough. Other aspects related to policy restriction and obtaining effective policies are the policies on network execution (before management transfer). One of these policies' strength points is to meet the time schedule for network establishment based on what the project consultant has promised in the social studies with stakeholders. Implementing networks which are taking a long time from their commencement cause hopelessness and indifference in the stakeholders' society. Moreover, with social changes (migrations, access to non agricultural income sources, and changes in the land use) the required factors to take the network control and utilization by stakeholders will be faded and it causes disorder in the network proper function by aware elements. Considering the existing restrictions and weak points in policy of the plan and network establishment and also preparing plan for irrigation management transposition, the strong points which through these policies shall be obtained; are completely distinguished

Table: Some of the main policy makings for plans making and transposition program One-dimensional and restrictive policies

Overall policies with strong points

Without interference of stakeholders and non public experts in policy making chart and making decisions by the expedient elements

Accepting advisory role in organization chart of plans and organizing planning and strategy committees with participation of all the stakeholder agents, including the pioneer elements in stakeholders society

Financial policies

Insist on the stakeholders financial participation share based on the dictated rules without considering the region condition and analyzing the results caused from the cost and income and analyze the subsides role in providing financial sources for managing the installation

Establishing financial policies based on stakeholders real participation and considering the regions conditions and analyze the relationship between cost and income , also considering to the role of subsides especially during the participatory management period and it's impact on maintenance cost reduction

Plan policies (Executing)

Taking long time in executing period and stakeholders no trust to the plan results due to the changes caused from the long period of time

Making decisions based on observing the time in plan execution and controlling the social changes during the plan making with the goal to attract stakeholders trust

Policies

Organization policies

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Policies

One-dimensional and restrictive policies

Overall policies with strong points

Regional priority policies

Lack of recognition the immediate needs in the regions without considering the neighborhood regions impacts and emphasis to the plan technical necessities

Priority to the real and immediate needs of the regions and considering the multi dimension models in specifying the plan regions with the aim to prevent social tensions

General policies in transposition periods

No fundamental and obligation making perception about the sustainable changes in irrigation management and accepting the participatory irrigation management without attention to the pioneer elements and advisors and without their interfere in the continuation of the management

Making general policies based on strong and fundamental political preparations and attention to the role of pioneer stakeholders to attract the cooperation of general stakeholders during the transposition period and after it.

DIFFERENT ROLE OF EDUCATION AND EXTENSION IN ESTABLISHING PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT In the area of related issues to education and extension of irrigation participatory plans, we still involve in normal levels in irrigation and agriculture development which include educations related to learning new pattern of agricultural products in development plan with involvement of production modern technology. Also, trainings about familiarity with equipments and repairs and maintenance of installations are the other part of education and extension which is common in irrigation and agricultural development plans. The main point in this regard and related to development in modern irrigation network is lack of necessary understanding from congruence of network technical specification with existing social necessities in traditional irrigation which has been constructed on the scattered, various and small farming lands. In fact, this case is regarded as one of the signs of challenge between the modern operational policies and traditional operational policy from agricultural farming lands. If this conflict will not be solved or be considered very skin deep and with dominant of technical aspects in the network construction, consequently the network operation will jeopardize especially in conditions where the participatory management in the network operation is expected to be applicable. Nowadays, engineering design in constructing side canals at irrigation networks will be paid more attention. Such a design doesn't pass the farming section borders and inevitably, it separates parts from operation unit under different irrigations. Therefore, parts movement and change in arrangements of users' farming parts based on engineering design necessities; will be in the work order which can be referred to as "Land Integration ". Also, in any irrigation unit, the parts movement issue and integrating the consumer parts of any irrigation unit; may be discussed due to in any of the above cases, the borders of farming units might be ignored.

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One of the other related issue for facilitating the operation of irrigation modern network which is necessary to be trained to the consumer groups for, is "consolidated farming" which recommends unit cultivation in selected regions. The use of this issue is the irrigation way and providing required water for plants and also cultivation, husbandry, harvest and other measures in producing agricultural crops. It is observed that the educational and promoting methods are very wide scope and will go beyond the classic trainings related to method of consumer's activity under the new agricultural pattern and the way to use the irrigation equipments. Acceptance of above terms from the users needs their familiarity with this issue in the process of "participatory field operation" by consultants. It is necessary that the project consultant precedes the work simultaneously with network design and even before that using the device for field operation including cadastral map and irrigation unit's map and having dialogue with stakeholders. Familiarity and acceptance of this issue by stakeholders follows a difficult process. Also, its practical implementation requires making a separate training and disseminating process. Meanwhile, if there would be no attention in this regard, we will face that the stakeholders refuse organizing the participator operation system and during the existing operation stakeholders do not accept to cooperate for acceptance of the necessities caused from adopting network technical circumstances and existing problems to settle scattered lands in the traditional operational policy. In this way, continuation and endurance of participatory management system will not happen and network operation deficiencies will happen at any time and causes costs increase shortage of resources and nullify the activities. Generally, the neglect of this issue is considered because of existing limitations in understanding and acceptance of stakeholders with these changes and developments while its implementation is considered as the strength points of base making in irrigation participatory management. Required organization relationships in this regard, are defined based on theoretical and providing executing strategies in the framework of contract consultant in the first and second stages of irrigation network studies. In the execution stage and in suggested options, the contract consultant will have social supervision on it too and the most effective device for achievement is considered devices in participatory field operation. In transposition plan and in the process of participatory management process, a mechanism should be designed to include this functional issue into the duties of a "non governmental supportive specialized and technical company". In other words, it is related to the role of "consultants". The required time in first and second stages of project and submitting extension and training plan for it, will comply the time table offered by the contract consultant. In this way, at the end of the second stage and providing strategies for "Action options", training and execution operation titled "Executive strategies for adopting way of irrigation network technical necessities with social obligations in utilization unit" will be compiled and implemented under consultant's social supervision.

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MONITORING AND EVALUATION AS SUSTAINABLE FACTOR IN PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT One of the meaningful definitions for the word "Monitoring" is "to care". This word in the activities related to irrigation management means to care the affairs related to utilizing from irrigation installations in a way to achieve the necessary efficiency based on program goals. By this definition, it is clear that controlling tools must be used to solve deficiencies and recognize the lack of probable operation on time. It is natural that this measure is easy by appropriate and updated report and circulation of affairs. So, observation and reporting are among the effective device in monitoring. Effective monitoring is along with evaluation, so, evaluation of issues requires use of other devices such as carrying out " participatory field operation", distributing written questionnaire and special forms among authorities and stakeholders in utilizing from the network for informing and evaluating the responsibilities and efficiency of the affairs. With these explanations, the value and importance of monitoring will be identified in continuation and effective endeavor of irrigation participatory management. So, without these measures and in lack of information and without controlling the issues, The effect of improper activity and deficiencies, participatory management will face serious danger and in this way it would be without continuation and endurance.

MONITORING AS MAJOR FACTOR IN MANAGEMENT TRANSPOSITION PROGRAM Monitoring program, organization and its implementation mechanism must be considered as parts of strategies for management transposition program. It should not be considered that after transposition, it is possible to design the mechanisms of a monitoring program from participatory management activity. The monitoring program should be considered as part of the preparations for implementing transposition program.

THE ROLE OF LABOR ORGANIZATION, TIME AND NECESSITIES OF MONITORING MEASURES Selecting authorities and elements who are the executors of monitoring program; are acknowledgeable points. In labor organization of monitoring program, "Network Designer Consultant" and "Social observer consultant" and stakeholders pioneer agent must be involved. Also, experts as neutral parties; who directly didn't have a role in management transposition program can attend as the chief supervisor for monitoring affairs. Selecting proper time (regular and irregular) is very important in monitoring. For example, annually and monthly monitoring can be considered and a special development in management causes monitoring program. Also, to select monitoring issues, attentions must be paid to the necessities in approaching some sensitive aspects in network management and to separate those items

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which are in priority and are more important. In this regard, the necessary issues might be asked from the authorities.

THE CAPACITY TO USE MONITORING RESULTS In order to use monitoring program design in solving functional defects of irrigation management and its sustainability, study of effective issues in monitoring must be used and in this way we can obtain information which are functional and avoid the extra and unnecessary information. For example, wasting water issue, delay in access to the water in due time, costs estimation & it's comparison to the past, stakeholders familiarity with the participatory operational policy and the facilities and irrigation, observing cultivation pattern and related trainings, the stakeholders general satisfaction sense from the network function and their familiarity with the responsibilities in water user groups and etc. can be the principle issues in monitoring and also be effective in evaluating management work.

EFFECT OF MONITORING INFORMATION IN SOLVING THE DEFECTS The information obtained from the monitoring measures must guarantee achievement to the development tools in order to change the procedures, instructions and the current management activities. If this task is not accomplished, the monitoring has not been purposeful and will divert to an administrative issue with spending useless costs. The easiest example in this regard, relates to the maintenance and operation of equipments. The result of monitoring must show that something like efficiency drop off in network operation is related to the lack of control by network operator in a certain division like reservoirs or it is due to using defective parts, so that the problem can be resolved & fixed. In more complicated levels, the results of a monitoring program may show that in participatory policy and stakeholders following the agricultural modern pattern and using the modern irrigation network, the stakeholders have faced income reduction. So, obtaining information about the causes of this deficiency can be achieved through an appropriate monitoring program. For example, the loan installments and water bills might be high, the network is always repairing and in break down condition, the sufficient water is not supplied and the crops faced with low artificial irrigation. Agricultural pattern and production technology are not observed; also the group's management does not have suitable operation. It is even possible that operational groups in construction levels or water association influenced by the foreign pressures to issue procedures and instructions which have affected the natural process of participatory management operation. The abovementioned issues show that specific information about the lack of success in participatory management operation can help the authorities and stakeholders in problem solving.

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THE MAIN TOOLS IN IMPLEMENTING MONITORING PROGRAM To achieve proper results in monitoring program and using it for overcoming the deficiencies based on the sustainability of participatory management, applying necessary and effective tools in monitoring and evaluating the irrigation management operation must be considered. One of the suitable tools in team conversations is based on "Participatory Rural Appraisal (P.R.A)". In this method, the possibility to express the stakeholders' problem cause to achieve variety of comments, ideas and related characteristics to participatory management operation provided that we can represent a correct conclusion from comments and events in our minds. Especially, as the conclusion from the events is in line with the irrigation management operation, consequently the existing sensitivities in accuracy or inaccuracy of the achieved assumptions among the stakeholders' comments and related events of participatory management shall be considered. It is possible to consider quantity changes and developments in monitoring measures, in a way to use them in evaluating the irrigation management activity as merely getting information from one or some issues are noticeable. In this case, an information form (Field questionnaires) or forms to interview people and authorities must be designed to obtain the information of system operation. Other considered tools are "Observation" and "Discovering ambiguous issues"(General method in field studies) in obtaining special issues. In each of the above issues, information about the history of irrigation network establishment, irrigation management shaping and goals, general information about the region (General method for organizational studies) are important for the monitoring authorities and is considered as the monitoring tool. The mentioned issues can be shown in the table below in brief: Goals, Characteristics and Effects of a Monitoring Program Objectives of monitoring

Characteristics

Impacts

Tools

Monitoring as one of the transposition program rounds

Foresight in operation of participatory management

Prevent from improper operation

Monitoring guide in the transposition program documents

Recognizing the existing necessities for monitoring in management operation

implementation timing controls (regular & irregular) in certain cases

Increasing management care and attention

Tangible and intangible inspections

Access to useful information from the management operation

Controlling the management operation

Evaluating management operation

Completing questionnaire and information forms and conversation with stakeholders

Perform monitoring to be used in solving the management defects

Purposefulness of monitoring

Access to the defects in the irrigation management operation

Implementing participatory field operation

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REFERENCES: 1- Esmaeel Jabari, Lessons from transposition approach "irrigation networks management to farmers" Third technical workshop for water user participation in irrigation networks management, Feb. 2003 2- Iran national drainage and irrigation committee, Translation and compiling "Monitoring and evaluation guide in transposition of irrigation management" No. 56, 2002 3- Yekom consulting engineers, Results of economical, social studies and operational policy in downstream lands of Aidoghmush dam, 2003

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

PARTICIPATORY EXPERIENCES FOR ENHANCING LAND AND WATER PRODUCTIVITY

Atul Kumar Singh1, A. K. Sikka2, A.Upadhyaya1, P. R. Bhatnagar1

ABSTRACT This paper shares the experiences of a project having measures to facilitate the formation of land and water management strategies and institutions that are socially acceptable and broadly replicable. The paper describes the participatory process developed and adopted for exploring options for better use of water with focus on a single distributary RPC-V (Right Parallel Channel – V) of Patna Main Canal system under Sone Command through cost effective participatory mechanism, involving poor farmers, landless and share croppers. A key difference in our approach has been the identification and elaboration of possibilities of bringing improvement through dialogue with poor and marginal stakeholders empowered in relation to the larger-scale farmers who traditionally dominate the on-farm water management (OFWM) through self-help groups (SHGs). Dialogues were initiated between experts, local communities, and other key stakeholders such as the Irrigation Department. Emergence and role of Outlet Management Groups (OMGs) and Self Help Groups (SHGs) during the project period provided an interface to explore opportunities for efficient land and water management. The overwhelming response from the community has clearly demonstrated that the involvement of wider constituency of stakeholders provided good opportunities for the adoption of need based OFWM technologies, leading to more effective participatory irrigation management (PIM). Adoption of need based, low cost interventions such as raising of bund height for rainwater conservation, optimization of Rice transplanting time, multiple water use and productive utilization of seasonally waterlogged areas, and selection of pumps for lifting ground water by the farmers using their own resources was a testimony for the success of the participatory process. Recognizing the need for establishing linkages between the OFWM and main canal system management, a broader framework between water users and canal managers is suggested. Strategies for scaling up are also discussed in the paper.

1- Senior Scientist, ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, WALMI Complex, Phulwari Sharif, Patna – 801505, Bihar, India 2- Director ICAR-RCER

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INTRODUCTION Numbers of innovative approaches to agricultural and rural development have emerged in recent years. Some of these have developed within the official agricultural research community having “Top to Bottom” approach, while others have been developed within non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Each has their own strengths and weaknesses. It has been observed that where official sector had competence in formal science and technology developments the NGOs have more concentrated on socio-economic front. Experiences show that peoples’ participation has been identified as one of the major principles for sustainable development of the critical resources land and water. This reflects to believe that people who inhabit an environment over time are more competent to make decisions. Farming Systems Research, Training and Visit systems of agricultural research, On-Farm Water Management, and Command Area Development were some of the dominant approaches in the 1970s through the 1990s in India to enhance land and water productivity (Anonymous. 2002, Joshi. 1997). In the process it has been realized that these process lack in involving resource poor farming communities with an assumption that either the technologies did not suits to them or that the methods of contact and communication were biased against success. These diagnoses helped in offspring of new approaches which included Farmer Field Schools, Institute Village Linkage Programme (IVLP), micro-finance and rural livelihoods initiatives besides gender and environmental aspects. Further recent trends to involve private sector and NGOs in official development interventions, have opened new beginnings in inter-institutional partnership for development and growth of resource poor farmers. The premises of this study was that there are multiple interlocking obstacles to development from environmental, socio-economic and institutional factors, but recently-developed technological and institutional innovations can be brought together in a way so that not only productivity but also livelihood of the farming community through new knowledge of land and water management practices. The idea here was that, given the high potential but low productivity of the project areas, potential economic gains from increased productivity could offer resources and incentive in institution building for irrigation and agricultural development process leading to higher productivity and improved livelihoods. The study was designed around the ‘on-farm water management’ (OFWM) idiom built on the diagnosis that irrigation problems lay ‘below the outlet’ with typical topend/bottom-end distribution problems leading to inefficiency and inequity in water use (Sikka et. al., 2004). As the average cost of canal water in India is less than 5% of the value of the crop it is used to produce. During 1989-90, the average revenue collected from canal water users was Rs.50/ha whereas the average cost of canal maintenance was Rs.270/ha. Low irrigation rates and increased establishment charges result in neglect of canal maintenance leading to infrastructural deterioration, unreliability, excessive water losses, social conflicts and low agricultural production. Water conflicts are common in most of the systems, leading to vandalism and disruption of the physical facilities and degradation of the system. Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) has been proposed as a way to improve water management in canal commands (Vermilion et. al. 1995). However a slow and steady approach towards PIM in India has been recommended with a caution that it is not the panacea for all the difficulties. Under PIM

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the formation of WUAs is governed by the Government of India CADA policy guidelines on Participatory Irrigation Management. In general these guidelines specify a two-tier system in the form of a WUA covering a group of outlets or a minor and a Distributary Level Committee (DLC). In Bihar there are DLCs and Village Level Committees (VLCs). Typically these committees involve and focus on the interests of land-owning farmers. Whereas, the key hypothesis of the study was that by including a wider constituency in decision making related to canal management, agricultural productivity would be improved. During the process of dialogue it was realized that interest of water users at out level are not being represented well. This required formation of some types of groups who can take responsibilities for sharing and distribution of canal water. After continuous discussions with existing WUAs and other community members it was decided to form OMGs (Outlet Management Groups) at every outlet who will not only act as a bridge between the water users and WUAs but also safeguard the interest of water users for timely availability of canal water. The awareness amongst the community resulted in formation of OMGs nearly at every outlet within six months having 5 water users as committee member. Overall under this study attempts have been taken to identify and work out ways to engage poor and marginal stakeholders and to empower them to bring improvement in land and water productivity at wider scale. STUDY AREA The study area falls in the eastern Indo-Gangetic plains located near Patna, Bihar, India under Sone Command. The area is hot and humid with a monsoon lasting from early June to mid October, followed by a long dry season with which is divided into winter (November-March and summer (April – June) periods. Annual rainfall is in the range of 1000 to 1200 mm, the bulk of which falls in August to September. The soils in the area are alluvium derived and vary greatly in texture from sandy to silty clay loams; lighter textured soils are characteristic of elevated areas and of the soils in the northern piedmont belt of the region. Heavier textured soils often more suited to irrigation, and yet prone to water logging, are common in low lying areas and along the major watercourses that run through the area. Surface and sub-surface drainage can be free or severely impeded; flooding is a problem in many parts of the region but the study area is partially affected. The Sone River is an interstate river originating from the Amarkantak plateau in Madhya Pradesh. The Sone irrigation system was started in the mid 19th century. The Sone command is spread over five districts in South Bihar: Rohtas, Bhjojpur, Patna, Gaya and Aurangabad. The study area is fed by RPC (Right Parallel Channel) – V which is a distributary of Patna main Canal System under Sone command. The RPC-V was originally built to irrigate in the dry rabi season, but intensive developments were undertaken in the 1960s including a new barrage, and remodeling of the main canal system and its distributaries etc. to meet increased water demand. The culturable command area of RPC-V is around 2200 hectares covering parts of 20 villages in Naubatpur and Bikram Community Development Blocks. Many of the villages with land under RPC-V are split by the main canal with some un-irrigated higher land to the north. Given the general slope of the area to the north-east, RPC-V drains to the southeast and tail-flows drain into an ahar that runs from around Danara village in a north

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easterly direction along the lower end of the CCA before debouching into a large Ahar nearby village Baiduli which drains immediately into the Punpun river, and then meets the river Ganges to the west of Patna city. Drainage is hampered at all stages during the monsoon and even in the rabi season low lying areas near the Ahar that drains RPC-V can be waterlogged; at the start of the monsoon water backs up from the drainage into the Punpun and to the low lying areas in the tail villages (Rampur and Bedauli villages) forcing earlier planting of kharif rice in these areas. The higher land along which the main canal and RPC-V run has lighter soils commanded by RPC-V have more ready access to irrigation. The low lying areas towards the Ahar are heavier textured but have less ready access to irrigation. PURPOSE The main focus of the project was to develop, field-test and demonstrate appropriate strategies of land and water management practices that would lead to improved rural livelihoods (including livelihoods of poor) and make them available for uptake to target institutions. The project focuses on the promotion of low cost technologies/practices for land and water management that have proven potential to improve productivity. It sought to develop a method for undertaking participatory technology development (PTD) that could be institutionalized and sustained as part of pro-poor rural services. This contrasts with the usual use of PTD as a micro-scale on-farm research tool (Anonymous. 2004). INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS UNDER THE PROJECT The project also aimed to find an efficient and institutionally sustainable way by which research professionals can work with farmers on technologies that can improve crop productivity and, through adoption, improve the livelihoods of poor including socially disadvantaged men and women. The group comprises of a wide range of partners in the project. But the key players were ICAR-RCER (ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region) was formerly known as Directorate of Water Management Resources (DWMR), an Indian NGO and a group of visiting scientists of Rothemsted, University of East Anglia Silsoe Research Institute, CABI biosciences (Farmer field School methods and field diagnosis) and The International Water Management Institute. Other partners have contributed to the project mostly by way of specific managerial, consultancy and training inputs. Scientists from ICAR mainly comprises of multidisciplinary fields such as agricultural engineering, agronomy, soil science, groundwater modelling, hydrology, statistics, as well as agricultural economics and extension, whereas the national NGO had expertise and wide experience in community micro-organisational development. The team deployed by the NGO comprises of management specialist with experience in designing, appraising and operating poverty reduction programmes. By the third year, three more persons, including an agricultural specialist had been added. Several (part time) community based facilitators had been trained and placed by end of project. Similarly, visiting scientists from U. K. also comprises of multidisciplinary team had specialization in the field of soil science, agricultural economics, social science etc.

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With this wide range of project partnership the project needs to develop two institutional arenas a) firstly, that of the project initiators consisting of ICAR scientists, members of an Indian national NGO, and a varied group of international scientists and development consultants as described above, and, secondly, that of the recommendation domain or target groups of rural society in study area. These then can be intersected through interventions by the project initiators in the target areas. The interactions within the initiators and the between the local community can be conceptualised as interfaces where radically different social groups negotiate understandings and transact resources. The primary interface is between the official institutions of the project and local society whilst the interaction amongst foreign development consultants, national NGO development practitioners and ICAR scientists is another interface where understandings are not necessarily shared because the social structures of these participating groups differ radically, and what will have the appearance of a joint project must be negotiated in the course of the project. The diversity of these interfaces does resulted many times different and sometimes contending views, amongst project partners and consultants, keeping in view broadly shared objectives of developing a project within the participatory technology development agenda with emphasis on livelihoods of the poor, and action through groups of poor people. Hence the diverse partners brought to the project very different institutional, locational and theoretical perspectives towards agricultural and irrigation research development and rural society. While most of the project participants were concerned with issues of appropriate agricultural and irrigation technologies and institutions, and how to elaborate a project to address these issues in a participatory and pro-poor, gender and environmentallysensitive manner, perhaps the crucial issue which framed the debates leading to plans for the project was the issue of institutional scalability especially of the self-help groups whose formation was to be facilitated. A prime virtue of the participatory interventions of the type envisaged by the project was to be their self-replicability throughout the recommendation domain. Past experience suggested that such groups when facilitated as instruments of other objectives of the project (e.g. for agricultural technology development, or irrigation participation) would have no capacity for replication or extension beyond project boundaries in time and space, and indeed were likely to have a limited life expectancy after project withdrawal, or would become dependent on continued outside support involving transfers unless a new approach is applied. PROJECT APPROACH Initial project negotiations during the inception phase led to a recognition that a key aspect of the approach proposed involved avoiding incentivisation. Acknowledging this, no formal commitments were made between users and motivators, beyond those associated with the initial technology demonstration activities. As was discussed above the project partners came from very different positions and in the first year or more of the project activities preceded more or less independently as follows: x Facilitation of community development activities undertaken, x Information collection supported by field diagnosis and GIS mapping activities, x Validation and demonstration of the benefits of early rice transplanting in R7830.

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Initially to have feel of the area, basic information were gathered throw published sources, socio-economic surveys, and informal dialogue with the community members. These activities helped in identifying constraints and problems that are specific to water management and raising awareness within the team of scientists (from all partner organisations) of the field situation. At the same time as these activities were underway, the NGO partner was involved independently to facilitate community development activities. Initially these activities were maintained as discrete activities as was required by the dialectic concept. There were however significant differences amongst the project partners who wanted to form SHGs to pursue various technical and livelihood opportunities. Interventions and negotiations between the team members resolved the differences. The vision for GIS as a tool that would facilitate interaction at various levels within the project is laid out in the project inception report keeping in view that, maps are important products to facilitate communication between different stakeholders such as team members, advisors, planners, executors, and users for strategic planning and development. Besides this a large scale demonstration and field based promotion of the benefits of early rice transplanting on rice and subsequent wheat production, practicing deep summer tillage etc. was undertaken based on previous research undertaken by ICAR scientists indicating the potential production benefits of these practices (Sikka et. al. 2004). Whilst the parallel / independent approach continued in the field, dialogue within the project team led to an agreement to trial an approach where ideas would be ‘broadcast’ and that the team would respond to expressions of interest. PARTICIPATORY PROCESS DEVELOPED FOR WATER MANAGEMENT The participatory process comprising of five major key elements was developed (Singh et. al.). 1. Identification of technologies and broadcasting ideas, 2. Identification of interest/focus groups/members, 3. Enhancing know-how of interest/focus groups/members through group discussions supported by quality communication product (leaflets in local language), 4. Providing technical know-how on technologies to interest/focus groups/members through on-site discussions and strategic field demonstrations, 5. Slow withdrawal of experts from study area to facilitate increased interactions amongst interest/focus groups/members with other members of the community over technologies/interventions adopted for further self dissemination. In response to information collection and field familiarisation and feedback derived from analysis of the SHG database a series of communication products (leaflets) were prepared. The purpose of these was to raise awareness of ideas and technologies. The leaflets provided basic technical know-how. Group meetings between project staff and various groups were held in different canal reaches comprising of SHGs / WUAs and even individual farmers to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the technologies.

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The technologies identified for broadcasting (in the form of leaflets) amongst the community after series of group discussions were: x Selection of pumps for groundwater exploitation, x Water management in rice, Multiple water use, x Canal water management, x Efficient use of rainwater, x Water management in wheat, x Advantages of irrigation through field channels and the importance of gates on outlets, x Optimisation of rice transplanting Initially promotion was done through NGO volunteers using materials developed and suggestions provided by ICAR scientists considering that SHGs had proved more attractive to poorer groups and women who were often landless or sharecroppers. It was observed that many of the options and technologies, relating to canal and water management were not of immediate interest and initial response was low incase of SHGs as they are more interested in technologies/options from which they can fetch results in shorter duration and needs nominal investment. This made to realize that though the process of facilitating SHG and community development was important but involvement of other actors within the community is also important if one envisage for overall and sustainable development of land and water on the other hand ICAR-RCER staff had experience in direct communication with representatives of this group they became more actively involved in promotion. PARTICIPATORY PROCESS REVISITED AND MODIFIED Poor responses of SHGs led to revisit the participatory process to modify the strategies by considering the lessons learnt during previous attempt. Major undertaken were; 1. Participatory process must facilitate the involvement of wider constituency of members belonging to SHGs, WUAs, OMGs and individual members. 2. Use of leaflet as a communication product, 3. Identifying interest/focused groups/members interested in taking up the improved interventions voluntarily. 4. Undertaking few need based strategic participatory field demonstrations and providing technical know-how on member’s demands. 5. Facilitating members for better interface and further linkages with other stakeholders including financial institutions. 6. No provisions for any financial assistance nor any commitment for future meetings. 7. Development of a self disseminating mechanism for transfer of technology.

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Considering above and by obtaining members ideas through dialogue a participatory process was formulated which can been implemented for future course of actions. The basic concept in formulation of the process was to develop a mechanism through which involvement of wider constituency of community members at one platform can be facilitated for better interface in land and water management leading to effective participatory irrigation management (PIM). The process was initiated with wider communities involving individual members, SHGs and WUAs in different reaches of the canal command. This facilitated a wide range of discussions between project team and group members and also among the members of different communities. Such discussions provided the much-needed sensitisation amongst members of the community that resulted in further invitations from members for the scientists/experts to visit their areas and to explain concepts and strengthen their knowledge through group meetings. This resulted in emergence of newer idea which are more implementable due to personal stakes of members, emergence of focused individual members and groups with genuine interest in adoption of improved technologies and development of a participatory process which follows the bottom-up process to be more sustainable. Based on discussions some interventions related to crop, land and water management were identified and communication product in the form of leaflets were developed for providing awareness and technical know-how to interest/focused groups/members. These products were distributed amongst the community in group meetings on their demand. As means of communication strategy few strategic participatory demonstrations were undertaken on farmer’s field with very minimal inputs not more than Rs.100-150/- in case of multiple use of land and water in terms of fingerlings as members were facing difficulties to get genuine fingerlings were provided. These actions resulted in adoption of various interventions. IMPACT OF THE PROCESS The impact of the process has been threefold in terms of; 1. Defining working relation of facilitators/experts when working in partnership mode, 2. Ways forward to involve wider set of constituencies of community, and 3. Path forward for a cost effective sustainable people driven participatory process around land and water. Activities undertaken most importantly resulted in; 1. Innovative ideas that led to increased agricultural production and diversification, 2. Easy implementation of ideas due to higher personal stakes of members in the outcomes, 3. Self sustaining processes due to emergence of interest/focused group/members who can play greater role in future for disseminating technologies indicating a bottom up process. 4. Increased awareness and sense of urgency to bring improvement in existing water management practices amongst members, 5. Opportunities for increased sources of income,

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NEW LEARNING TO PROJECT PARTNERS Some of the salient learning reflected was; 1. Role and need to involve wider communities in participatory processes, 2. Effective relationships and understanding within the project partners require to move forward effectively. 3. Quality dialogues, communication products in terms of leaflets and strategic participatory field demonstrations can be an effective replacement for subsidies to provide greater sustainability to participatory processes. 4. Emergence of innovative ideas through community involvement in technology identification and development has chances of wider sustainable adoption. 5. Timing of withdrawal of facilitators is a critical decision which needs to be judged properly for sustainability and up scaling of ideas broadcasted in future CONCLUSION Peoples’ participation has been identified as one of the major principles for sustainable development of water resources. This reflects to believe that people who inhabit an environment over time are more competent to make decisions. Dynamic nature of land and water invites wide range of stakeholders having multiple interests leading to complex integration amongst them. Establishing dialogue amongst these stakeholders needs identification of appropriate processes and means through which they can be brought together for a common goal. The experiences in collaborative project and wide range of project partnership reflects that participation with community members on land and water related issues is mainly focused on two general types of situations a). set of issues focusing immediate and critical concerns leading to short-term emergencies or gains such as; irrigation needs, eradication of seasonal water logging and falling crop yields and b). concerns that provide opportunities to different stakeholders to come together for longer-term, precautionary issues. To achieve these goals the perspective should be broader which may accommodate members from wider constituency.

REFERENCES 1. Anonymous. 2004. Realising Potential: Livelihoods, Poverty and Governance. Workshop proceedings published during the worshop held at NASC campus, New Delhi during 3-4 August 2004. 2. Anonymous. 2002. NATIONAL WATER POLICY. Accessed on internet http://www.angelfire.com/bc/nihhrrc/NWP.html on 27th January 2006. 3. Joshi, L. K. 1997. Irrigation and its Management in India – Need for Paradigm Shift. Published in the proceedings of Management of Irrigation A New Paradigm, Participatory Irrigation Management. National conference on Participatory Irrigation Management held in New Delhi from 20-22 January, 1997, pp.1-84. 4. Vermilion D.L. and Brewer J.D.1995. Irrigation Specialists, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Participatory action

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research to improve irrigation operations: Examples from Indonesia and India. Irrigation Scheduling: From Theory to Practice – Proceedings, Proceedings of the ICID/FAO Workshop on Irrigation Scheduling, Rome, Italy, 12-13 September 1995, ISBN 92-5-103968-2. Accessed on internet http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4367E/w4367e00.htm#Contents on 11th January 2006. 5. Sikka A. K., Singh A. K., Upadhyaya A., Bhatnagar P. R., Saha B., Singh R. D., Gautam U. S., Palmer Jones P. R and Gaunt J. L., 2004. Theme-2, Practical ways forward for participatory land and water management in canal command. A report presented in the workshop on Realizing Potential: Livelihoods, Poverty, and Governance, 3-4 August, 2004, at NASC, New Delhi. 6. Singh A. K., Sikka A. K., Upadhyaya A. and Bhatnagar P. R. 2005. Exploring Options For Better Use of Water At RPC-V. Bullettin No.: R-14/PAT-5. Published by ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna, Bihar, India.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN THE IRRIGATION NETWORKS OF TEHRAN PROVINCE

Abdolreza Ahmadi, Saeid Rafiyee

1- INTRODUCATION: Participatory Irrigation Management in the section of irrigation and agriculture in the wide land of Iran with water scarcity has a long history. Such as the Sheikh Bahayee scroll In Esfahan or in the previous Tehran during Saljooghiyan government and first Toghrol had a special supervision on the rivers and typical irrigations, drinking water distribution of the water stores in the city were related to some high social aspects and Water User Associations relevant to the groynes, Prunes, coal-bins and ploughshares have been existed from long time ago. The people establishments have been created voluntarily or by demands for the purpose of better operation of water resources, land and agricultural products in the majority of areas. They have continued by political and governmental changes until now. In the years 1961 to 1971, IRAN performance of some land reformations and ownership system changes created small pieces of land with the reduction of objectives of political and economical powers; creation of rural class respects; better system of trade and demand system in the national level; government invested directly in the field of management, water supply & distribution and by governmental subsidies without considering the role of farmers in determination of real prices of water so that farmers right now think that they are entitled to have free water and providence of that is know a duty of government. After the victory of Islamic revolution of Iran government provided a fast development in water industry in the demand of work in a way that the resource dams which are under operation and use are more than 170 national dams in provinces and about 83 national resource dams are being built, so in this case the number of them has been increased and the irrigation networks have covered lands more than 1609 thousands hectares. The government of Islamic revolution of Iran for removing some barriers has used of successful participatory irrigation managements from all the global countries of world and this increase has been so effective for the role of people in the matter of building water industries and irrigation network management; reduction of performance time of development designs of water resources have been considered. Speeding in the mode of

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economical affairs of country and change of participatory management is necessary for construct and sign of water industry which is more than 2100 billion Rials in 4400 thousands hectares from agriculture land that this amount of money has been investigated for it. Some steps have been taken in all over Iran for the purpose of management changes of irrigation in irrigation networks and soaking and wetting that are related to local farmers and some of these managements are different with each other which most of them are out of order and some of them their usage is so rare. In many of considerations the shift of participatory management in the world seems, some developed countries and knowledgeable countries that are more aware in the matter of agriculture have used this participatory management such as America, Spain, Philippine so they have been succeeded to improve this matter by providing some rules in special areas and expensive facilities and they have controlled the works for the purpose of better operation also they have provided some new rate of water value, so by this action they have guaranteed the success of their design. The process of participatory management shift has been done by voluntarily establishment of people or it has been done by the application of government , so they have been able to use this design for being performed. Some other countries that have not provided the environment for this design include Sri Lanka, Senegal, Pakistan and Colombia. In fact these countries have not considered the facilities and the right of water value, but they have set only the design models so that they have been succeeded to use the participatory management shift from other countries, after a short time they have faced with failure. 2- FAMILIARITY WITH IRRIGATION PROVINCE OPERATION CO,

NETWORKS

OF

TEHRAN

Operation company of Tehran province has three irrigation network that include: 1. Varamin irrigation network located in 30 km in the east of Tehran ( 65 % activity of firm) 2. Karaj irrigation network located in 25 km in the west of Tehran ( 25 % activity of firm) 3. Hashtgerd irrigation network located in 40 km in the west of Tehran (10 % activity of firm) This firm uses more than 250 million cubic meters water from dams name Litan, Amirkabir, Jajrood rivers, Damavand and Hashtgerd and 40 pits of Tehran channels that this water will be delivered by more than 13100 farmers so submitting water is according to the capacity submit and after paying the right of water it will be given to the applicants. In 1994 this firm has been registered and it has started its activity by the objective of providing and distributing right of water which is required to the farmers in the level of

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seven cities ( Varamin, Pakdasht, Karaj, Hashtgerd, Robat Karim, Shahriyar and Ray city).

2-1- Varamin Irrigation Network

In varamin for the purpose of operation from irrigation of Varamin land irrigation network operation with the capacity of 50,000 hectares( that is able to be increased to 80,000 hectares) the irrigation channels have the length of 630 km so the needed water to farmers will be submitted in 150 places. Length of irrigation networks in Varamin Network

Degree 1(km)

Degree 2(km)

Degree 3(km)

Degree 4(km)

68

113

200

250

2-2- Karaj Irrigation Network is for the purpose of coverage of 15000 hectares of lands

and gardens which is located in the area and by they have been created by the length of 109 kilometers so the needed water to the farmers will be given in 80 places. Length of irrigation networks in Karaj Network

Degree 1(km)

Degree 2(km)

Degree 3(km)

Degree 4(km)

53

41

15

____

2-3. Hashtgerd Irrigation Network is for the purpose of coverage of 10,000 hectares of lands and gardens with the length of 55 km and the needed water to the farmers will be submitted in 40 places.

Length of irrigation networks in Hashtgerd Network

Degree 1(km)

Degree 2(km)

Degree 3(km)

Degree 4(km)

15

25

15

80 ( traditional ways)

2-4. Tehran channel ( Rei City): Tehran irrigation channel of Varamin has the length of 30 km from Rei city, the canal water and 40 pits of Tehran channels will be sent to Varamin. And after handling and filtering by the amount of 8 m3/s of water will be sent to Varamin.

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3. POLICY OF TEHRAN PROVINCE OPERATION CO, In the beginning years the activity of Operation company of Tehran province of the 390 farmers of villages was given directly to the administrations of firm, the applicant had divided them into 380 places according to the gates of submitting water and geographical location, each place would introduce a representative that be confirmed by Islamic council and the ministry of Agriculture construct for the purpose of gathering right of water from farmers and submitting water. The farmers pay some money for services that water distributors do and in case if the farmers are not satisfied with their representative they will try to make another election for electing another representative for this position. The above classification caused that the number of referrers be changed from 13100 families to 380 persons, so that some voluntarily establishment were chosen by people for collection right of water that the shift and safety point and distribution of water will be done by that and this matter would be under the satisfaction of all the farmers. This company has provided some face to face meetings with farmers, consumers of the whole water of network and at the moment about 11 establishments of water have been provided for water and the matter of operation which they have been registered and they are active in the irrigation network managements which are degree 3 and 4. The abovementioned establishment will be done by selection of board of directors and managing director that some manpower will be employed for cleaning the gates and canals and for prevention of water robbery. The voluntarily establishments of water will be provided in a section that the farmers have a high knowledge for this matter and this firm has concluded that at least about 22 other establishments are needed so that the networks will be controlled separately and independently, for the purpose of this matter Dr. Heidariyan is invited to facilitate and cooperate so that the firm will follow the mode of farmers activities and some considerations and evaluations will be done in this field so that the reasonable solutions on the conditions of each area should be detected and provided. The counselor of design will perform some meetings with the managers of firm and will evaluate the mode of shifting participatory management which is needed and the following priorities will be determined to irrigation network and so much clear objectives for the purpose of creating new establishments will be provided that include: FIRST PRIORITY: AVAILABLE PEOPLE ESTABLISHMENTS WHICH ARE REGISTERED:

-

Performance of at least 7 meetings by board of directors and the establishments will be done separately by the objective of reaching to written agreement which is necessary and the shift of participatory management and operation responsibilities and keeping the networks with degree 3 and 4 and their documentations

-

Controlling the meetings notes by operation Co until finalization point.

-

Providing at least one expert who is interested to this subject in part time or by the firm for the purpose of local management support as a facilitator.

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SECOND PRIORITY: ENCOURAGEMENT OF FARMERS FOR THE PURPOSE OF PEOPLE ESTABLISHMENTS VOLUNTARILY:

-

Establishment of training workshops by presence of local authorities in the necessary level by the objective of farmers familiarity with advantages and losses of participatory management shift and creation of establishments

-

Consideration and adjustment of necessary agreements by participation of establishments and local responsible persons.

-

Organizing and registering the establishments

-

Documentation of establishments

-

Performance of at least 7 meetings by presence of counselor of 12 meetings without counselor for the purpose of strong establishments

-

Controlling the notes of meetings with farmers by company

-

Providing at least one expert who be interested to this subject and works as part time as a facilitator from firm for he purpose of using of rules and available instructions

After registration and handling at least 33 establishment in the level of their irrigation networks will be acting under the coverage and management of 3 unions in the level of Varamin-Karaj cities and Hashgerd and this matter will have a participatory management in the matter of distribution and maintaining irrigation networks of degree 3 and 4 that are about 600 km and it will be done by supervision and policies of operation firm of Tehran province and in case the successful participatory management shift be able to submit the canals degree 1 and 2.

Operation Co of Tehran province Policies Union of water consumers 3 in numbers 1. Varamin 2. Karaj 3. Hashtgerd People establishments which are required are at least 33 in numbers The consumers representatives are 380 persons Number of villages is 390 Number of farmers is 13100 families Lands under coverage 75000 ha Lands able to be increased 120000 ha

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4. PROBLEMS AND BARRIERS FOR MANAGEMENT IN TEHRAN PROVINCE

SHIFTING

THE

CHANGING

Participatory management shift in each area is related to the local and special conditions of each area and in case no reasonable solution be considered for this matter the success and lasting point of establishments will be faced with some problems or failures. 4-1. SETTING IRRIGATION NETWORKS NEAR CAPITAL CITY

Setting Irrigation Networks near capital city which is Tehran with the population of 8 million persons will make the distribution of agriculture water under the special political conditions such as the priority of providing drinking water of Tehran and Karaj from dams such as Litan and Amir Kabir and the share of agricultural water of dams will be determined and according to the limitation of saved capacity of provided dams which is needed for farmers there is not a certain point in no season and this matter causes that underground waters be used more than legal level and at the moment the falling of 2 meters of underground resources has provided a very great disaster. The farmers are never confident about their applied water and they have an outlook towards the establishments with some doubts and they do not show so much interests in this field. 4-2. SEPARATION OF DESCENDING (SNOW AND RAIN) DURING YEARS

The dried climate conditions and half-dried and average climates with the average of 210 millimeters of water per year is ruled to Tehran province. The majority of rains during winter and spring on the high areas of dams such as Amir Kabir and Litan will be occurred and this matter has caused that the dams be immediately full of water during spring and when the snows are being melted and some floodwaters will be happened till the level of 150 cubic meter per second and from the second month of spring till the mid of autumn the rains and atmospheric descending will not occur and during some dried years such as 1998-2000 no water will be allocated for agriculture and according to the last managements that have been provided for this matter by completing the dam of Martyrs Ghomi(Mamlo) these floodwaters will be saved by two times and from other side after handing the refineries in Tehran their hog-wash will provide a section of farmers water need permanently during year. 4-3. FAILURE OF PAST EXPERIENCES OF FARMERS IN THE MATTER OF ASSISTANCE

The farmers have provided some assistance establishments by encouragement of governments in recent years in the matter of agriculture, but many of these establishments have been cancelled due to some lying promises and such as the equality level of share and vote in elections and some of them have been inactive. According to the unsuccessful experiences which have occurred in the past the encouragement of farmers for providing establishments has been faced with some problems and it has an activity with by two times of previous times.

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4-4. THE LACK OF SUPPORTIVE RULES

In the current rules the limitation of authorities and commissions of establishments and legal solutions need a support that it has not been determined and or it won’t be performed and this matter will bring a negative point in the mind of farmers. 4-5. RIGHT OF WATER RULES AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER BASED ON JUSTICE

In the rules that were provided in before creation of irrigation networks the agricultural lands have the right of water and many of down area lands that have been submitted after the years of network creation do not have the right of water. So in this case there is so much arguments between these two groups and at the moment this firm, does not distribute water based on justice and nor on the right of farmers and it distribute water in a way that there is no so much satisfaction of operation and farmers. 4-6. DIFFERENT TACT IN GOVERNORSHIPS POLICIES

The location of irrigation networks in at least 8 governorships face with different tact in the field of activity and local and tribal arguments which will provide some special problems form management shift in the cities of Tehran province. 4-7. LACK OF REASONABLE MODEL EXISTENCE

At the moment there is no a reasonable and successful model for the purpose of attracting people participation in the participatory management section. 4-8. LACK OF NEED FEELINGS BY FARMERS TO AUTO-FUNCTIONAL ESTABLISHMENTS

Until now the establishments have not been provided according to the application of government nor according to the feeling of farmers needs and this matter has caused that farmers have more expectations from government and they believe that government can provide this matter in the demand of work by removing responsibilities and shifting amendment expenditures and keeping to farmers by people participatory management. 4-9. LACK OF DETERMINATION OF RAPID POINT OF ESTABLISHMENTS

According to the necessity and emphasize of people participation the rapid point of establishments is not clear and unfortunately there is not coordination between Agriculture Jihad Ministry and Power Ministry and some other administrations. 4-10. REAL VALUE OF WATER

Determining the level of water value has been done from long time ago and it would be supported such as a demand of work of governmental loss and the farmers still expect to have free water from government.

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4-11. FAST GROWTH OF HOUSING TISSUE

The fast growth of housing tissue around Tehran and added value of farmers in case if be changed to housing, industrial and trade causes that farmers to give up the lands which are located around Tehran and to earn some advantages and they face with the matter of establishments in a very superficial way. 4-12. LACK OF DETERMINATION OF FACILITIES, ENCOURAGEMENT AND CHANNEL DAMAGES LEVEL

The level of providing facilities and financial encouragements and or developmental supports in the matter of keeping and operating has not been considered and according to the damage point of canals such as Karaj with more than 40 years, the farmers see themselves against expensive expenditures of amendments and keeping and with not encouraging support and they do not show any encouragement for providing establishments themselves. 4-13. SAFE-POINT AND PAYING LOSS MULCT

Due to fast growth of cities and the increase of vehicles falls and people and human losses and financial losses in the canals and according to the compulsive point of paying loss mulct to the persons who have been left and or the high expenditures of handrailing and safety point around the channels, the farmers ignore accepting the channels management. REFERENCE: 1. Consumer establishments- past- Present- Future- Jawad Khorshidi Far, the fourth technical workshop of farmer’s participatory in irrigation network management, December 22 ,2005( Spain, Tomar Sheikh Bahayee, America( Colombia Basin); Mexico; Sri Lanka; Philippine) 2. Record and current situation of consumer establishments of water and scientific analysis of legal establishments creation in irrigation network of Ghazvin( Ahmad Pour Zand) 3. Land amendments and economical economic of Iran, Gozideh library, Tehran the center of scientific documents, 1972 (Mirzadeh Pour Zand) 4. The crisis of irrigation management shift to the operators, 2003 (Seyed Mojtaba Naboy) 5. Management Shift, methods and barriers and solutions, 2003 (Seyed Ahmad Heidariyan and cooperators) 6. The collection of articles for the fourth national conference of farmers participation in irrigation & wetting network management (methods and basis) (management of water resources), January 2005 7. The first technical workshop for farmer's participation in irrigation networks management (Ahamad Pour Zand), November 1999.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

IS PARTICIPATORY GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT AN OPTION?

Jaime D. Hoogesteger van Dijk and Linden Vincent1

ABSTRACT In Iran as well as in the rest of the world, a large sector of the irrigated area is totally or partly dependent on groundwater. As such groundwater has become a cornerstone of many regional economies and societies. Yet contrary to surface water irrigation, where a lot of attention has been given to PIM, within the groundwater irrigation sector there has been very little attention for participatory management of groundwater resources even though in most places it is a very pressing issue. Dropping groundwater tables and pumps that run dry in many areas clearly show that often the present use of groundwater is unsustainable. In irrigation systems where conjunctive water management takes place combining groundwater and surface water management can offer an option for participatory groundwater management. This case study analyzes the situation of groundwater resource use in the Abshar irrigation system in the Zayandeh Rud Basin Iran and establishes the question if participatory management of groundwater and conjunctive use is a viable option for irrigation management in the present context.

GROUNDWATER USE IN THE ZAYANDEH RUD BASIN The Zayandeh Rud basin is situated in the centre of Iran and covers an area of 41,500 km2. The basin originates in the Zagros Mountains at altitudes of around 2300 m, where rainfall and snow are abundant2, and closes in the Gavkhuni swamp at an altitude of 1466 m. The majority of the basin is a typical arid and semi-arid desert. The city of Esfahan, with almost two million inhabitants, and its fertile plains3, form the main socio-economic area of the basin. Esfahan lies at an altitude of around 1800 m and has an average annual precipitation of 130 mm, concentrated in the November-April period. Temperatures are hot in the summer, reaching an average of 30oC in July, but are cool in the winter dropping to an average minimum temperature of 3oC in January. Annual potential evapo-transpiration is 1500 mm (Molle et al., 2004). 1- Jaime D. Hoogesteger van Dijk (MSc) is presently Junior Researcher and Lecturer at the Irrigation and Water Engineering Group at Wageningen University in the Netherlands- E-mail: [email protected] Professor Linden Vincent is presently professor of the Irrigation and Water Engineering Group at Wageningen University in the Netherlands. E-mail: [email protected] Address: Irrigation and Water Engineering, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen T: +31 317 48 41 90 F: +31 317 48 47 59 2- In the head of the basin at high altitudes precipitation averages at around 1700 mm a year. 3- The fertile plains are constituted by alluvial deposits flanking the Zayandeh Rud where slopes are gentle and soils have good soil moisture holding capacities (Salemi et al., 2000).

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In the lower and dryer parts of the basin, irrigation is a must for agricultural production. For centuries, water from the Zayandeh Rud River has been diverted to supply the city of Esfahan with water and to irrigate its gardens and neighboring areas. The peak flows from April to June provided the basis for widespread downstream irrigation using simple diversion structures, called mahdis, to make productive use of floodwaters (Salemi et al., 2000). Beside surface water, most downstream areas have groundwater supplies close to the surface. The recharge of these is mostly direct recharge from the Zayandeh Rud River (idem, 2000). Beside surface water, groundwater is one of the most reliable water sources in the Zayandeh Rud Basin. In the basin twenty unconfined and two confined aquifers have been identified. Presently about 21,200 tube wells, 1,726 qanats and 1,613 springs exploit a total of 3,619 MCM of groundwater a year. Studies conducted by the Esfahan Water Authority (EWA) in 2000 reveal that several aquifers are being over-exploited especially in some of the irrigated areas (Morid, 2004). On basin level, 72% of total water use is groundwater with a total estimated use of 3500 MCM per year. The bulk of this water is used for agricultural production. In the irrigation districts groundwater use is high. In Nekuoabad and the areas of the Abshar and Rudasht irrigation districts that are near the Zayandeh Rud River have shallow aquifers of between 10-50 m. that are intensively exploited for agriculture. In these shallow aquifers there is a direct link between river flows, surface water irrigation in the systems and the level of the groundwater table (pers. com. Saberi). In general it is observed that the further form the river bed, the deeper the aquifers. These deeper aquifers respond much less to the fluctuations of surface water flows in the river and can be considered mainly as fossil water reserves (idem). The deep aquifer water reserves are used mostly in the Brokhar and Mahyar irrigation systems as well as the northern most edges of the Abshar Left Bank.

Figure 1: Groundwater levels in the main irrigation systems of the Zayandeh Rud basin in June 2000 (Droogers and Miranzadeh, 2000)

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During the years of drought the shallow aquifers in the irrigation systems had a severe drop in groundwater levels as groundwater use increased while recharge was almost absent. Several farmers responded by deepening the existing wells. According to Saberi (pers. comm. and confirmed by farmers’ interviews) the drop of groundwater levels in the deep aquifers also increased during the drought although in these deeper aquifers the drop of water level was less severe than in the shallow ones. Groundwater resources are being overexploited in several areas of the basin with the associated water quality degradation (Salemi, 2003). This means that on the long run the exploitation of deep aquifers that have little direct recharge form surface water resources will exhaust the groundwater reserves. As control over groundwater, especially on the use of shallow aquifers, is very hard due to the fact that installing a shallow well is very easy, the EWA is limited in its management of groundwater to monitoring groundwater levels and limiting the construction of new deep wells.

GROUNDWATER USE IN THE ABSHAR IRRIGATION SYSTEM In the Abshar system groundwater is, beside surface water, the most important and reliable source of water for irrigation. Most of the wells are owned individually or managed by a small group of farmers compromised by 2-15 users. Historically a couple of areas that lie within the irrigation system relied on qanats for their irrigation water. At present because of the large amount of tube wells, all qanats in the area have fallen dry, being replaced by either surface water irrigation or the use of wells (Hoogesteger van Dijk, 2005). Groundwater management knows different forms of management but generally these are confined to a limited group of users in the field. The most common modes of groundwater management are: -

Private well for private use: This mode implies little organizational control as it is one user that has control over the water flows. In some cases the users use the surface water canals for transporting the water. In these cases it is only necessary to ensure that the use of these does not affect other users.

-

Private well for private use, selling excess water: In some cases when farmers have a well, which exceeds their personal needs, they sell water to other users. In this case farmers have to organize to manage the water. In such cases, because of the high number of users, groundwater gets managed under the same rules as surface water. The only difference there is that the fees for the use of the water go to the owner of the well instead of the Mirhab. The fact that the well owner is also the outlet tender makes the management and regulation easy.

-

Private well owned by several users: Often farmers do not have enough resources to invest in a well by themselves. In these cases, farmers often organize in groups of two to five users, mostly friends and family and jointly invest in the drilling and installation of a well. The most common arrangement for these wells is that farmers pay for the O&M of the well according to the amount of hours they make use of it. As in most cases it is friends and family that jointly invest in a well.

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THE NEED FOR GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT In view of these developments there is a pressing need for groundwater management. Governmental control seems very difficult all around the world because of: -

The individualized character of groundwater technology (individual pumps) coupled to easy access to it and low use requirements. This makes it very hard for institutions to control the development and use of groundwater in areas where groundwater is readily available in economically exploitable aquifers. Users operate independently and are therefore hard to control.

-

An institutional history based on the development and not the control of groundwater: throughout the twentieth century most water management institutions either promoted the development of groundwater use as a way to promote economic development and alleviate poverty, or left it to an uncontrolled lassie-faire development. Because of this there is neither a groundwater management culture nor control over the use and exploitation of this resource.

-

A lack of funds and resources to implement a strict control on pumping: this is coupled mainly to the history of the institutions which have historically spent most of their resources and personnel on water development; the construction of infrastructural surface water management projects, subsidies for groundwater development and their management. Groundwater management has up until now not been a major priority of water management authorities.

-

The social implications of restricting groundwater use. A great part of the agricultural production has become dependent on groundwater utilization. Restricting the use of groundwater has great impact on this agricultural sector and the livelihoods that depend upon it.

In view of this absence of governmental control and the importance of groundwater in the local economies and the increasing perception that users should become the managers of their resources participatory groundwater management has been seen in some places in the world as the key to the groundwater management problem. Mexico has for almost a decade promoted different projects that are based on participatory groundwater management with mixed results (Wester ,et al., 1999; Marañon-Pimentel, 2000a, 2000b; , Hoogesteger-van Dijk, 2004). Participatory groundwater management has proven to be a challenge, which has many hurdles on the way but some experiences show that with collective action for groundwater management it is possible to reach better groundwater management. Some of the key issues in such processes are: user awareness of the problem, its consequences and available management strategies; commitment on the part of the users; visible results for the users; strong collective commitment to work together on the management of groundwater. Whether these elements come together or not depends a lot on the boundaries of the institutions for groundwater management, the characteristics of the aquifers and the social and institutional structures existing in place.

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IS CONJUNTIVE WATER MANAGEMENT FEASIBLE IN SURFACE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS? Surface water irrigation systems, through their infrastructure usually create social relations of dependence needed to manage the system and get water from the sources, in this case the Zayandeh River to the fields. At primary and secondary system water management is agency managed until now. At tertiary level, water management becomes the responsibility of the users. These organize to manage the water based on long established customs and rules of water, labor and responsibility division. These systems have proven to be very effective in the management of water. A question that arises here is whether these social structures could be used for the management of groundwater resources. There are no clear cut answers to this, but conjunctive water management could be a very feasible option for water management. In California some modeling experiences show that conjunctive water management can enhance an economically more viable resource management (Harou and Lund, 2006) especially where the surface-groundwater links are very strong and visible such as in the Abshar irrigation system. Of course here the challenge remains being how can it be implemented. Should there be a top down approach in which the state regulates and dictates, or should the effort and insights come from the water users, or should both work together? If so how should such a management system be crafted? This paper does not want to give answers or guidelines, it rather wants to trigger the thought on whether through participatory groundwater (or conjunctive water) management it is possible to establish control measures for groundwater management in a case such as the Abshar Irrigation System or any other area where groundwater exploitation levels form a threat for the sustainable use of groundwater. So the first question to be established is:

Is participatory groundwater management within and outside of surface water irrigation systems a feasible solution?

If so.... -

What knowledge is needed?

-

What social structures are needed and at what scale?

-

How should responsibilities be established and who should be responsible for what?

-

o

What role should be delegated to the state?

o

What role should be delegated to the water management agencies?

o

What responsibilities should go to user organizations and how do you organize these? Is there a need for institutional engineering?

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Droogers P., Miranzadeh M. 2001. Spatial analysis of groundwater trends: example for Zayandeh Rud Basin, Iran. IAERI-IWMI, Iran. 2. Harou J., and Lund J., 2006. Economic and water management effects of a no overdraft policy: California’s Tulare Basin. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Groundwater Sustainability (ISGWAS), January 24-27, 2006, University of Alicante, Spain. 3. Hoogesteger van Dijk J.D., 2004. “The Underground” Understanding the failure of institutional responses to reduce groundwater exploitation in Guanajuato. MSc Thesis Irrigation and Water Engineering, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL. 4. Hoogesteger van Dijk, J.D. 2005. “Making do with what we have” Understanding drought management strategies and their effect in the Zayandeh Rud Basin, Iran. MSc Thesis Irrigation and Water Engineering, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL. 5. Marañon-Pimentel B., 2000a. Las fuerzas impulsoras del abatimiento de agua subteránea en El Bajío. In Transformación productiva en la gran irrigación en El Bajío, Cuaderno de Investigación No. 3, IMTA, Mexico. 6. Marañon-Pimentel B., 2000b. La viablilidad de la organización de usuarios para el manejo del agua subterránea en la Cuenca Lerma Chapala, México. In Comités Técnicos de Aguas Subterráneas: organización, desarrollo y problemática, Cuaderno de investigación No. 2, IMTA, Mexico. 7. Molle F., Mamanpoush A., Miranzadeh M., 2004. Robbing Yadullah’s water to irrigate Saeid’s garden: Hydrology and water rights in a village of Central Iran. IWMI Research Report No. 80.. 8. Morid S., 2004. Adaptation to climate change to enhance food security and environmental quality; Zayandeh Rub Basin, Iran. College of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modarres University, Teheran, Iran. 9. Salemi H.R., Mamanpoush A., Miranzadeh M., Akbari M., Torabi M., Toomanian N., Murray-Rust H., Droogers P., Sally H., Gieske A. 2000. Water Management for Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture in the Zayandeh Rud Basin, Esfahan Province, Iran. IWMI-IAERI, Iran. 10. Salemi H.R., 2003. Irrigation water management in Esfahan, the case of Borkhar region. Unpublished MSc thesis, Department of Geography, University of Esfahan, Iran. 11. Wester P., Marañón-Pimentel B. & Scott C., 1999. Institutional Responses to Groundwater Depletion: The Aquifer Management Councils in the State of Guanajuato, Mexico. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Integral Water Management in Agriculture, Gomez-Palacio, México. IWMI, Mexico.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007





FARMERS’ PARTICIPATION IN IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT IN NORTHEAST IRAN

Ali Asghar Shahroudi1 and Mohammad Chizari2

ABSTRACT The purpose of the present study was to investigate the farmers’ participation in irrigation networks management with an approach to compare two groups of farmers in the irrigation networks with Water Users’ Cooperative (WUC) and without it. The methodological approach was a descriptive-correlational and causal-comparative study of the survey type. The target population in the study consisted of 2551 farmers of irrigation networks in Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. By using stratified random sampling technique, 335 participants were chosen. Data were collected through a questionnaire and were analyzed using SPSS, V. 13. Content and face validity of the instrument obtained by the faculty members of Agricultural Extension and Education, Agronomy and Irrigation Departments at Tarbiat Modarres University and also Specialists Board of Agricultural Jihad Organization and Regional Water Joint-stock Company in Razavi Khorasan Province. The reliability analysis was conducted and Cronbach’s alpha values for the various sections of instrument were estimated to be between 0.73 and 0.86. The results of t-test with independent samples showed that there were significant differences in relation to the averages of the variables of status of farmers’ participation in irrigation management, annual income, farmers’ perception of rural irrigation status, social solidarity, social participation, farmers’ attitude toward the WUC, extension contacts, social confidence, farmers’ behavior regarding farm water management, their age, experience in agriculture, communication channels and education level between two groups of water users, i.e. those who were in irrigation network with WUC and those who did not, which the magnitude of statistical differences were arranged for these variables, respectively. Keywords: Participatory irrigation management, water users’ cooperative, farmer, farm

water management, sustainability

 1- Graduate Student (M.Sc.) of Agricultural Extension and Education Department, College of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran. Tel.: 011 (9821) 66906555, Corresponding author’s e. mail: [email protected] 2- Professor of Agricultural Extension and Education Department, College of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran. P.O.Box: 4155-4838, Fax: 011 (9821) 88006544, Presenting authors’ e. mail: [email protected]

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INTRUDUCTION Irrigation has played and will continue to play an important role in the provision of the food supply for the rapidly expanding population of the world (Wijayaratna, 2004). In this connection, water resources limitation is one of the most serious problems in Middle Eastern countries, especially in arid and semi-arid countries (Skaggs et al., 2006). This dazzling benefit encouraged many countries, especially developing countries, to create more and more irrigation facilities. The results of those irrigation development projects did not achieve 100% success, as most of them were managed by the government where farmers’ participation was ignored. During the 1980s and early 1990s, government responsible officials started to realize the significance of farmers’ participation in the management of irrigation systems from the stand point of sharing the costs and contributing to maintenance. This kind of concept was adopted by many countries as a “Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM)”. The purpose of PIM was to involve farmers in irrigation management including operation and maintenance. The merits of PIM are decrease in wasteful use of water, enhanced durability of irrigation facilities, reduction of government burden, facilitation of cost recovery and equitable water delivery. Some countries, such as Turkey and Mexico, have made success in establishing PIM-based projects, while other countries, especially monsoon-Asian countries, are yet to achieve their goal (Tanaka and Sato, 2005). Water scarcity is the most limiting factor in agricultural productivity in Iran. Considering that about 90% of the country is climatologically arid and semi-arid, the fresh water resources are limited. Iran is an area of 165 million hectares (Mha). The average amount of precipitation over the country is 252 mm/ year or 413 billion cubic meters (bcm), which are less than one-third of worldwide average precipitation (831mm). Based on the studies performed by United Nations (UN) and also International Water Management Institute (IWMI) experts, the per capita water resources of Iran are projected to be about 726-860 m3 in 2025, compared with 2200 m3 in 1990 (Ehsani and Khaledi, 2003). Unfortunately, the lack of proper management, operation, maintenance, system efficiency, and illegal extraction in the irrigation system have remained major problems since the existence of the irrigation network that have resulted in inequitable and unreliable distribution, thus the poor tail-enders are always faced with the shortage of water. In addition, because of low irrigation efficiency, about 50 to 60 percent of the renewable water is lost in agriculture, and this has led to agricultural water productivity (ratio of yield per unit of water) a very low. Therefore, the economic value per cubic meter is 0.75 kg/ m3 (Keshavarz et al., 2005). A clear incentive for self-organization among tail and head enders in an irrigation system was found by Ostrom and Gardner (1993). Statistical evidence on data from Nepal supports that self-organized irrigation systems work better than those which are organized by the government. However, success in self-organized groups came about after a struggle. Initially, self-organization led to conflicts and confusion, but when the initiative to self-organization was accepted by some villagers, other villagers followed as well. This ultimately led to a management system for the whole irrigation canal. WUAs can play an important role in assisting users to adopt new techniques and technologies for more efficient water use and increased production (Smith and Munoz,

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2002). In investigations of studies identified that WUAs could been improved (1) Human capital: education, knowledge/ understanding, skills (agricultural, technical, organizational, financial), labour/ time; (2) Social capital: values and norms, organization, power; (3) Physical capital: access to infrastructure, standards of maintenance, appropriateness of design; (4) Natural capital: access to water and land, protection of resources; and (5) Financial capital: income from employment, other economic activities, ability to contribute resources for management and maintenance (Howarth et al., 2002). Transfer of irrigation management responsibilities from government agencies to farmers is now an important policy in a large number of countries (Howarth et al., 2002). In the agricultural sector of Kazakstan’s current conditions, there are also clearly identifiable benefits for governmental agencies from the formation of Water Users’ Associations including: (1) WUAs provide a single point of contact for negotiations, contracts, and dispute resolution between water users and local water management authorities, thereby significantly easing the latter’s increased administrative burden caused by the break-up of the Soviet farm system; (2) WUAs can ease the introduction of water pricing which is at present complicated by the lack of measuring devices for water deliveries to individual farmers. Water deliveries could be measured at the point of delivery to the WUA, which would then handle deliveries to and fee-collection from its members, based on an individual’s irrigated acreage, for instance; and (3) Strong WUA can in the future be made the owners of existing irrigation and drainage systems, which the government authorities are no longer able to manage and maintain (Burger, 1998). To sum up, the farmers’ role in development is crucial in enhancing water use efficiency. The creation of new management mechanisms, which give more responsibility and more incentives to farmers to improve the condition of water systems and to economize the use of irrigation water, is an important step (Burger, 1998). Therefore, The most common and effective tool to encourage Water Users (WUs) organized participation, which is used in several countries of the world is the formation of WUCs. The overall aim of this study was to examine and analyze the farmers’ participation in irrigation networks management with an approach to compare of two groups of farmers in irrigation networks with WUC and without it. To achieve this purpose, this survey research was performed with the following specific objectives: (1) determination of the professional and individual characteristics; (2) assessment the level of water users’ involvement in WUC and non-WUC participatory systems; and (3) comparison of two groups of farmers in relation to the professional and individual characteristics (those who were in participatory system with WUC and without WUA, viceversa).

MATERIALS AND METHODS This study used descriptive-correlative and causal-comparative survey methodology to investigate the farmers’ participation in irrigation networks management with an approach to compare two groups of farmers in irrigation networks with WUC and without it. The methodological approach was a descriptive-correlational and causalcomparative study of the survey type. The target population for the study consisted of 2551 farmers of irrigation networks during the 2005-2006 that conducted in three

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irrigation networks of Razavi Khorasan Province at villages level, including: “Shahid Yaghubi” Dam of Torbat-Heydarieh with WUC and “Shahid Karde” and “Trogh” Dams of Mashhad without WUC. Through stratified random sampling technique, a group of 335 participants of irrigation networks (166 farmers for participatory system with WUC and 214 farmers for participatory systems without WUC) was selected as the sample out of the above-mentioned population using the method of Krejcie and Morgan (1970) for the determination of sample size. A questionnaire was prepared to gather the data needed for this study. The questionnaire consisted of four parts: part one of the questionnaire was relation to the information about individual characteristics of WUs, including: age, education level, experience in agriculture, distance from farm to agricultural services center. Part two of the instrument was designed to gather data on technical characteristics of WUs, including: farmers’ behavior regarding farm water management and farmers’ perception of rural irrigation status. Part three of the instrument was designed to gather data on the socio-cultural characteristics of the WUs, including: extension contacts, communication channels, social confidence, social solidarity, social participation, farmers’ attitude toward the WUC, and farmers’ participation status concerning irrigation networks management. In this part of the questionnaire, items consisted of five-point likert type scale with responses ranging from zero to 4. Also, the information about economic characteristics of WUs was considered in the third part of the instrument, including: annual income and size of the irrigated cultivation. Data were collected through a questionnaire and were analyzed using SPSS, V.13. Content and face validity of the instrument were obtained by the faculty members of Agricultural Extension and Education, Agronomy and Irrigation Departments at Tarbiat Modarres University and also by the Specialists Board of Agricultural Jihad Organization and Regional Water Joint-stock Company in Razavi Khorasan Province. To assess the reliability of the instrument, a pilot test (N= 30) was performed, and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were computed for each part and were found in a range from 0.73 to 0.86.

RESULTS AND DISCASION Objectives 1: The first objective of this study was to describe the characteristics of farmers. The findings of this part showed that 18.4% of the farmers were of an age below 30 years. Those that fell within the age of 30 to 49 years accounted for 46.4%, about 19.5% of the respondents were of the age between 50 to 59 years, while about 15.7% of the respondents were 60 years old or even elder. The findings of this part showed that the age of respondents ranged from 21 to 80 years with a mean age of 45.23 years (SD = 13.8). It was also evident that 23.6% of the farmers had not taken part in any formal education. About 37.6% of the respondents attended primary school, 20.6% had attended secondary school education, about 11.8% of the respondent had high school diploma and the remaining 6.4% attended post-secondary school. The mean of the size of the irrigated cultivation by farmers was 3.45 ha; the minimum and maximum land areas were 0.5 and 15 ha, respectively. Farmers were asked to indicate the number of years they have experienced working on farm. Years of farm experience ranged farm 3 to 65 years (M= 25.26; SD= 13.9). The average distance from the farm to agricultural service center was 5.44 Km. Farmers’ annual income ranged from 7 to 90 million rials (M= 3.15; SD= 1.59) (Table 1).

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Table 1. Professional and individual characteristics of WUs. Variables

Mean

S.D.

Max. Min.

Age (year)

45.64 13.98

22

82

Education level (year)

4.37

3.78

0

14

Experience in agriculture (year)

25.26 13.90

3

65

Size of the irrigated cultivation (ha)

3.45

2.18

0.5

15

Distance from farm to agricultural services center (km)

5.44

2.73

1

11

3.15

1.59

0.7

9

*

Annual income (million Rials )

* 8000 Rials= 1USD. As shown in Table 2, social characteristics of WUs were categorized three levels including: low, medium and high. The usage level of extension contacts was low (50.9%; n= 168) with an overall mean score of 9.00 (SD= 5.08). The usage level of communication channels by WUs in drainage and irrigation networks was medium (52.1%; n= 172) with an overall mean score of 20.97 (SD= 9.35). Also, social capital components among WUs were evident within the confidence (mean= 12.09), solidarity (mean= 12.27) and participation (mean= 17.49) that each of they were assessed at medium level (Table 2). Table 2. Socio-cultural characteristics of WUs. Low

Medium

High

Variable

Mean

S.D.

Min.

Max.

Range

Percent of respondent Social confidence

28.8

45.5

25.8

12.09

5.87

1

24

0-24

Social solidarity

26.7

48.8

24.5

12.27

5.54

2

24

0-24

Social participation

28.5

49.1

22.4

17.45

7.96

3

34

0-36

Extension contacts

50.9

39.7

9.4

9.00

5.08

1

23

0-24

Communication channels

27.3

52.1

20.6

20.97

9.35

5

41

0-44

Objective 2: In order to assess the rate of WUs’ involvement in irrigation networks management, 9-item with summated likert-type format was designed in different stages of planning, decision-making, implementation, operation, maintenance and evaluation in relation to irrigation water management so that they could expresses their level of participation by selecting the options. The findings of Table 2 indicates that the respondents’ participation levels in irrigation networks with WUC was medium with an overall mean score of 19.92 (S.D. = 6.7). But the level of WUs’ participation in irrigation networks without WUC was low with an overall mean score of 12.72 (S.D. = 6.6). In general, it was evident that the status of WUs’ participant in participatory system of WUC was better than those who were not in cooperative. Nevertheless, the respondents of irrigation networks with WUC were reported that they have a better

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status from the view point of in-farm and on-farm water management, solution of irrigation problems, cooperation with other farmers and irrigation experts, the prevention of water losses, rehabilitation and reconstruction of canals, giving the water rights for improvement of operation and maintenance of networks and programming the water business than those who were in irrigation system without WUC. Table 3. Status of WUs’ participation regarding irrigation networks management Very low

low

f

2

31

69

37

19

%

1.3

19.6

43.7

23.4

12

f

47

61

45

16

3

%

27.3

35.5

26.3

9.3

1.7

f

49

92

114

53

22

%

14.8

27.9

34.5

16.1

6.7

Network type

medium high

Very high

WUC

Non-WUC

Overall

Mean S.D. Min. Max.

19.92

6.7

5

35

12.72

6.6

3

30

16.16

7.5

3

35

Objective 3: A t-test with independent-samples was conducted to evaluate the differences between two groups of water users of irrigation networks with WUC and without it. As shown in Table 3, statistically significant differences were found among the individual characteristics investigated in the present study between two groups of WUs, i.e. those who were in irrigation network with WUC and those in non-WUC irrigation networks, with respect to the variables of age, education level, and experience in agriculture, excluding distance from farm to agricultural services center. Among the economic characteristics, there was a significant difference (at a 0.05 level) between two groups of respondents in relation to annual income, except for size of the irrigated cultivation. Significant differences were found between the two groups of respondents with the entire socio-cultural characteristics, namely with extension contacts, communication channels, social confidence, social solidarity, social participation, farmers’ attitude toward the WUC, and farmers’ participation status concerning irrigation networks management. In addition, with technical factors, there was a significant mean difference between farmers’ behavior regarding farm water management and farmers’ perception of rural irrigation status in two groups of respondents.

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Table 4. Comparison of the two groups of water users in WUC and non-WUC irrigation networks in relation to their characteristics. Non-WUC Independent variable WUC irrigation irrigation network network (n=158) Dependent (n=172) variable Mean S.D. Mean S.D.

t

P value

Effect Size (d)

Age of the farmer

47.85

13.63

43.61

14.04

2.78**

0.006

0.30

Education level

4.86

4.23

4.06

3.57

2.27**

0.024

0.20

Experience in agriculture

27.51

13.93

23.36

13.85

2.71**

0.007

029

Size of the cultivation

3.38

2.42

3.51

1.95

-0.539

0.590

-0.05

Distance from farm to agricultural services center

5.58

2.80

5.31

2.67

0.870

0.385

0.09

Annual income (million rials)

3.94

1.73

2.43

0.99

9.79**

0.000

1.07

Extension contacts

10.25

5.18

7.84

4.70

4.43**

0.000

0.48

Communication channels

22.32

9.68

19.73

8.89

2.53*

0.012

0.27

Social confidence

13.50

5.56

10.74

5.84

4.39**

0.000

0.48

Social solidarity

13.92

5.32

10.80

5.35

5.29**

0.000

0.58

Social participation

19.65

7.46

15.44

7.89

4.96**

0.000

0.54

Farmers’ perception of rural irrigation status

14.68

4.89

10.80

4.85

7.21**

0.000

0.79

Status of farmers’ participation in irrigation management

19.92

6.70

12.72

6.60

9.82**

0.000

1.08

Farmers’ behavior regarding farm water management

75.27

22.25

65.24

20.51

4.25**

0.000

0.46

Farmers’ attitude toward the WUC

61.46

16.06

53.27

16.75

4.52**

0.000

0.49

irrigated

* T-test significant at p < 0.05 ** T-test significant at p < 0.01

To assess the magnitude of statistical differences, effect sizes were calculated, interpreted, and reported using Cohen’s procedures (Zhai and Scheer, 2004). Interpretations for t-tests were based on the Cohen conversion: negligible size; d< 0.20, small effect size; 0.20” d< 0.50, medium effect size; 0.50” d< 0.80, and large effect size; d• 0.80 calculated through the following formula:

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d

Mean1  Mean2 SD12  SD22 2

The analyses revealed that the annual income (Cohen’s d= 1.07) and status of farmers’ participation in irrigation networks management (Cohen’s d= 1.08) had the largest magnitude of difference than other variables (large effect size). Therefore, WUCs were of the most abundant influences on these variables. Also, farmers’ perception of rural irrigation status (Cohen’s d= 0.79), social solidarity (Cohen’s d= 0.58) and social participation (Cohen’s d= 0.54) were found inside the range of medium magnitude of statistical differences (medium effect size). Magnitude of the statistical differences of age, education level, experience in agriculture, extension contacts, communication channels, social confidence, farmers’ behavior regarding farm water management, and farmers’ attitude toward the WUC were the lowest (negligible effect size). CONCLUSION According to the study findings, it was found that WUCs as the considerable social capital can improve the level of farmers’ participation in irrigation water management. Significant differences was statistically found between two groups of WUs, those who involved in irrigation network with WUC and those in non-WUA networks in relation to the individual variables of age, education level, and experience in agriculture. Among the economic characteristics, there was a significant difference between two groups of respondents in relation to their annual incomes. This finding concurs with that of Pradhan (2002). Significant differences were found between two groups of respondents from the stand point of all their cultural and social characteristics, namely extension contacts, communication channels, social confidence, social solidarity, social participation, farmers’ attitude toward the WUC, and farmers’ participation status concerning irrigation networks management. This means that WUAs enhance social capital components among farmers. This conclusion is consistent with others studies (Wijayaratna, 2004; Howarth et al., 2002; Pradhan, 2002). In addition, the results indicated that among technical factors, there was a significant difference between farmers’ behavior regarding farm water management and farmers’ perception of rural irrigation status in two groups of respondents. Thus, the establishment of WUCs provides the most suitable mechanism for the human resource development. Accordingly, several studies have shown that the WUC plays an important role in the improvement the WUs’ knowledge, attitudes, and skills regarding farm water management (Wijayaratna, 2004; Carter et al., 1999). Therefore, in order to improve the PIM in irrigation networks, decentralization and devolution of water networks management increase WUs’ participation in decision-making and investment, and improve management incentives, accountability, agricultural and economic productivity and cost recovery which is the most effective and promising way toward the sustainability of the water resources. The development and implementation of improved water management policies through the formation of WUCs in the irrigated agricultural sector is an important element to achieve the water management objectives. Hence, agricultural policies in Iran must aim at raising the potential of water management technologies through the development of multi-functional WUCs to enhance agricultural water productivity, promote equitable access to water and to conserve the natural resource.

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REFERENCES 1. Burger, R. 1998. Water users’ associations in Kazakstan: an institutional analysis. Harvard Institute for International Development, Central Asian Republics. 2. Carter, R., Kay, M. and K. Weatherhead. (1999). Water losses in smallholder irrigation schemes. Agricultural Water Management. 40: 15-24. 3. Ehsani, M. and H. Khaledi. (2003). Agricultural water productivity. Iranian National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage, Tehran. 4. Howarth, S. E., Parajuli, U. N., Baral, J. R., Nott, G. A., Adhikari, B. R., Gautam, D. R. and K.C. Menuka. 2005. Promoting good governance of water users’ associations in Nepal. Department of irrigation of his majesty’s government of Nepal. 5. Keshavarz, A., Ashrafi, M., Heydari, N., Pouran, M. and E. Farzaneh. 2005. Water allocation and pricing in agriculture of Iran. Proceedings of an Iranian-American workshop on Water Conservation, Reuse and Recycling, U.S. National Research Council of the National Academies, The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. 6. Krejcie, R. V. and D. W. Morgan. 1970. Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 30: 607-610. 7. Ostrom, E. and R. Gardner. 1993. Coping with asymmetries in the commons: selfgoverning irrigation systems can work. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (4): 93-112. 8. Pradhan, P. (2002). Water users’ associations towards diversified activities: experiences of Nepal and other countries. Indiana Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis. 9. Skaggs, T. H., Genuchten, M. T., Shouse, P. J. and J. A. Poss. (2006). Macroscopic approaches to root water uptake as a function of water and salinity stress. Agricultural Water Management, In Press. 10. Smith, M. and G. Munoz. (2002). Irrigation advisory services for effective water use: a review of experiences. Workshop organized by FAO–ICID. Montreal, Canada. 11. Tanaka, Y. and Y. Sato (2005). Farmers managed irrigation districts in Japan: assessing how fairness may contribute to sustainability. Agricultural Water Management, 77: 196–209. 12. Wijayaratna, C. M. (2004). Linking main system management for improved irrigation management. The Asian Productivity Organization, Japan. 13. Zhai, L. and S. D. Scheer. 2004. Global perspectives and attitudes toward cultural diversity among summer agricultural students at the Ohio State University. Journal of Agricultural Education, 45(2): 39-51.

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The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

COMMUNITY BASED MICRO-PLANNING IN PIM: ENTRY POINT ACTIVITIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Dr. Deepak Kumar Das1

ABSTRACT The necessity of devolution of certain management responsibility of irrigation system to the farmers' organization is now widely accepted as an effective tool for sustainable irrigated agriculture. In India during 1990s systematic institutional and organizational changes have been undertaken to increase farmers’ participation in irrigation management through formation of Water Users’ Association (WUA) or Pani Panchayats under different externally assisted economic restructuring and irrigation infrastructure development programmes of World Bank, European Commission, Japan Bank for International Cooperation etc. or through Central or State government initiative. Today, Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) or Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) at various levels is being implemented in different types of irrigation systems. For this programme, appropriate institutional arrangements and mechanisms to bring about efficient utilization, equitable distribution and sustainable irrigation service are framed by different states of India. Further steps are being taken continuously for improvement in the strategies to achieve the goals of PIM. This paper, apart from highlighting some lessons from PIM experiences in Orissa, the poorest state in the dominion of republic of India, narrates a strategic micro level planning along with identified entry point implementation programme that are undertaken for sustainable irrigated agriculture simultaneously aiming at upliftment of livelihood of small and marginal poor farmers. The study concludes that the objective of poverty reduction by way of promoting schemes for agricultural productivity improvement through irrigation can be achieved by adopting community based participatory approaches that support agricultural development like improving irrigation performance, the use of new production technologies, enhancing access to markets, promoting environmentally sustainable production activities, having gender perspective, measures to improve income and livelihood through micro-finance, rural infrastructure up-gradation, participatory processes to empower the rural poor with core skills to process agri-products for value addition.

1- Associate Professor in Engineering Faculty, Water and Land Management Institute, Pratapnagari, Cuttack, Orissa. India - 753051, India; E-mail: [email protected]

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INTRODUCTION India is the second largest populated country in the world with nearly 1.1 billion people. Out of this around 26.1 per cent are poor, living with less than a dollar a day (ADB 2004; UNDP 2003). The country is thus home to more than one fourth of the world's poor. Further the degree of poverty varies from state to state, the poverty estimate in percent of population below poverty line is as high as 47.15% for Orissa and 42.6% for Bihar to lower percentage of 3.5% for Jammu and Kasmir and 4.4% for Goa during 1999-2000 as reported in National Human Development Report 2001 of Govt. of India (2002, Planning Commission). Poverty alleviation is the most important objective of Indian planning through creation of employment opportunities, income generation activities and growth promotion. However, underdeveloped infrastructure such as power, transport, irrigation, water supply, sewerage and lack of accessibility to health facilities have impaired economic growth and the poverty eradication drive. In the 10th Five-Year Plan (April 2002-March 2007), the Government of India has called for equitable and sustainable growth, and to achieve this goal, it has designated the following as the priority development issues: not only eradication of the existing poverty but long-term poverty reduction through economic growth and environmental conservation to make these efforts sustainable. Water resources management and development are central to sustainable agricultural growth and poverty reduction. Currently, integrated water resources management is highly emphasized for enhancing food security, poverty eradication, economic growth and rural upliftment in the developing countries including India. Further, most of the developing countries have insufficient hydraulic infrastructure and hence, the governments, international funding agencies need to assist these countries in developing and maintaining adequate number of well-performing hydraulic structures and in mobilizing public and private financing, while meeting environmental and social standards. Moreover, the below-optimal performance of the existing irrigation systems is of serious concern to farmers who depend on them for their crops and livelihoods and to governments as well as funding agencies that have made massive investment in their development. The most severe problems encountered by irrigation systems in the developing countries are the increasing costs of new schemes, the huge backlog of incomplete schemes, and the increasing neglect of existing systems. Large-scale canal irrigation systems, in particular, are in poor condition: they are not properly maintained, operations are inadequate, water supplies do not reach the tail end of systems, and the timing of water supply is unreliable. The wide gap between actual and desirable performance threatens the sustainability of irrigated agriculture. These state of affairs warrants proper investment strategies with institutional reforms and comprehensive plans for implementation starting from Micro-level (Grass-root level). It is established that in democratic and developing countries like India, genuinely participatory governance of a common property resource like irrigation at the micro level can yield benefits in terms of both efficiency and equity, by giving the water users a sense of ownership, by allocating resources according to people’s demand and need and by utilising their skills and knowledge. The reform or decentralisation of governance of irrigation infrastructure or Irrigation Management Transfer to Farmers' Organisatins is now widely accepted and used as an effective tool for improving management efficiency, accountability, agricultural and economic productivity and cost recovery and finally sustainable irrigated agriculture. As a result, it is now observed that

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an increasing number of governments around the world are adopting programmes to devolve responsibility for irrigation management to farmers organisations or to Water Users Associations (WUAs) in their reform process, which is known as Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) and is found place in their national policies. Indian irrigation sector in recent years is also in the same PIM trail where attempts are being made to increase farmers’ direct participation in decision-making and investment. Further, conventionally Indian economy is largely based on rural villages, as it draws most of its inputs from farms and village industries. Consequently, it establishes the fact that transforming agriculture to effective enterprise or industrialization of agriculture has potential to provide the rural poor with on-farm and off-farm employment, induce economic growth and promote food security. On the other hand, studies of De Boer et. al. (1997), Simons and Supri (1999), White (1999) and Grossmann and Poston (2003) reveal that India’s agriculture extension system has missing links to secondary or primary education and is not reaching effectively to the women and the rural poor including the lower castes. Though India is one of the potential producers of large number of agricultural researchers and scientists but it lacks in providing basic skills required to improve farming methods or job opportunities in the rural off- farm sector. Now high priority should be given to equip the rural poor with appropriate skills by improving the currently inadequate agriculture extension system. The situation altogether warrants a comprehensive micro plan with reforms in irrigation governance. PIM IN INDIA Participatory Irrigation Management is being implemented in irrigation projects in most of the countries of world including India. Since 1985 Ministry of Water Resources has been inspiring farmers' participation in water distribution and management of tertiary system in the projects covered under the Centrally Sponsored Command Area Development Programme. The concept of involvement of farmers in management of the irrigation system has been accepted as a policy of the Government of India and has been included in the National Water Policy adopted in 1987. Provisions made in the National Water Policy of 1987 were as follows: "Efforts should be made to involve farmers progressively in various aspects of management of irrigation systems, particularly in water distribution and collection of water rates. Assistance of voluntary agencies should be enlisted in educating the farmers in efficient water-use and water management." PROVISION IN NATIONAL WATER POLICY (2002) Following modifications were made in the National Water Policy (2002) regarding the participatory approach to water resources management: "Management of the water resources for diverse uses should incorporate a participatory approach: by involving not only the various governmental agencies but also the users' and other stakeholders, in an effective and decisive manner, in various aspects of planning, design, development and management of the water resources schemes. Necessary legal and institutional changes should be made at various levels for the purpose, duly ensuring appropriate role for. women. Water Users' Association and local bodies such as municipalities and Gram-Panchayats should particularly be involved in the operation,

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maintenance and management of water infrastructures/facilities at appropriate levels progressively, with a view to eventually transfer the management of such facilities to the user groups/ local bodies." PROCESS OF IMPLEMENTATION Different states of India followed different routes for implementation of PIM. While PIM in Andhra pradesh followed the Big Bang Approach, the state of Orissa implemented PIM through a gradual approach in phased manner. PROVISIONS IN PIM ACTS Recognising the need for sound legal framework for PIM in the country, the Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India brought out a model act to be adopted by the State Legislatures for enacting new irrigation acts/amending the existing irrigation acts for facilitating PIM. In accordance with the model act and as a result of various conferences/ seminars organised by the Ministry, there has been an increased consciousness in States about the need for actively involving farmers in management of irrigation systems. Nine State Governments, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Rajsthan, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharastra have enacted exclusive legislation for involvement of farmers in irrigation management. Other states are in the trail of enacting either exclusive legislation for PIM, or are exploring scope to exercise power for PIM through existing laws like Government of Bihar has issued a notification "The Bihar Irrigation, Flood Management and Drainage Rules, 2003", in exercise of the powers conferred by The Bihar Irrigation Act, 1997. Gujarat had experimented with the idea of farmers' co-operative movement in irrigation management. The Stale of Gujarat had also a PIM Resolution during the year 1995 based on experiences from its pilot projects. In general the legal framework provides for creation of farmers organisations at different levels of irrigation system as under 1. Water Users' Association (WUA): will have a delineated command area on hydraulic basis, which shall be administratively viable. Generally a WUA would cover a group of outlets or a minor. 2. Distributary Committee: will comprise 5 or more WUAs. All the presidents of WUAs will comprise general body of the distributary committee. 3. Project Committee: will be an apex committee of an irrigation system and presidents of the Distributary committees in the project area shall constitute general body of this committee. The Associations at different levels are expected to be actively involved in: i.

maintenance of irrigation system in their area of operation;

ii. distribution of irrigation water to the beneficiary farmers as per the warabandi schedule iii. assisting the irrigation department in the preparation of water demand and collection of water charges

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iv. resolve disputes among the members and WUA v. monitoring flow of water in the irrigation system etc. PIM IN ORISSA Orissa is a state in the dominion of India. In Orissa PIM approach has been put into practice through formation of Water Users Association (WUA), which is known as Pani Panchayat (PP). PP is the primary level farmer organization (Das et.al.2004). The structural arrangement of farmer organization is three tiers for Medium and four tiers for Major Irrigation Projects as shown in Fig. 1. A Pani Panchayat/WUA is an association of all persons owning land within a hydrologically delineated portion of the command area ranging in size approximately from 300-600 ha in case of major/medium / minor irrigation project. It may be in respect of minor or sub-minor or direct outlets from the main or branch distributary of the project. In case of minor flow or lift irrigation, the area is limited to project command area when the project command area is less than 300 ha. The WUA/Pani Panchayat is a part of the farmers’ organisation recognized by Orissa Pani Panchayat Act 2002, also all farmers organizations are body corporate as defined therein.

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(DoWR: Department of Water Resources, DoA: Department of Agriculture, JE: Junior Engineer, A.E: Assistant Engineer, EE: Executive Engineer, JAO: Junior Agriculture Officer, DAO: District Agriculture Officer, RI: Revenue Officer) Fig. 1 Structure of Farmers' Organisation under PIM Programme in Orissa, India

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In Orissa the state government is implementing the Pani Panchayat Programme with a great zeal. The area under PP has expanded rapidly as shown in Table 1. Data on progress of PIM in Orissa indicate that by June 2006, 13435 PPs have been formed covering an area of 10.55 lakh ha. Irrigation management has been transferred to 12218 PPs covering 8.60 lakh ha out of total command area of 21.15 lakh ha. Thus, the data reveal that the PIM programme in Orissa is intensifying and very soon the entire irrigation command of the state will be farmer managed. Table 1: Progress of Pani Panchayat Programme in Orissa as on June 2006 Types of Irrigation

Irrigation Potential Created*

No. of Pani Panchayats

Project

'000 ha.

Formed

Major and Medium

1234

1426

497

Area ' 000 ha.

Irrigation management transferred No. of PPs

Area ' 000 ha.

623

1122

494

976

189

719

136

11033

243

10377

230

13435

1055

12218

860

Minor (Surface) Minor (Lift)

384

Total

2115

* Irrigation potential from other sources are not included

COMMUNITY BASED MICRO PLANNING AND ENTRY POINT ACTIVITIES Preliminary studies conducted in various irrigation projects in Orissa show that rice-rice is the dominant cropping pattern followed by the farmers. The main rice crop is raised from June to December and the summer rice crop is grown from January to May. The water in canal is supplied accordingly from July to November and January to May to support this cropping pattern. The present agriculture production system in these projects has the following shortcomings: 1. Irrigation water is available round the year in reservoirs or from the hydro-power generation units which can support 3 crop sequences. At present, the rabi season (November-February) does not exist and is overlapped by kharif and summer season crops. As a result, the irrigation potentials are not fully utilized. 2. Rice is the dominant crop grown in summer season. Since the outlet size is designed to provide supplemental irrigation to the kharif rice crop @ 6-7 mm/ha/day, it fails to irrigate entire command area below each outlet and 30-40% area remains unirrigated. There is again social inequity in water distribution between head reach and tail end farmers. 3. Rice-rice cropping pattern over years leads to problems like waterlogging and reduction in soil productivity of command area.

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4. Due to distress sale of paddy in recent years, the present cropping pattern gives low returns to the farmers. 5. Besides inefficient use of water and land resources, the prospect of present irrigated agriculture in these projects is limited as the farmer has been facing rising input costs, declining returns from the inputs, uncertain market, increasing integration of domestic market with the international market, inadequate storage infrastructure, exploitation of farmers by middle men and private money lenders, low awareness level, risk in production due to occurrence of natural calamities, plant disease and pest attack etc. In order to increase the performance of the irrigation projects, main thrust under microplan is to undertake software and hardware activities to transform the present rice-rice mono-culture system to diversified agriculture production system. Technical and socioeconomic constraints experienced for agriculture diversification in these projects will be removed through establishing proper co-operation among the farmers and line departments. To meet this challenge the micro plan implementation objectives through PIM are: a) To inculcate the feeling of the self-help among the farmers and to develop a mechanism meeting challenges through group action; b) To build the capacity of PPs to make use of services from Government and nonGovernment agencies; c) To develop software measures for efficient use of water, land, labor and other available resources; d) To diversify the agriculture production system to produce variety of cash and commercial crops to make agriculture profitable; e) To identify and promote market linkages for ready availability of inputs/ services and quick disposal of agricultural and non-agricultural products; f) To bring out Entry Point Activities (EPAs) through Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) that are required by the members of PPs aiming at improving livelihood and sustainable irrigated agriculture. Since December, 2005, in Orissa, a community based micro plan as well as identification and implementation of Entry Point Activities with the strategy for overcoming the key problems faced by the farmers has been launched on pilot basis for the sustainability of irrigated agriculture in Upper Indravati Irrigation Project and Upper Kolab Irrigation projects and will be replicated in other projects after observing the pilot studies. Upper Indravati and Upper Kolab are two multipurpose major irrigation projects situated in the less developed, tribal and backward caste dominated region of Orissa, where majority of the farmers are poor and practise subsistence farming. These projects are funded for not only development of irrigation infrastructure as sole objective, but also it aims at proper management, operation, maintenance and sustainability irrigation system.

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The post evaluation of completed portion of this project shows that the project provides the farmers in the region an opportunity for dry season farming, enhanced employment opportunities to landless laborers, tenant farmers and small-scale farmers and arrested migration. This would not have been possible without irrigation. It has significantly increased the income and living standards of the farmers of the region, of course majority of them are Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The coverage of area under different crop and production of different crops, particularly rice has increased significantly after the implementation of the scheme. Due to the impact of irrigation the farm households’ income shows an increasing trend. Increased income has made it possible for the children to go to school and the family to buy consumer durable (JBIC 2003a). Though the process of formation of WUAs/ PPs, is slow in these projects at the beginning due to absence of proper policy and act supporting legal and institutional environment, now gaining momentum due to present PIM policy and appropriate legislation by the state (Das, 2005a & 2005b). In these projects, it has been observed that though there is improvement in socieconomic condition of the farmers in general, inequitable distribution of water and poverty persists in the project area. The key problems faced by the farmers include unequal water allocation, inefficient water use, shortage of funds, inadequate institutional capacity, lack of integrated water resources management, dilapidated existing irrigation facilities and soil degradation, information gap in agricultural diversification and technologies, deficient distribution network and market place, low technological level of food processing and low value addition, rural usury, inaccessibility to different schemes of government like health, sanitation, input supply etc. Particularly for the first time implementation of Micro-plan and EPAs have been initiated in these two projects assisted by Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC). In these projects JBIC, Department of Water Resources (DOWR), Government of Orissa and Water and Land Management Institute (WALMI, Orissa) are working together for development of Micro Plan and identify Entry Point Activities (EPAs) in consultation with the local farming community. Whenever required, assistance of NGOs is being sought. WALMI, Orissa is engaged as implementing agency for a period of two crop seasons and will gradually withdraw as the community learn and adopt the required practices for sustainable agriculture. In these pilot irrigation projects Self Help Groups (SHG)s have been formed within the WUAs or PPs to play vital role in improving irrigation efficiency, agricultural productivity and improvement of livelihood. One of the important feature of micro level plan is identification of EPAs. The identified EPAs consist of a broad array of activities such as facilitation of Micro-credit with revolving fund for undertaking rural farming, non-farming activities, empowering rural women, rural micro-enterprise development and facility for farm mechanization. The other options for micro level plan considered are effective packages of technological and management practices, adoption of commercial farming using market forces and mechanism to enhance efficiency, awareness and capacity building of the stakeholders and other livelihood enhancing measures. Assessment and incorporation of all local specific characteristics for providing effective service delivery, increased productivity, protection of environment and improved socio-economic condition for sustainability of the irrigation projects in the planning process have been considered for implementation. The structural arrangement for sustainable and productive irrigated agriculture for Socio-economic development is given in Fig.2. The results of this strategic plan are

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under study and proposed to be adopted in other irrigation projects which are being considered for modernisation. In many irrigation project, Pani Panchayat programme has already been implemented and in these projects, it is observed that the PPs need more capacity building, training and guidance to carry out the activities related to their rights and responsibilities properly (Das 2005a, 2005b). Irrigated agriculture will be sustainable, if Pani Panchayats orient their agriculture production towards the market economy and are able to convert their traditional agriculture to a profitable enterprise (Das et al., 2003 & 2004). It is necessary to identify and develop marketing network for the farming community, which will provide input supply and required services and facilitate trading of agricultural products. For overcoming these foreseeable problems and concurrent difficulties, currently the PPs are being trained and guided by WALMI, Orissa. As soon as the farmers gain sufficient experience on the recent technology on agriculture production system and networks for marketing are developed and established, WALMI will withdraw from the project. Thereafter the PPs can run independently and can cater to the needs of the farmers. MICRO PLANNING AND EPA STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY Currently the following strategic plans are followed for development and implementation of Micro Plan and identification of EPAs in the Pilot Projects. The same will be replicated in other irrigation projects as irrigation projects nowadays attract high priority for sustainable agriculture. This pilot implementation is assisted by JBIC and being implemented with the help of experienced multidisciplinary faculty members and action research personnel of WALMI (Orissa). The activities are PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA) PRA techniques have been applied by WALMI Faculty Members and Facilitators (Action Research Personnel) to identify EPAs for the PP/WUA.

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PARTICIPATORY WALKTHROUGH (PWT) i)

Participatory walkthrough for testing the hydraulic structures and to know the canal conveyance, controlling mechanism and water measuring aspects and taking up necessary steps in restoration or rehabilitation.

ii) Audit of existing micro-distribution system and suggestion of improvement.

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MOTIVATION AND FORMATION OF SHG i)

Motivation and Formation of Self Help Group (SHGs) explaining the benefits to the members of the SHGs. This includes various stages i.e. group formation, group stabilization etc. For EPAs the chak committees are also taken as a self help group.

ii) Encouraging SHGs for community farming, input supply service, marketing service, and transport service, service for packaging and value addition. iii) Encouraging private entrepreneurs/ SHGs for agriculture processing industries and small warehouses to store produce scientifically. iv) Farmers training on chak/outlet basis to discuss the soil, climate, canal conveyance and supply, feasible cropping pattern for the outlet. SOIL SURVEY Available soil survey data will be utilized for crop planning and recommending appropriate package of practice.

IMPORTANT AGRICULTURE PROMOTION ACTIVITIES i)

Conducting exposure visits to advanced areas in practice.

ii) Demonstration on crop diversification and package of practices for irrigated dry (ID) crops, vegetables, fruits, maize, sugarcane, medicinal plants, spices etc. to be identified after PRA. iii) Market mapping, Demand survey for products, identification of Buyers, Establishing marketing network iv) Streamlining credit facilities and crop insurance, acquisition of micro-finance skills such as internal lending, fixation of interest rate and loan recovery schedule and building of corpus funds. v) Identified training for Farmers and stakeholders 1. Training on capacity building for office maintenance for PP executive members and self help groups. Role and responsibilities of PPs/WUAs. 2. Irrigation system, Water Availability, Water Requirement, Scheduling, Canal operation, Irrigation Water Management etc.

Irrigation

3. Crop diversification, package of practices for cash crops 4. Diversification for Kharif Paddy and Water Management including package of Practices. 5. Farm machinery and implements, and their maintenance 6. Effects of disasters and adverse climatic situation and mitigation plans 7. Assessment of additional training needs during EPA Period

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8. Workshop on Government schemes, input supply, incentives, credits, subsidies, insurance, produce storing, processing, value addition, marketing, education, health etc. 9. Selection and motivation of large buyers and service providers. DOCUMENTATION AND VIDEO MODULE PREPARATION Documentation of all the activities in the process of implementation and video module production are in process for replication purpose.

MONITORING AND EVALUATION Periodic Monitoring and Evaluation of implementation of micro-plan and EPAs for strengthening the Programme are being carried out to ensure that the objectives are fulfilled. Various indicators based on approved EPAs and income generation activities as well as indicators like Crop Diversification, Productivity, Water Distribution Indices etc. are also being monitored constantly.

PROGRAMME IMPLEMENTATION a) Structure of programme implementation The programme is being implemented by implementation teams (IT), comprising multi disciplinary action research staff of WALMI. A multi disciplinary team consisting of engineering, agriculture and sociology faculty of WALMI will act as the supervising expert team (SET). b) Operation of corpus fund Shifting from traditional rain-fed rice farming to intensive multiple cropping under irrigation, requires capital expenditure for various activities. Very often, due to nonavailability of adequate and timely credit from formal financing institutions, the farmers depend on money lenders and borrow at exorbitant interest rates. Most of the resource poor farmers fail to apply recommended technology leading to poor production. Easy access to soft loans through micro-credit finance will help the poor farmers to purchase good quality inputs for application at right time. The grant component to be used as the corpus fund for providing micro-credits to SHGs will be utilised as follows. 1. Credit will be provided to SHGs, not to the individuals, for undertaking rural farming, non-farming activities, rural woman development and rural microenterprise development. The farming system includes manufacturing bio-fertilisers, vermi compost, commercial crop nursery, seed production, soil testing, crop protection, horticulture (vegetable production), floriculture etc. The non-farming activities include dairy, poultry, intermediate processing of fruits and vegetables for value addition etc. The credit may be extended for self-employment for rural women and micro enterprise development.

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2. Credits may be extended for improving rural living condition, such as sanitation, cooking gas connection and other activities. 3. The activities will also take care of persons engaged in selling firewood to undertake micro-enterprise based on minor forest produces and rural enterprises. For sustainable micro-credit or rural credit delivery, appropriate system has been designed for micro enterprise development to reduce the finance problem and risk of small and marginal farmers. This includes multiple dose of credit over a period of time with second and subsequent dose(s), enabling them to access higher amount of credit. They should have confidence that so long as they prove their credit worthiness by way of proper utilization of the asset and prompt repayment, the created corpus fund will stand by them and will grow to provide additional credit. The SHGs are allowed to stabilize and improve their credit absorption capacity and to increase their fund as well as increase their credit intake over the years either for the same activity or a new activity. The credit system has in-built mechanism for easy installments and incentive to members making regular repayments etc.

IMPLEMENTATION OF EPAS IN PILOT PANI PANCHAYATS 1. Since December 2005, EPAs have been taken up in Pilot PPs having micro distribution network or field channels. If a Pilot PP does not have micro-distribution network then in the Entry Point Activity, it is given priority to develop micro distribution system, which is necessary for scientific on-farm water management. 2. Entry point activities have been carried out with the maximum limit of Rs.0.6 million per PP. The activities taken up are decided by the farming community based on PRA carried out by implementing agency. In the presence of competent officers of DOWR, and in consultation with the implementing agency the PPs have approved the EPAs. 3. The entry point activities include Community welfare, Micro-credit or Rural credit disbursement through SHG, development of micro-enterprise to improve livelihood in command area, input supply, farm mechanisation activity for sustainable agriculture and income generation activities for improvement of livelihood of farmers in the command area. An agreement has been signed by PP and the Executive Engineer on behalf of the Project authority as well as PP with SHGs for this purpose. The project authority (DOWR) has transferred the entire amount of Rs. 0.6 million to the pilot PPs for taking up approved activities 4. The chak committees are treated as SHGs for crop diversification and other income generation activities. Scope for additional SHGs are open if needed for taking up different agricultural support services duly approved by respective PP. The amount identified for the purpose are earmarked and the pilot PP are sanctioning loan to SHGs from this amount. The PPs are authorized to utilise this amount along with accrued interest for the purpose of income generation through Micro Credit mechanism. 5. SHGs are encouraged for taking up community farming.

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6. For community welfare as one of EPA, the PPs are authorized for selection of items such as procurement of machinery/ farm equipment for farm-mechanization to be used by the general members of PP. The equipments include tractor, cultivator, ploughs, threshers, seed drills etc. The running and maintenance are being borne by farmers by charging rentals. 7. Loans for income generation activities shall be provided to SHGs. Loans to individuals shall not be encouraged as the recovery pattern from individual borrowers has been observed very low in other similar projects. As regards, the rate of interest on loans, PP shall have the discretion to decide the same. However, some rate of interest necessarily needs to be charged in order to offset the bad debts (which may occur) and also to increase the corpus fund. 8. In the EPAs, it is taken care of that there will not be any effort to duplicate the activity that the other departments have already taken up. The convergence of the activities of various departments is emphasized. In case of inadequacy, the convergence and co-ordination will be strengthened. 9. The DOWR is facilitating the augmentation of institutional capacity of the PP for maintaining services, facilities and works undertaken through EPAs. PPs are also given scope for taking up resources generation activities. For this purpose PPs would be encouraged to take-up small scale work contracts pertaining to improvement works in their jurisdiction. As per the provisions of Pani Panchayat Act, DOWR is also making efforts to mobilize other government departments to extend their schemes in the project area so as to enhance the developmental works in these selected area and also maintain the assets created under entry point activities in the PP area. Such schemes may include health, sanitation, education, Swarna Jayanti Gramya Swarozargar Yajana (SGSY) and other new schemes. 10. The DOWR shall maintain proper accounts PP wise of all the entry point activities undertaken in the project area. This will be subjected to audit checks by the state audit department as per the procedure laid down. 11. A mechanism for monitoring of the implementation of EPAs has been established under the chairmanship of Engineer in Chief for effective implementation and providing timely suggestions. 12. Display boards are kept in each Pani Panchayat by the Water Resources Department clearly specifying the EPAs carried out in that Pani Panchayat along with the amount spent by the DOWR. CONCLUSION In irrigation projects, active participation of the farmers who are the ultimate beneficiaries is indispensable, with Water Users Associations/Pani Panchayat as the center of activity. In order to strengthen the Water Users Associations/Pani Panchayats and promote participation by farmers, first a study should be made to ascertain the social and economic conditions of the beneficiaries, such as caste/tribes, land ownership of existing inhabitants, social and cultural institutions and organizations, etc. The study needs to indicate problems in irrigation, markets, technology, and capital, etc. in detail. Once the socio-economic survey is done, an action plan clarifying the rights and

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responsibilities of different stakeholders should be prepared at a stage sufficiently ahead of the launching of irrigation water supply. The executing agency or Government Department of Water Resources needs to promote early transfer of operation and maintenance of manageable portion of irrigation system to Water Users Associations/Pani Panchayat. Also it is necessary to build the capacity of Water Users Associations and provide full support for technological upgradations in order to promote self-reliance and the realization of sustainability. It is evident from the study that the objective of providing assistance for alleviation of poverty and rural upliftment through micro-planning and entry point activities as adopted in JBIC assisted irrigation projects in Orissa is significantly different from the strategy of other international funding agencies and quite comprehensive for achieving the goal of sustainable agriculture. Assisting for poverty reduction by way of promoting schemes for agricultural productivity improvement through irrigation is not only the motto but it integrates community based participatory approaches to support agricultural development like improving access to markets or the use of new production technologies, promote environmentally sustainable production activities, facilitates education about alternative routes for employment, gender issues, measures to improve income and livelihood through micro-finance; rural infrastructure upgradation, to improve access to markets and product distribution, participatory processes to empower the rural poor with core skills (such as producing local food products), while helping them to set up a business plan, obtain market information and comply with health measures. In fact, external assistance for mega projects also needs more careful planning at micro level, so that the intended benefits of the projects are realised on sustainable basis.

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REFERENCES: 1. ADB (2004) Country Strategy and Program Update, 2005-2007, India, Asian Development Bank CSP: Ind 2004-16 2. Das, D.K (2005a) ‘Participatory Irrigation Management - A Perspective from Pani Panchayat Programme in Orissa’ Proceedings of World Water Day 2005, Central Water Commission, Bhubaneswar, Govt. of India, pp.126-149. 3. Das, D.K (2005b) ‘Irrigation Management Transfer to Farmers in Orissa: Experiences and Lessons' Proceedings of conference on Irrigation Management: Policies and Practices, European Commission and Govt. of Orissa, Bhubaneswar, 20-21 June 2005. 4. Das, D.K (2005c) ‘Community Based Socio-Economic Development Planning in Irrigation Projects in India: Strategic Approaches in JBIC Assisted Projects; CSIRD Discussion Paper: 5/2005; Center for Studies in International Relations and Development (CSIRD) Kolkata. 5. Das, D.K (2005d) ‘Decentralised Governance of Irrigation Infrastructure for Sustainable Agriculture. Seminar Paper Vol. IV; NIRD Foundation Day Seminar' Rural Development and Social Change; National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad, 9-10 Nov. 2005 6. Das, D.K, Mangaraj, B.K and Acharya, R.C (2003) ‘Multi-Perspective Monitoring and Evaluation of PIM (Pani Panchayats) in Orissa: An Analytical Approach’ Proceedings of Tenth National Water Convention, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India, 7. Das, D.K, Mangaraj, B.K and Acharya R.C (2004) 'Performance Monitoring of Irrigation Management Reform (Pani Panchayat ) in Orissa: A Multi-perspective Approach', 45th Technical Annual, Institution Of Engineers (India), Orissa State Centre, pp-425-431. 8. DeBoer, K. and Pandey, A. 1997, 'India's Sleeping Giant: Food', The McKinsey Quarterly, vol. 1997, no. 1, pp. 82-96. 9. Govt. of India (2002) National Human Development Report 2001, Planning Commission, New Delhi 10. Grossmann, M. and Poston, M. 2003, 'Skill Needs and Policies for Agriculture-led Pro-poor Development'; Working Paper Number 112, QEH Working Paper Series 11. JBIC (2003a) Evaluation of ODA Loan Project, Upper Indravati Irrigation Project, India; Report on web site of. JBIC 12. JBIC (2003b) Ex-post Evaluation IV Follow-up Evaluation of Development Studies (Agricultural Irrigation) Report; web site of. JBIC 13. JBIC (2003d) Meta Analysis of Ex-Post Evaluation Reports by Country and Sector Country Review Report India Final Report

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14. JBIC (2005a) Supporting Sustainable Economic and Social Development of India, A Country That Has the Largest Impoverished Population; News Release; NR/2004-76, March 31, 2005 15. Simmons, C. and Supri, S. 1999, 'Failing Financial and Training Institutions: The Marginalization of Rural Household Enterprises in the Indian Punjab', Journal of Economic Issues, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 951-72. 16. UNDP (2003) Human Development Report 2003, 'Millenium Development Goals: A compact among nations to end human poverty', The Oxford University Press, New York. 17. White, S. 1999, Women's Employment in the Agro Food Processing Sector: South Asia and East Africa, Agha Khan Foundation Canada.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

VOLUMETRIC PRICING OF IRRIGATION WATER IN INDIA: EXPERIENCES AND LESSONS LEARNED

S. A. Kulkarni1

ABSTRACT Volumetric method of pricing irrigation water has always been advocated as the better approach to induce water savings by farmers. However, owing to seemingly technical and administrative complexities in adoption of the volumetric method - especially in large public canal irrigation systems, the area based pricing method is widespread in most countries. In India, during the last decade, there has been significant development in adoption of the volumetric supply and pricing through participatory irrigation management. Present paper provides a brief overview of international practices and the present status of irrigation water pricing and participatory irrigation management in India. A case study of volumetric allocation, supply and pricing adopted by a Water User Association (WUA) in the State of Maharashtra has been presented. The experiences and lessons learned from the case study and similar other WUAs have clearly demonstrated that a combination of volumetric supply and pricing at the entry point of a WUA command area and subsequent distribution and recovery on crop-areaseason basis by the WUA can become successful. Although, the much perceived objective of achieving water savings due to the volumetric pricing was not directly realized, there prevails a win-win situation both to the government department staff and WUAs /farmers. For irrigation staff, this approach has minimized the efforts in area measurement and vigilance on the area irrigated by farmers, and billing of irrigation charges has become simpler. From farmers’ side, as there is a full freedom of cropping pattern and the volumetric water charging system being transparent, they are willing to pay higher rates and use the available water efficiently by irrigating more area with same amount of water. Nevertheless, there is a vast scope to refine /upgrade the present system, especially in respect of increasing the accuracy and reliability of flow measurement. The concept of volumetric supply can gradually be introduced at individual farmer’s level by roping in available technology and farmers’ involvement. There is a particular need to strengthen the role of WUAs to equip them for the enhanced responsibilities which calls for a major capacity building exercise.

1- Director I, Central Office, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), New Delhi

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INTRODUCTION There are many methods of assessing irrigation water prices in different countries across the world; most common being - area based, crop and area based, volumetric, and market based methods. Charging of water on volumetric basis has been considered as superior approach to overcome deficiencies of charging by area based method. The volumetric pricing approach is considered to be conducive to create an incentive for efficient allocation and use of irrigation water and has been advocated by the World Bank and other international donors. The countries employing volumetric pricing approach include Australia, England, France, Israel, Jordan, Mexico, Morocco, Spain, and USA. In California, about 80 % of the more than 100 irrigation districts have shifted to volumetric charging system since the past 20 years (Burt, 2006). In these irrigation districts, the land holdings are large and water is distributed mostly through pipe network up to farm head. In Philippines volumetric charging is practiced as a means of achieving simplicity of billing (Cornish et al., 2004). There is a vast array of literature available on irrigation water pricing. Water pricing experiences across 22 countries for irrigation purposes have been presented by Dinar and Subramanian (1997). A literature survey on pricing of irrigation water was brought out by the World Bank (Johansson, 2000). The overview of worldwide experiences of water charging in irrigated agriculture is provided by Bosworth et al., (2002), Cornish and Perry (2003), and by Cornish et al., (2004). In Morocco, the water charges range from US$ 0.02 to 0.06 / m3 which correspond to about US$ 100 or more per hectare for typical field crops (Cornish and Perry, 2003). Perry (2001) reported volumetric water charges in Iran as US$ 0.004 /m3, which amounted to US$ 30-40/ha for wheat, barley and maize and US$ 90/ha for rice. He found that if volumetric prices are to be used to induce farmers to invest in improved on-farm technology (e.g. sprinkler, micro irrigation) to save water, these water charges would have to exceed US$ 0.08/m3 – a 20 fold increase – for the investment in on-farm water management to be profitable. It was thus observed that volumetric pricing in any form, in the absence of much higher water charges, will have very little impact on farmers’ choice of crop or choice of irrigation technology. As per the recent report of the Working Group on Financing Water for Agriculture (WWC, 2006), irrigation charges at a level necessary to cover O & M costs tend to be too low to affect farmer’s behavior and are useless as tool of water conservation. On the other hand, if the charges were raised to a level that would influence farmer’s behavior, it would be politically unacceptable. Paradoxically, raising the price of canal irrigation water could induce farmers to extract more water from groundwater sources, which is highly subsidized (notably in India) through free electricity for pumps leading to overexploitation of aquifers. Most water pricing literature has indicated that the extra cost of constructing flow measuring devices and related administration of measuring discharges, compilation and preparation of bills is often prohibitive, especially in large and spatially spread public irrigation system serving thousands of smallholders and thus the volumetric based

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charging system is not-worth-the-cost of its implementation. As a result, area based fixed rates are dominant in most irrigation systems. PRICING OF IRRIGATION WATER IN INDIA In India, pricing of irrigation water has been debated since long. Various committees and commissions have examined the issue from time to time and have given their recommendations. Irrigation commission (1972) recommended that the water rates should be 5% - 12% of the total value of farms produce, the lower percentage being applicable to food crops and higher for cash crops. Vaidyanathan Committee (1992) recommended a two-part tariff comprising a fixed charge applicable to entire command area as a membership charge, a variable charge based on area irrigated to recover annual operation and maintenance (O & M) cost, and 1% interest on the capital cost. Full cost recovery was recommended to be the ultimate goal. To accomplish this goal the needed changes were to be brought out in phases, eventually leading to pricing on volumetric basis supported by improvement of existing systems, creations of autonomous, financially self-reliant entities at the system level with participatory management by users. Eventually, some of the recommendations have been implemented by a few State Governments. The volumetric pricing of irrigation water is one among others. In India, all public irrigation systems are Government administered and there is no direct link between water charges and O & M cost. The water rates vary widely from State to State and are decided more as political decision. The water rates presently being charged are highly subsidized and are much less than even the recurring O & M expenses (CWC, 2004). In India, owing to its simplicity, charging of irrigation water on area basis is the most widespread practice. Considerations forming the basis for water charges on area basis include - source (surface water, groundwater), supply type (gravity, lift), season (rainy, winter and summer), type of crop (food grain, cash crops), duration of crop growing season (seasonal, two seasonal, and perennials), method of irrigation (drip, sprinkler), land classification (like wet and dry lands), and scale of the project (major, medium, and minor). In some States water charges are combined with land revenue while in some other electricity to pump groundwater for irrigation is provided free of cost. In some States there is no charging of water for irrigation purposes. In general, in India allocation for O & M are typically half or less of real O & M expenditure needs (CWC, 2004). The prevailing water charges range from about less than US$ 1 to $ 140 per hectare. Table 1 shows the water rates for paddy, wheat and sugarcane in canal command (flow irrigation) areas in major irrigating States of India.

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Table 1. Water charges range (lowest and highest) for some crops in India Irrigation water rates (Rs /ha) Sl. No.

State Paddy

Wheat

Sugarcane

1

Andhra Pradesh

247 – 494

----

247 – 494

2

Assam

281 – 751

----

222

3

Bihar

108 – 247

138 – 185

185 – 370

4

Gujarat

701 – 825

200 – 240

280 – 2750

5

Haryana

148

111 – 123

172 – 197

6

Jharkhand

108 – 217

138 – 185

370

7

Karnataka

247

148

988

8

Madhya Pradesh

200 – 494

200

741

9

Maharashtra

238

476

6297

10

Rajasthan

49 – 197

64 – 148

103 – 286

11

Tamil Nadu

37 – 49

----

49

12

Uttar Pradesh

40 – 287

128 – 287

99 – 474

PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT (PIM) IN INDIA The National Water Policy of India (MOWR, 2002) emphasizes that allocation of irrigation water should be done with due regard to equity, social justice and that the supply of water should be made on volumetric basis. Now many States have adopted Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) approach, where irrigation water is supplied to the Water User Associations (WUAs). As per the Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR), the Govt. of India, more than 60,000 WUAs covering about 12 million hectares have been formed in the country (personal communication). States where PIM has been adopted on a significant scale are Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. However, excepting the States of Maharashtra and Gujarat, the volumetric allocation and supply is yet to be adopted in other States. VOLUMETRIC PRICING IN MAHARASHTRA Maharashtra State, situated in the south-west of India has semi-arid climate and irrigation is essential to obtain assured and reasonable crop yields. Of the total cultivable area of 22.4 million hectares, some 1.26 million ha are irrigated by canal (surface) water (inclusive of 0.44 million ha by wells in the command area) (WRD, GOM, 2006a). As a part of water sector reforms, special campaigns were taken up to promote PIM by formation of WUAs in the public canal irrigation schemes.

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The first successful attempt of establishing a WUA in Mula project was made in Maharashtra in 1989. Since then the PIM movement has been spreading slowly but steadily in the State. At present, more than 1100 WUAs covering about 0.35 million hectares are fully functional (Damani et al., 2006). Beside this, more than 1500 WUAs covering 0.6 million ha were in pipeline. Figure 1 shows the growth of WUAs in Maharashtra.

1200 1000 800 600 No. of WUAs 400 200 0 2000-01

Area, million ha 2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

Figure 1. The growth of Water User Associations in Maharashtra State Maharashtra is one of the pioneering States in initiating supply and pricing of irrigation water on volumetric basis. As per the Maharastra State Water Policy, 2003, Maharashtra Management of Irrigation Systems by Farmers (MMISF) Act 2005, and Maharashtra Water Resources Regulatory Authority (MWRRA) Act, 2005, it is mandatory to allocate water to WUAs on volumetric basis. In the public canal irrigation schemes, water is supplied to the WUA at the minor (tertiary canal) head (an entry point of the WUA’s command area) and charged on volumetric basis. The WUA has the freedom to deliver water to its members either on crop-area or delivery time basis and also to determine rates to be paid by the members to the WUA. The farmers have freedom to grow crops of their choice and reuse the return groundwater (through percolation and seepage) through wells without any extra charge. Farmers generally make conjunctive use of canal and groundwater for irrigating their crops. Crops like vegetables and orchards which require irrigation at short intervals are often irrigated by groundwater, besides surface water made available during rotations. There is a provision that if water is not availed in a particular rotation or season, it can be saved / reserved and demanded in the next rotation or season. In order to promote the concept of volumetric supply and pricing, capacity building and training of field level functionaries, and farmers is taken up on regular basis. Seminars and workshops with the active involvement of NGOs and experts are held to orient and explain the technical and socio-economic aspects of volumetric pricing to engineers as well as farmers.

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FIXING OF VOLUMETRIC PRICING Allocation of water volume (quota) on seasonal and area basis varies from project to project and decided on the basis of- (i) Live storage capacity of the reservoir (ii) Evaporation losses from the reservoir (iii) Commitments /reservations for irrigation and non-irrigation uses both at upstream and downstream (iv) Cropping pattern in different seasons, and (v) Conveyance losses in canal and distribution network. In Maharashtra, the volumetric charges for bulk water supply have been so fixed that the assessment on the volumetric rate and the prevailing crop-area-season rate almost matches. The volumetric rates vary as per the season – low in monsoon (kharif) season and high in summer (hot weather) season. The present volumetric rates in the State are Rs. 47.6/103 m3 for kharif season (1 July to 14 October), Rs. 71.4/103 m3 for rabi season (15 October to 28 February), and Rs. 144.8/103 m3 for hot weather season (1 March to 30 June). These volumetric rates are applicable until the next revision of the crop area rates. A comparison of water rates on crop-area-season and volumetric basis is shown in table 2. FLOW MEASURING DEVICES IN CANALS In India, the tradition of flow measurement in canals is in vogue since more than a centaury, and the conventional measuring devices like Standing Wave Flume (SWF), Parshall Flumes, Orifices and V notches are generally used. In some States, the measuring devices are not constructed separately, but only the gauges .are installed in the canals. The discharges are then computed by using Manning's or other empirical formula. In Maharashtra, in most of the irrigation projects, the discharge measurement data of main canals, branch canals /distributaries is routinely maintained. A SWF was installed on Mutha canal in 1928. Since then the SWF is normally provided on all canals and distribution system having discharging capacity more than 0.15 cumecs. Later in 1970s, under the World Bank and USAID assisted programmes, Parshall and Cut-Throat Flumes were introduced for measuring flow below 0.15 cumecs. Manuals and Standards on design and construction of measuring devices have been prepared by the Department. Irrigation engineers are trained in the subject at the State’s Water and Land Management Institute (WALMI) on regular basis. A typical installation of a SWF on a minor in the Waghad project is shown in figure 2.

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Table 2. Comparison of water rates on crop-area-season and volumetric basis (Adopted from Damani et al., 2006) Water rates on crop-area basis Water rates on volumetric basis Season

Crops (Rs./ha)

(US$ /ha)*

(Rs./103 m3)

(US$ /103 m3)*

Millet

238

5.3

47.6

1.06

Sorghum

238

5.3

47.6

1.06

Peanut

724

16.0

47.6

1.06

Rice- paddy

724

16.0

47.6

1.06

Wheat

476

10.6

71.4

1.6

Sorghum

357

8.0

71.4

1.6

Gram

476

10.6

71.4

1.6

Twoseasonal

Kharif and Rabi crops (e.g. Cotton)

724

16.0

59.5

1.3

Hot weather

Peanut

1438

32.0

144

3.2

Perennial

Sugarcane

6297

140

87.7

1.9

Kharif

Rabi

* (1 US$ § Rs. 45)

Figure 2. A view of a Standing Wave Flume in operation (left) and a gauge chamber (right)

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VOLUMETRIC PRICING IN JAI JAGDAMBA WATER USER ASSOCIATION – A CASE STUDY Waghad dam located in the north Maharashtra is one of the four dams that comprise the Upper Godavari Project. The dam was constructed in 1979 with a live storage capacity of its reservoir as 72 million cubic meters. Water is conveyed through two main canals viz., a 45 km long Right Bank Canal and a 15 km long Left Bank Canal. The culturable command area of the Waghad irrigation scheme is 9642 ha and the irrigable command is 6750 hectare. There are 24 WUAs covering the entire command area of the scheme. Recently, the entire project has been transferred to a Project Level Association (PLA) by forming a ‘Federation of Water User Associations’ under ‘Maharashtra Management of Irrigation Systems by Farmers (MMISF) Act 2005’. Water is supplied to the PLA at the main canal head on volumetric basis, which is further distributed among WUAs as per their sanctioned quota. The water quota allocation for kharif and rabi season in the Waghad command has been worked out as 1360 cubic meter/ha and 1648 cubic meter/ha for kharif and rabi seasons, respectively (Belsare, personal communication). Jai Jagdamba Water User Association is one of the 24 WUAs of the Waghad Irrigation scheme and was formed in 1997. The command area of the WUA is 338 ha and receives water from two minors (minor No. 16 and 17) and three direct outlets (19A, 20 and 21) of a distributary. There are 162 beneficiary farmers belonging to three near by villages. Originally, the Waghad system was planned and designed for supplying water only for two seasons (kharif, and rabi) and mostly for providing supplemental irrigation to cereal crops. The agreed upper limit of water volume (quota) allocated to the Jai Jagadamba WUA following the agreed norms is 166 x 103 m3 for kharif season, and 356 x 103 m3 for rabi season. However, the WUA has freedom to use any amount of water within the total allocated quota (522 x 103 m3) during any season and also to grow crops as per farmers’ preference. Subsequently, all farmers shifted to cash crops (sugarcane, grapevines, vegetables, and flowers) with food grain crops grown on small area. As per the provision, if the WUA saves from the allocated water quota of either kharif and/or rabi season, it is entitled to get the balance volume of water (after consideration of evaporation and other losses) for irrigating crops in the hot weather season. Generally, there is no demand for water in kharif season as rain water and groundwater are sufficient to satisfy crop water requirement. There are 176 open wells and 64 bore wells in the command area of the WUA. Conjunctive use of water is extensively practiced, meaning crops are irrigated both from canal water and groundwater. The WUA receives bulk water on volumetric basis as per the overall water quota allocation policy of the Waghad Project and subject to the actual storages in the reservoir. Individual members receive water as per their sanctioned area and schedule - prepared prior to each irrigation rotation by the WUA. Internal distribution of water, assessment and recovery of charges rests with the WUA. Members are charged on crop-area basis while the WUA pays to the Department on volumetric basis. Table 3 shows an abstract of area irrigated and water supplied to the WUA in each of the three rotations in the hot weather season- 2005-06.

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Table 3. Crop wise area irrigated and water supplied in hot weather season (2005-06) Area irrigated in rotation (Hectare) Crop

1st (3 to 9 April 2006)

2nd (11 to 16 May 2006)

3rd (28 and 29 May 2006)

Grape Vines

32.7

39

11.6

Vegetables

11.8

11.20

1.3

Others

5.92

6.8

0.8

Sub total

50.42

57.0

13.7

Water supplied to the WUA (103 m3)

102.6

113.4

27.1

A sample discharge measurement record of the minor 16 for the rotation 2 as maintained by the Water Resource Department and the WUA is shown in table 4. Table 4. Record of gauge reading (H) and corresponding flow (Q) of the SWF at the minor 16 for the rotation 2 Gauge reading at the hour

Average Volume

Date 6

9

12

15

18

21

24

3

6

(H)

-

0.55

0.55

0.52

0.48

0.48

0.48

0.48

0.47

(Q)

-

7.15

7.15

6.45

5.81

5.81

5.81

5.81

5.62

(H)

0.47

0.47

0.46

0.46

0.52

0.58

0.58

0.58

0.58

(Q)

5.62

5.62

5.45

5.45

6.45

7.75

7.75

7.75

7.75

(H)

0.55

0.55

0.55

0.55

0.55

0.55

0.55

0.55

0.52

(Q)

7.15

7.15

7.15

7.15

7.15

7.15

7.15

7.15

6.45

(H)

0.58

0.55

0.46

0.42

0.38

0.55

0.6

0.58

0.58

(Q)

7.75

7.15

5.45

4.75

4.1

7.15

8.15

7.75

7.75

(H)

0.58

0.62

0.48

0.42

0.44

0.55

0.48

0.42

0.42

(Q)

7.75

8.15

5.91

4.75

5.09

7.15

5.91

4.75

4.75

(H)

0.42

0.4

0.34

0.32

0.45

0.2

-

-

-

(Q)

4.75

4.45

3.49

3.18

5.27

1.57

-

-

-

(Day-Cusecs) (103 m3)

11/5/2006 4.91

12.2

6.62

16.2

7

17.1

6.67

16.3

6.02

14.7

2.26

5.52

33.48

82

12/5/206

13/5/2006

14/5/2006

15/5/2006

16/5/2006 Total

The rotation and season wise volume of water supplied to the Jai Jagadamba WUA and corresponding area irrigated during the last five years (2001 to 2006) is shown in table 5.

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Table 5. Season and rotation wise water supplied to the WUA and area irrigated Year

Season

Irrigation rotation No.

Volume supplied to the WUA (103 m3)

Area Irrigated (ha)

Av. water withdrawal at the minor head (m3/ha)

1

65.1

31.8

2047

2

84

38

2211

3

117.8

55.5

2123

4

83.5

40.1

2082

1

102.6

50.42

2035

2

113.4

57

1989

3

27.1

13.7

1978

1

42.29

18.9

2238

2

86.1

38.6

2231

3

110.8

52.6

2106

1

115.3

56.1

2055

2

96.5

47.3

2040

3

26.7

11.34

2354

1

92.3

43.1

2142

2

112.2

53.7

2089

1

97.6

46.9

2081

2

68.8

33.2

2072

1

136.5

59.1

2310

2

142.3

74.2

1918

3

87

45.3

1921

1

120

57.1

2102

1

78.3

35.9

2181

2

124

66.5

1865

1

120.4

59

2041

Rabi 2005-06

Hot Weather

Rabi 2004-05 Hot Weather

Rabi 2003-04 Hot Weather

Rabi 2002-03 Hot Weather Rabi 2001-02 Hot Weather

As can be seen from the table 5 that the area irrigated in each rotation varied from 11 ha to 74 ha during the last five years. On an average about 2000 cubic meter was used to irrigate a hectare (at minor head). As mentioned elsewhere, conjunctive use of surface and groundwater is extensively practiced in the command of the Jai Jagadamba WUA and in the hot weather season about 166 hectares were irrigated by wells, indicating significant reuse of recharged water. Some farmers have constructed farm ponds to store

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rain water and in some cases irrigation water. Grapevines are grown on about 130 hectares and almost all the area is irrigated by drip system. The computation of water charges for the hot weather season (2005-06) to be paid by the WUA to the Water Resources Department is shown in table 6. Table 6. Assessment of water charges by the Water Resources Department to the WUA for the hot weather season 2005-06 Local cess

Total water delivered to the WUA (103 m3)

Water rate

Amount

(Rs./103 m3)

(Rs.)

(20% of the amount in column 3, Rs.)

Total water charges to be paid by the WUA (Rs.)

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

243.1

144.8

35,200.90

7040.2

42,241.00 (US$ 939)

The Water Resources Department gives a rebate of 20% on the total charges to WUAs as a grant and a further rebate of 5% is given if the WUA pays the water charges by 15 October of that year. The Jai Jagadamba WUA charges Rs. 750 /ha for all crops in the rabi season and Rs. 1075 /ha /rotation for all crops in hot weather season to its members. The amount charged for the hot weather season (2005-06) was Rs 130,203 thus leaving profit of Rs .87,962 (inclusive of the rebates as above) to the WUA.

EXPERIENCES AND LESSONS LEARNED The volumetric pricing has been proved as a win-win approach both to Water Resources Department and WUAs /farmers. Generally, there has been a positive attitudinal shift towards volumetric pricing among Department personnel –from the top administration to the lower level field staff. Some experiences and lessons learned in implementation of the volumetric supply and pricing in Maharashtra state are briefed as follows: WATER RESOURCES DEPARTMENT Initially, engineers had a feeling that the farmers, being illiterate would not understand the discharge measurement procedure and hence it would be difficult to implement the volumetric supply. Many field engineers used to complain that the farmers tend to tamper /break the measuring devices and hence there is no point in constructing /repairing them. Some field officers had an apprehension that once the volumetric supply system is introduced they will be fully accountable in delivering the committed quota and flexibility in supply to the WUAs. As accounting of water is in-built in the volumetric supply system, assessing water charges and preparing bills became simple and time /cost saving. As the scheduling of water, maintenance of the system below the minor head and recovery of water charges from individual farmers is taken care by the WUAs, there has been a decline in number of complains from farmers. The tedious task of measurement of irrigated areas of every

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farmer in each rotation has been curtailed. Both, the Department and the WUAs jointly keep record of flow measurement at the minor head. The assessment and billing can be done quickly without waiting for measurement /verification of actual irrigated areas. As the measurement of discharges at different points of the canal network become mandatory, it provides factual information on the extent of conveyance losses in the system. WUAS AND FARMERS WUAs / farmers have incentive to apply water efficiently and water thus saved can be used to irrigate additional area and /or for the next season. Tail end farmers who were earlier deprived of getting reliable and adequate water supply are now getting assured and equitable supply. The WUAs have developed a confidence as they know about the quantum of water being used by them in a transparent manner. The water charges are payable for an actual volume received at the minor head. The recharge due to seepage /percolation of water in the command area of the project is available for reuse, free of charge. Some farmers feel that the measuring devices obstruct /reduce the flows due to constriction /hump and hence they tamper or break the measuring device. When explained properly with field demonstration that they are required to pay only for actual quantity of water supplied /received by them, most of the farmers /WUAs were convinced and accepted the volumetric supply. Once the farmers understand the full implications of measurement of discharge, they insist on charging water on volumetric basis, instead of crop-area basis. This has created a sort of competition among WUAs for irrigating more and more area with the same volume of water. REGULATORY PROVISIONS To adopt volumetric supply, a regulatory framework for allocating water among farmers, acts, rules and procedures defining rights and responsibilities, priorities in case of shortage or excess supplies, penalties for breach of rules greatly help empower both irrigation officials and WUAs. CAPACITY BUILDING AND TRAINING Capacity building and training of the field staff of the Water Resource Department, office bearers, farmers and employees of the WUAs in understanding the volumetric pricing, measurement of discharge, calculation of volumes and preparation of bills, maintenance of flow measuring devices, crop water requirement, efficient on-farm irrigation methods, measuring losses in canals and water courses will go a long way in building confidence and competence among them.

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FLOW MEASURING STRUCTURES Some common deficiencies in construction and maintenance of measuring devices as observed are as follows: Construction: The throat width of the flumes is altered during or after the construction due to application of a cement plaster layer. The gauge chamber is not properly constructed. The gauge sill levels are not connected to the hump or sills of the measuring device i.e. the zero level of the gauge does not tally with hump level. The distance of the gauge from the throat sill is not kept as per design. The pipe connecting the canal to the gauge chamber is either choked or provided with higher diameter than the design or at times the pipe is not provided at all. The fluming on upstream and down streamside is sometime not done with care and as per the geometrics of the device. In some cases the measuring structure is installed at incorrect location where required approach conditions do not prevail. Operation and Maintenance: Measuring devices are not properly calibrated. Most of the flumes work under submergence condition. Gauge chambers are filled with debris and are not maintained on regular basis. Gauges are either damaged or not painted regularly. In case of chambers in deep cutting, the stairs /steps to go down for gauge reading are damaged. The sills /humps of measuring structures are generally broken or damaged. The downstream section is rough, filled with debris, which obstructs the formation of a standing wave or jump. WAY FORWARD Volumetric supply and pricing of irrigation water in India is still at experimental stage and has to go a long way before it becomes a widely accepted and an integral component of WUA’s operation. The case study has amply demonstrated that farmers are willing to pay higher water charges provided the supplies are reliable, flexible, equitable and there is a transparency in the billing system. In the Waghad project, a few WUAs have gone one step ahead by practicing internal distribution of water on hourly basis instead of crop-area basis (proxy volumetric approach). Nevertheless, the political will, quality of service, and leadership are the buzzwords to make it happen. There is a need to make the flow measurements more accurate, reliable and the structures more robust. The flow measuring device may be equipped with an automatic water level recorder /totalizer to account for fluctuating flow rates and convert those into volumes. Deficiencies in the construction and maintenance of the measuring structures need to be removed. Some innovative flow measuring devices may be tried. There is a need to provide water level regulating structures in the canal network to maintain stable flows at the measuring points. Capacity building and training of all concerned – Department personnel and farmers should continue. With the given scenario, one can hope of using volumetric water pricing as a tool to bring about water savings in reality. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The Author is grateful to Mr. M. Gopalakrishnan, Secretary General, ICID for his encouragement in preparation of the paper. Thanks are due to Dr. Sanjay Belsare, Executive Engineer and Er. Avinash Lokhande, Section Officer, Palkhed Irrigation Division, Nashik, Maharashtra for providing information and data related to Jai Jagadamba Water User Association.

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REFERENCES 1. Bosworth B., G. Cornish, C. Perry, F. van Steenbergen (2002): Water Charging in Irrigated Agriculture – Lessons from the literature, DFID, HR Wallingford, Report OD 145 2. Cornish G. B., Bosworth, C. Perry, and J. Burke (2004): Water Charging in Irrigated Agriculture – An analysis of international experience, FAO Report 28 3. Central Water Commission (2004): Pricing of Water in Public System in India, Information Systems Organisation, Information Technology Directorate, Water Planning & Projects Wing, Central Water Commission, New Delhi 4. Belsare S. M., Executive Engineer, Palkhed Irrigation Division, Nashik, Maharashtra (personal communication) 5. Damani R .L, Purandare P. V., Purandare V. P., and Ingle A. P. (2006): Volumetric Supply and Pricing of Irrigation water: Scenario in Maharashtra, Paper presented at the Workshop on Volumetric supply and Pricing of Canal Water, December 2006, SOPPECOM, Pune, Maharashtra, India 6. Dinar A., and A. Subramanian (1997): Water Pricing Experiences – An International Perspective, World Bank Technical Paper No. 386 7. Johansson R. C. (2000): Pricing Irrigation Water – A literature Survey, Policy Research Working Paper 2449, The World Bank 8. Ministry of Water Resources (2002): National Water Policy, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India, . 9. Perry, C. J. (2001): Charging for Irrigation Water: the Issues and Options with a Case Study from Iran, Research Report 52, IWMI, Colombo 10. Vaidyanathan, A. (1992): Report of the Committee on Pricing of Irrigation Water, Planning Commission, Govt. of India, New Delhi 11. Water and Land Management Institute (2004): National Workshop on Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) and Volumetric Measurement, 2-3 July 2004, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India. 12. Water Resources Department (2006a): Report on Water Audit of Irrigation Projects in Maharashtra, Government of Maharashtra, India 13. Water Resources Department (2006b): Report on Benchmarking of Irrigation Projects in Maharashtra, Government of Maharahstra, India 14. World Water Council (2006): Financing Water For Agriculture, Working Group on Financing Water for Agriculture, Progress Report No. 1, <www.worldwatercouncil.org>

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

PARTICIPATING THE FARMERS ON OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE IRRIGATION NETWORKS SYSTEM IN CENTRAL JAVA AND WEST NUSA TENGGARA PROVINCES

Mohd. Ali Fulazzaky1 and Slamet Imam Wahyudi2

ABSTRACT According to the Law No. 7/2004 on water resources, the irrigation networks management in Indonesia consists: the feasibility, environmental impact and masterplan studies; construction step; operation and maintenance phase as well as the monitoring and evaluation. Implementing the irrigation management especially in the paddy field areas which needed a huge water consumption and request of involving the stakeholders for each step of the management processes. Therefore, the national policy also as mentioned in the Government Regulation No. 20/2006 declared that the central and local governments recognize the role of the water user associations (WUAs) to carry out the irrigation networks system management based on farmers’ participation approach. This paper elaborates several researches for analysis and evaluation of the farmers’ participation on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system in two provinces in Indonesia: Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara. The methodology of researches is respectively following the several steps i.e examining the population survey of the defined sampling locations, distributing the questionnaires and collecting the feedback responses of the farmers, and collecting the other relevant data as well as analyzing the validated data and evaluating the farmers’ participation levels. The research is also conducting the secondary data of the existing studies, including in the Yogyakarta special province region. The appreciation of the farmers’ participation assess through the role of WUAs at the planning, performing, and evaluating processes as the parts of operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system management and representing the presence or absence as well as the aptitude of the farmers in the meetings and supporting the examination of the records related in the locations of study. This research giving the general responses of the farmers’ participation at the planning and performing processes respectively as indicating the scores of 2.77 and 2.80 and classifying the moderate categories as well as at the evaluating process as indicating the 1- Water and Wastewater Senior Expert: Indonesian Ministry of Public Works, Jakarta – Indonesia and Lecturer at the UTHM Johor – Malaysia, email: [email protected] 2- Lecturer and Researcher et the Sultan Agung Islamic University, Semarang – Indonesia, email: [email protected]

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score of 3.2 and classifying the high category. A general remark of the farmers’ response on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system management in two provinces can be summarized as following: 42% of farmers is categorized as high participation, 16% as moderate participation, 32% as low participation and 10% as very low participation. Key words: farmers’ participation, irrigation network system, operation and maintenance INTRODUCTION The irrigation networks system management in Indonesia consists: the feasibility and environmental assessment impact studies; masterplan and detail plan preparations; construction step; and monitoring and evaluation phases as well as the operation and maintenance. Especially, the operation and maintenance phases have to be very close related to the irrigated agricultural field activities which needed a huge water consumption and involving the participation of the farmers as an important stakeholders. As highlighted in the government regulation and other national policies, one side, the farmer’s participation on the irrigation management is being in order targeting the reduction of the annual government budget and, the other side, increasing the sense of belonging of the farmers and with care handling the maintenance of the irrigation network infrastructures. One of the oldest farmers’ participation through the WUA’s organization in Indonesia is known as the “Subak” system in Bali island. The Subak is a traditional irrigation management institution of the irrigation networks system and founding as a socioreligious agricultural communities, it has been being more than one thousand year ago. The institution of the Subak system is a simple organization and corresponding the irrigated paddy field areas. In general, the system consists: Pekaseh (Chairman), Petajuh (Vice Chairman), Penyarikan (Secretary), Juru Raksa (Treasurer) and Juru Arah (Messenger). In general cases, the Subak communities meetings have to be assigned an agreement of irrigated water allocations and food productivity targets, especially for increasing the annual rice production (Sutawan, 1995). According to the Law No. 7/2004 on water resources as highlighted in the Article 84, that the farmers have to be an equal opportunity taking part in the water resources management process i.e in the studies, planning, construction, operation and maintenance steps as well as in the monitoring and evaluation of the water resources management activities. In the Government Regulation No. 20/2006 related to realization of the irrigation management in Indonesia, the government admits the farmer’s participation through the role of the WUAs as the formal institutions to carry out the irrigation networks system management, i.e. planning, construction, rehabilitation, and operation and maintenance, as well as financing the irrigation networks system. It seems that the newly government policy has a good relevancy with the classic statement: “every body has a tendency to carry out all of the activities when he has to be participating in each step of management and decision making processes” (Davies, 1982). According to the government regulation and policy also as mentioned in the Ministry of Home Affairs Decree No. 50/2001 and confirming the existing relevant studies such as

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the study on water resources management program that has been executed under the Water Resources Sector Capacity Building Project, the WUA’s participation on operation and maintenance of the irrigation network system representing by participating the farmers at the planning, performing and evaluating processes. OBJECTIVES This paper synthesizes several studies by exploiting the thesis of the students of civil engineering master of sciences program from both the Sultan Agung Islamic University and Gadjah Mada University and mainly based on the researches which have been carried out for analyzing the operation and maintenance performance of the irrigation networks system in Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara provinces, with the objectives of: x understanding and describing the farmers’ participation for operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system management; x defining the farmers’ participation levels at the planning, performing and evaluating processes of operation and maintenance performance of the irrigation networks system; and x assessing the farmers’ participation impact on the planning, performing and evaluating processes of operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system management. The recommendations of each research have been contributed to the local governments as well as to the related WUAs as a supporting input for the decision making process at the policy and operational levels and improving the operation and maintenance performance of the irrigation networks system – especially in order to increase the participation of farmers located in two provinces: Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara, the points of view as operators and also in the same time as investors under the framework of the national food security program. SCOPES AND LOCATIONS The substances of this paper based on the researches in two provinces i.e Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara are only limited on the farmers’ participation at the planning, performing and evaluating processes of the operation and maintenance phases of the irrigation networks system management and also supporting the existing other relevant researches. The locations of study consist: the irrigation networks system management in Purworejo, Banyumas, Kendal and Kudus districts in Central Java province and irrigation networks system management in Sumbawa Besar and West Lombok districts in West Nusa Tenggara province, as showing in the map of the Figure 1. For completing the transcription being supported by the additional information coming from the researches of the farmers’ participation on irrigation and sustainable infrastructures management located in Gunung Kidul and Sleman districts – Yogyakarta special province.

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Figure 1. Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara provinces, the locations of study of the irrigation networks system management METHODOLOGY The procedure of the researches was systematically conducting the chronological experimentation stages i.e defining the locations, surveying the population and mapping, preparing the questionnaires, distributing the questionnaires and data collection as well as analyzing the data and evaluation. Analyzing the farmers’ participation levels at the planning, performing and evaluating processes of operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system management, as following: x Participating the farmers at the planning process indicated by monitoring the physical presence of the farmers in the meetings, contributing the ideas in the discussions, adopting the documents for the operation and maintenance plans, proposing the water allocation for irrigation purposes, proposing the plantation pattern proposal, and controlling the irrigation scheme which required for maintenance; x Participating the farmers at the performing process indicated by cooperating between the farmers and the construction service providers, involving the farmers for the maintenance works, involving the farmer in the projects hand-over process, implementing the water user payment policy for the farmers, and supporting the operational of the water gates by the farmers; and x Participating the farmers on the evaluating process indicated by reporting the illegal water uses by the farmers, reporting the destruction of irrigation

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infrastructures by the farmers, reporting the conflicts of water uses and it solutions by the farmers, number of farmers as member of WUA and following the trainings, meetings and socialization programs that initiated both by the governments or NGOs. The responses coming from the farmers were collected by the researchers based on distributed questionnaires for the random sampling areas and sampling clusters. Wherein, the sampling areas were selected a number locations of the irrigation networks system i.e four locations in Central Java and two locations in West Nusa Tenggara provinces and for the sampling clusters, the responses were collected from both the WUA’s organizers and members. The data analysis and evaluation resulting the farmers’ participation levels have been carried out by applying the criteria consist of 5 participation levels as showed in Table I (Arikunto, 1992 and Sugiono, 2002). The responses of the farmers’ participation were coming from 1,000 respondents and classified into five categories, as: very high; high; moderate, low; and very low. Table I. Criteria of the farmers’ participation level No

Score range value based on standard deviation

Farmers’ participation score

Category

1

mean + 1,5 SD to mean + 2,5 SD

>4 to 5

very high

2

mean + 0,5 SD to mean + 1,5 SD

>3 to 4

high

3

mean - 0,5 SD to mean + 0,5 SD

>2 to 3

moderate

4

mean - 1,5 SD to mean - 0,5 SD

>1 to 2

low

5

mean - 2,5 SD to mean - 1,5 SD

up to1

very low

Note: mean is average score and SD is standard deviation

PARTICIPATING THE FARMERS AT THE PLANNING PROCESS A number of researches with different variables and points of view concerning the correlation between farmers’ participation and irrigation management performance has been studied in several region in Indonesia. The researches of the farmers’ participation on irrigation and sustainable infrastructures management located in Gunung Kidul and Playen water district in Sleman – Yogyakarta Special Province have been reported that the leadership and communication factors as well as the ecological and social-economic factors affected the farmers’ participation level and influencing the sustainability of the irrigation networks system management (Sudaryanto, 2006). The researches giving the general response of the farmers’ participation at the planning process as indicating the score of 2.77 and classifying the moderate category, with the detail responses of the farmers are: 43 % of high; 5 % of moderate; 38 % of low; and 14

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% of very low categories, as showed in Figure 2. An enthusiasm of the farmers for participation at the planning process is important taking account to consider and sharing their aspiration for achieving the rightful and proportional water allocation entire the river basin catchment area.

3

35 30 25 20 15

2

10 5 0

0.5

2.5

1.5 1

percentage of farmers'participation, % score of participation

lo w ve ry

ra te od e

hi gh

m

lo w

0

hi g ve ry

score of participat

50 45 40

h

percent of participat

participating the farmers in planning

participation level

Figure 2. Profile of participating the farmers at the planning process

PARTICIPATING THE FARMERS AT THE PERFORMING PROCESS Participating the farmers through the related WUAs for construction of the simple infrastructures giving a good participative model for maintaining after construction the public investments both constructed by the local and central governments, whereby the farmers’ participation is kindly to carry out maintenance of the simple infrastructures. The important factors were hereby remarked under influence of the role of the technical assistants and the guidance from the government direction as well as the educational level of the farmers (Purwadi, 2003). The general response of the farmers for participation studied at the performing process of operation and maintenance indicating the score of 2.80 and classifying the moderate category, with the detail responses of the farmers are: 35 % of high; 15 % of moderate; 45 % of low; and 5 % of very low categories, as showed in Figure 3. By analyzing the farmers’ response of the studies which was carried out in the starting period of water resources reform, it could be optimistic predicted that will be increasing for the next years to come and, relevant with the law and government policies, participating the stakeholders will be making as an urgent request in the all of irrigation activities in Indonesia for the next time.

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3 2.5 2

percent of participation

50 40 30

1.5 1 0.5 0

20 10

score of participation

lo w

lo w

percentage of farmers' participation, %

ve ry

od er at e

hi gh

m

ve ry

hi g

h

0

score of participation

participating the farmers in performing

participation level

Figure 3. Profile of participating the farmers at the performing process The participation of the WUAs for the routine and periodic maintenances as well as the operational activities and irrigation financing has been reported as a good image in Purworejo district – Central Java (Yuliani, 2003) and participating the farmers for implementation of the water rights, according the Law No. 7/2004, has been analyzed for the irrigation networks system management that was reported around 80 % of the farmers agreed with the water right principles and participating the farmers for water retribution fee was really remarked yield up to 45% (Istianah, 2005). PARTICIPATING THE FARMERS AT THE EVALUATING PROCESS The prospects of irrigation management hand-over confirming the national policy as highlighted in the Law No. 7/2004 and the Government Regulation No. 20/2006 to carry out taking over the responsibility of the irrigation management from the local government to the WUA’s authority have been studied at the Mamak irrigation district in Sumbawa – West Nusa Tenggara. It was reported that the capability of the farmers for irrigation networks system management mainly depending the WUA’s institution performance and then following the irrigation services management; agro-business climate condition; irrigation networks system condition; and conflicts resolution management (Wirawan, 2003). The performance of operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system has been analyzed in Kendal – Central Java. The technical factors i.e the accuracy of equipments for measuring the stream’s flow; physical condition of the irrigation networks system; and illegal irrigation water losses as well as the non-technical factors i.e decentralization autonomous policy; unmatched plantation patterns; lack of the guidance from the local government; and low level of farmers’ participation on operation and maintenance activities of the irrigation networks system clearly influenced to irrigated field management (Sunaryono, 2004). The general response of the farmers for participation at the evaluating process as reported in these researches indicating the score 3.20 and classifying the high category, with the detail responses of the farmers are: 47 % of high; 29 % of moderate; 13 % of

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low; and 11 % of very low categories, as showed in Figure 4. As showing by high appreciation of the farmers, it can be recommended that improving the participation of the farmers as principal stakeholders at the evaluating process for certain locations of low interest should be considered in the local government policy for the years to come.

percent of participation

50

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

40 30 20 10

score of participation

lo w

lo w

percentage of farmers' participation, %

ve ry

od er at e

hi gh

m

ve ry

hi g

h

0

score of participation

participating the farmers in evaluating

participation level

Figure 4. Profile of participating the farmers at the evaluating process

PARTICIPATING THE FARMERS ON OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE IRRIGATION NETWORKS SYSTEM A research of the farmers’ participation level at the upper Progo river basin in Central Java has been reported the different characteristics of each steps of operation and maintenance activities. Participating the farmers for the steps of the decision making and planning processes was monitored dominating the WUA’s organizers, while the participation of the members of WUA was being passive. For performing step, it was observed a nice proportional correlation between the ownership of the land paddy areas and farmers’ participation level. According to the existing research, the farmers who have more the land areas participate more active on all of operation and maintenance activities of the irrigation networks system (Mulyani, 1996). According to this synthetic research, the total general response of the farmers for participation on the operation and maintenance activities of the irrigation networks system management can be optimistic classified by the moderate category, with the analyzed detail responses of the farmers’ participation at the planning, performing and evaluating processes are: 41.7 % of high; 16.3 % of moderate; 32 % of low; and 10 % of very low categories, as showed in Figure 5. A good response of the farmers on operation and maintenance processes of the irrigation networks system management is important to consider the participation of them for other activities of water resources management due to a huge surface water consumption of the irrigated paddy field land, such as in the water resources conservation program, the river basin water resources planning, the water quality management and pollution control program, etc.

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score of participation

lo w

lo w

percentage of farmers' participation, %

ve ry

od er at e

m

ve ry

hi g

h

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

score of participation

50 40 30 20 10 0

hi gh

percent of participation

participating the farmers in operation and maintenance

participation level

Figure 5. Profile of participating the farmers on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system CORRELATION BETWEEN FARMERS’ PARTICIPATION AND OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE IRRIGATION NETWORK SYSTEM MANAGEMENT Carrying out the scoring the data of the farmers’ participation at the planning, performing and evaluating processes. It is possible to be analyzed the performance of operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system management both in Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara. And assessing the correlation between the farmers’ participation and the operation and maintenance performance in this research, by following the F-test and supporting the SPSS-11’s software. Analyzing the value of the F-test giving the Fcalculate is 51.56 and Ftheory is 2.71, there for Fcalculate >> Ftheory. It can be concluded that the farmers’ participation at the planning, performing and evaluating processes has a positive impact on the operation and maintenance performance. Regarding this reason, the participation of farmers really increases the performance of the agricultural management at the irrigated paddy field in Indonesia. CONCLUDING REMARKS For ensuring the national food security, the Government of the Republic of Indonesia desires for increasing the food production to achieve the national rice self-sufficiency and the efforts are relevant with several literatures as remarked by the popular slogan of: “more crops per drop” as an international statement for balancing between the food and the world population growth. Implementing the on going water resources reform policy remarked by issuing the Law No. 7/2004. Herein, the farmers’ participation becomes the important issues for improving the performance of the irrigation management – especially on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system. Several researches have been carried out for different locations in Indonesia for evaluation the farmers’ participation on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system by different analysis methods and clearly concluding the positive

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impact. This synthetic research was carry out at six water districts in two provinces i.e Central Java and West Nusa tenggara, the results also showing that a good correlation between the farmers’ participation and the performance of operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system in Indonesia. REFERENCES 1. Sutawan, N., 1995.; Water management in Bali island by Subak system, National Seminar on Water Resources Management, Udayana University, Denpasar – Bali, Indonesia 2. Davies, A., 1998.; A model for planning and conducting activities, The training of adult and community educators, Australian Association of Adult Education, Canberra, Australia 3. Arikunto, S., 1992.; Prosedur penelitian – Suatu pendekatan praktek, PT. Bina Aksara, Jakarta, Indonesia 4. Sugiono., 2002.; Statistik untuk penelitian, Affabeta, Bandung, Indonesia 5. Sudaryanto, E., 2006.; Effect of the farmer participatory on the operation and maintenance performances of the irrigation scheme management, Thesis, Civil Engineering Magister of Sciences Program, Sultan Agung Islamic University, Semarang, Indonesia 6. Purwadi., 2003.; Analysis of role of the construction supervisor and community officer on the participatory construction method implemented by the water users associations (WUAs), Thesis, Civil Engineering Master of Sciences Program, Sultan Agung Islamic University, Semarang, Indonesia 7. Yuliani, T., 2003.; Kajian parameter operasional dan pemeliharaan partisipatif untuk Perkumpulan Petani Pemakai Air (P3A) – Studi kasus daerah irigasi Boro – Kabupaten Purworejo, Thesis, Civil Engineering Master of Sciences Program, Sultan Agung Islamic University, Semarang, Indonesia 8. Istianah., 2005.; Kajian pelaksanaan Undang-Undang No 7 Tahun 2004 berkaitan dengan hak guna air di Kecamatan Undaan – Kabupaten Kudus, Thesis, Civil Engineering Master of Sciences Program, Sultan Agung Islamic University, Semarang, Indonesia 9. Wirawan., 2003.; Kajian prospek pelaksanaan kebijakan penyerahan kewenangan pengelolaan irigasi kepada P3A – Studi kasus daerah irigasi Mamak – Kabupaten Sumbawa, Thesis, Post-graduate Program – Gadjah Mada University – Yogyakarta, Indonesia 10. Sunaryono, C., 2004.; Faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap kinerja jaringan irigasi Sojomerto – Kabupaten Kendal, Thesis, Civil Engineering Magister of Sciences Program, Sultan Agung Islamic University, Semarang, Indonesia 11. Mulyani, S., 1996, Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi derajat partisipasi P3A pada implementasi program penyerahan irigasi kecil (PIK) pada Cabang Dinas Progo Hulu – Kabupaten Magelang, Thesis, Post-graduate Program – Gadjah Mada University – Yogyakarta, Indonesia

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

TESTING P+PR CONTROL SYSTEM FOR PARTICIPATION OF WATER USERS IN DELIVERY MANAGEMENT

Mohammad Javad Monem1, Mohammad Sadegh kiapasha2

ABSTRACT Facing water shortage and increasing water demand, it is necessary to consume limited water resource in an optimal fashion. In agricultural sector as the biggest consumer of water, due to low performance of irrigation networks improving, water delivery systems and its performance with participation of water users and applying improved control system is a must. For this purpose in recent decades several automatic control Systems including P+PR system, for flow management in irrigation networks are introduced. Applications of these techniques provide a situation that water users play a direct role in water delivery with high flexibility. After introducing any automatic control system, their application in irrigation canals, requires testing of their performance in relation with other structures. Considering unsteady behavior of the flow in irrigation canals, using hydrodynamic models is a regular approach for testing performance of control systems. For this purpose international test cases including two types of canals, with specific operational instructions are introduced by American Society of Civil Engineering (ASCE). In this paper ICSS hydrodynamic model is applied on ASCE standard canal no. two to test the global performance of P+PR downstream automatic control system. After calibration of numerical coefficients of control system, the operational scenarios are applied, and performance indicators such as MAE and IAE which represent maximum and average depth deviation respectively and SRT which indicates response time of control system are determined. In addition to the performance indicators, depth, Flow and gate adjustments variations are depicted and analyzed. The results show that average depth deviations are in the range of 0.001 to 0.014 % and maximum depth deviations are in the range of 0.111 to 0.211 %. The response time of control system shows that the depth is stabilized in the allowable range at the first time step. Depth variation graph shows appropriate response of control system to flow variations. Performance indicators and depth variations shows appropriate functioning of the control system. Relying on the results of this study, application of this control system in irrigation canal which provide higher flexibility and direct participation of water users in management of water delivery could be suggested.

1- Assistant Professor, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran. Po.Box: [email protected] Tel: 44196523-5, Fax: 44196524. 2- M.Sc. Student Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran.

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Keywords: Irrigation canals, Automatic control, Management of water delivery, P+PR,

Downstream control. INTRODUCTION Most of Irrigation systems due to poor management are performing below expectation. Poor management in irrigation networks results to inadequate and unjust water delivery which contributes to unsatisfaction of water users. Management of water delivery and corresponding control systems has a great impact on performance of irrigation networks. Considering limited water resources and necessity of optimal con consumption of water, requires participatory management and increasing the level of contribution of water users in water delivery. In order to reach to this goal it is necessary to increase the level of flexibility of water delivery which in turn leads to low water losses and higher productivity at farm level. Higher flexibility requires implementation of advanced automatic control system such as regular and specific downstream control systems. Automatic downstream control systems provide opportunity for water users to participate in management of water delivery directly and receive the required amount of water at proper time. P+PR control system is one of control systems applied in irrigation canal to provide higher flexibility. In this research the Global performance of P+PR1 control system which provide direct farmers participation in management of water delivery is evaluated. INTRODUCING P+PR CONTROL SYSTEM Several control systems with different characteristics are developed for irrigation canals. P+PR control system which can be use in both upstream and down stream control system is introduced by USBR2. In this control system the gate adjustment is calculated using a proportional and integral relation and is applied by an electromotor installed on the gate. It is possible to use four different filters such as depth dead band, gate adjustment tolerance, electromotor speed, and hydraulic filter. Depth dead band is a depth tolerance around target depth. If water depth remains in this range no action will be done. Gate adjustment tolerance is minimum limit of gate adjustment. If the calculated gate adjustment is less than this limit no action will be done. Electromotor speed filter controls the speed of gate adjustment to be less than allowable range. Hydraulic filter diminishes gate adjustment due to minor depth variations. Hydraulic filter is calculated using equation 1 and 2.

(1)

(2)

1- Proportional Plus Reset 2- United States Bureau of Reclamation

Y fn

C sf (Ywn  Ywp )  Y fp (1  C sf ) 1  C sf

C sf

't 2T f

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Where yf is filtered depth, yw and yt are observed and target depth respectively, Csf is simulated filters constant, ǻt time step, and Tf is time filter constant. The combined actions of all the filters lead to stable operation of gate. In P+PR control system the controlled out put which is gate adjustment is calculated using equations 3, 4 and 5. (3)

'G p

K p .(Y fn  Yt )

(4)

'Gi

K i ³ 0k (Yt  Y fn ) r 0.5.Z db dt

(5)

'GT

' G p  ' Gi

>

@

Where: Kp and ki are proportional and integral coefficient respectively. ǻGT, ǻGi, ǻGp are proportional, integral and total gate adjustment respectively, Zdb is allowable dead band and n and p subscripts refer to present and past computational time steps. In automatic operation the downstream depth is observed by sensor. The observed depth is filtered by equation 1. The filtered depth is compared with target depth and proportional gate adjustment is calculated by equation 3. The filtered depth is compared with dead band, if it is out of dead band the integral gate adjustment is calculated by equation 4. In equation 4 the plus sign for 0.5 Zdb is for the time when filtered depth is above dead band and minus is for the time when filtered depth is be below dead band. Finally the total gate adjustment is calculated by equation 5. The total gate adjustment is compared to gate filter, if it is less than that the gate adjustment is set to zero. Considering total gate adjustment the required gate speed in operational time step is calculated and compared to motor speed. If calculated speed is greater than allowable speed, the gate adjustment is set to the multiple of allowable motor speed and operational time step. INTRODUCING THE ICSS1 MODEL ICSS hydrodynamic model is developed by Manz to simulate hydraulic, hydrology, and operation of irrigation conveyance system (Monem, 1990). The model is able to simulate one dimensional, gradually varied steady and unsteady flow under different operational conditions and control structures in canal with any cross sections. In ICSS model, hydraulic structures are considered as a boundary condition. For performing the hydraulic simulation the relations of boundary conditions are computed in four step such as computation of steady flow (BC2#D), operation (BC#C), unsteady flow computation (BC#A), and updating the parameters of boundary condition (BC#B).

1- Irrigation Conveyance System Simulation 2- Boundary Condition

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MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF P+PR CONTROL SYSTEM This control system is developed for controlling a rectangular flat slide gate as a boundary condition no.12 (BC12) and combined with ICSS model by Massah (Massah, 1380). Here short introduction of four step of this model is presented. STEADY FLOW SIMULATION

Steady flow computation is started from the most downstream structure with a specific discharge which is determined in input data file. At P+PR boundary condition considering the specified discharge and hydraulic equation of flat sliding gate, the initial gate opening is calculated. SIMULATION OF OPERATION

In flat sliding gate manual and automatic operation is considered which could be specified in input data file. In automatic operation the options of upstream control or downstream control is provided. The switches of four filters explained earlier could be set to on or off. In automatic operation the subprogram type c (BC12C) is called in each time step and gate opening is calculated using equations 1 to 5. UNSTEADY FLOW SIMULATION

In order to compute unsteady flow the continuity equation for upstream boundary condition (Go) and momentum equation for downstream boundary condition (FN) and their partial derivations with respect to depth and velocity are required. The automatic flat slide gate With P+PR downstream control system works under submerged condition and Go and FN equations are derived as equation 6 and 7. (6)

G0 : A1.V1  AN .VN

(7)

FN : A1.V1  Cd .b.GO . 2 g (YN  Y1 )

0 0

In which, A is flow cross sectional area, V is flow velocity, Cd is flat slide gate discharge coefficient, b is gate width, GO is gate opening, y is flow depth, the subscript 1 and N refer to first node of downstream reach and last node of upstream reaches respectively. In unsteady flow computation at each time step the A subprogram is called, the equation 6 and 7 and their partial derivations with respect to depth and velocity are calculated and unsteady flow equations for whole canal reaches are solved for one time step. After calculating depth and velocity at all nodes along the canal, the B subprogram is called and flow depth and discharge are updated in boundary condition matrices.

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CONTROL SYSTEM PERFORMANCE INDICATORS For performance evaluation of P+PR control system, 3 indicators introduced by ASCE1 (Clemens et al., 1998) and Monem (Monem et al., 1382) are used. The indicators are as follows: Maximum absolute error (MAE). This indicator shows the maximum deviation between observed and target depth during operational period and is calculated by equation 8. MAE

(8)

max yt  yt arg et yt arg et

In which: Yt is observed depth at time t and Ytarget is target depth. Integral of absolute magnitude of error (IAE). This indicator shows the average deviation between observed and target depth during the operational period and is calculated by equation 9.

(9)

IAE

't T ¦ yt  yt arg et T t 0 yt arg et

In which: ǻt is computational time step, T is operational period, and other terms are defined earlier. System response time (SRT). System Response time is a time duration from when the observed depth is getting out of allowable range until when it get back and stabilized in the allowable range. The allowable rang is a tolerance around target depth as a percentage of target depth ((1±0.5% X) ×Ytarget) value of X is determind by user (Monem et al., 1382). The smaller SRT shows the faster system response. ASCE CANAL NO.2 AND OPERATIONAL SCENARIO Different control Algorithms are tested and evaluated in different canals with different specifications. Canals specifications have a significant impact on performance of control algorithms. Therefore performance evaluation, comparison, and judgment of proposed control algorithms under this situation is not an easy job. To overcome these short comings ASCE working group has suggested two standard canals for testing new control algorithms (Clemmens et al, 1998). In this research ASCE canal no.2 is selected to test and evaluate the performance of P+PR downstream control system for participation of water user in water delivery management in irrigation canals. In this study the numerical coefficient of P+PR control system are also calibrated. The canal has a trapezoidal cross section with 1.5H: 1V side slope, and manning roughness coefficient of 0.02. Canal specifications are given in table 1.

1- American Society Civil Engineers

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Table1. Specifications of ASCE standard canal no. 2 Reach

Length (m)

Upstream Elva. (m)

Downstream Elva. (m)

Bed slop

Bed width

Upstream Structure

1

7000

400.0

399.3

0.0001

7

Reservoir

2

3000

399.1

398.8

0.0001

7

Slide gate 1

3

3000

398.6

398.3

0.0001

7

Slide gate 2

4

4000

398.1

397.5

0.0001

7

Slide gate 3

5

4000

397.5

397.1

0.0001

7

Slide gate 4

6

3000

396.9

396.6

0.0001

7

Slide gate 5

7

2000

396.4

396.2

0.0001

7

Slide gate 6

396.0

395.8

0.0001

7

Slide gate 7

8

2000

Downstream Structures 1- turnout 1 2 – slide gate 1 1- turnout 2 2 – slide gate 2 1- turnout 3 2 – slide gate 3 1- turnout 4 2 – slide gate 4 1- turnout 5 2 – slide gate 5 1- turnout 6 2 – slide gate 6 1- turnout 7 2 – slide gate 7 1- turnout 8 2 – slide gate 8

In mathematical model all physical and hydraulic specifications of the canal and boundary conditions are defined in form of input data file for ICSS model. The flat slide gate between canal reaches is equipped with P+PR automatic downstream control system. At the canal inlet, a reservoir with automatic outlet is considered to satisfy the downstream requirements automatically. At the end of canal a stop log weir with fix height is considered. The numerical coefficients of the control system are calibrated under wide rang of discharge variation. In order to evaluate the performance of the developed P+PR control system for participatory management and operational scenario with large flow diversion from canal is simulated. In this operational scenario simulatenious and large flow diversion by water user at turnout no 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 is taken into account. The response of control system and mutual impacts of check structures are studied and performance of control system is evaluated. For this study the dead band and gate tolerance are taken as 1 and 3 millimeters respectively. Target depth for check structures no. 1, 2 and 3 are 2, 1.9 and 1.8 meter respectively and for check structures no. 4, 5 and 6 are 1.7 meter. For this study the steady flow of 3 CMS and simultaneous flow diversion of 0.3 CMS by all turnouts is considered as initial condition for the first 12 hours. Total operational duration is taken as 36 hours. During this time the flow diversion of turnout no. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 have been increased and decrease by about 200% in two steps. Table 2 shows turnout flow diversion variations during operational period.

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Table 2. Flow variation turn out no. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 Time (hour)

0-12

12-18

18-24

24-30

30-36

Discharge (CMS)

0.300

0.900

1.500

0.900

0.300

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS For performance evaluation of P+PR control system for participatory management the explained operational scenario is simulated in ASCE standard canal no.2 and performance indicators are calculated for check structures which are give in table 3. Depth, discharge, and gate opening variations downstream of all check structures are depicted in figure 1 to 6. The performance indicators given in table 3 shows that the maximum amounts of MAE and IAE for check structures are 0.211 and 0.014% respectively.

Table3. Performance indicators for P+PR control system Check no.

MAE (%)

IAE (%)

SRT (1%)

Maximum deviation of depth from target level (cm)

Average deviation of depth from target level (cm)

1

0.200

0.010

0.000

0.400

0.019

2

0.211

0.014

0.000

0.400

0.026

3

0.111

0.007

0.000

0.200

0.012

4

0.118

0.003

0.000

0.200

0.006

5

0.177

0.004

0.000

0.300

0.007

6

0.119

0.001

0.000

0.200

0.002

The maximum depth deviation from target depth downstream of check structures is about 0.4 cm and the maximum average of depth deviation during delivery period is 0.026 cm. The value of SRT within %1 range for all check structures is zero. This states that depth was within the allowable range during delivery period. Considering practical accuracy required in irrigation networks for control structures the value of the indicators is completely acceptable. Comparing the performance of check structures show that the value of indicators for mid-canal structures are in the same range, how ever for the upstream structures the indicators have higher values. This result shows that mid-canal structures have performed better than upstream structures. This result might be due to accumulative impact of diversion variations from downstream moving toward upstream. Since the control system is P+PR downstream control, moving toward upstream the amount of discharge delivery variation is accumulated. At the canal upstream the discharge

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variation is higher than in mid–canal which results to higher depth variation for upstream structures compared to mid-canal structures during operational period.

Figure 1. Depth and discharge variation downstream of check no. 1 and its gate opening

Figure 2. Depth and discharge variation downstream of check no. 2 and its gate opening

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Figure 3. Depth and discharge variation downstream of check no. 3 and its gate opening

Figure 4. Depth and discharge variation downstream of check no. 4 and its gate opening

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Figure 5. Depth and discharge variation downstream of check no. 5 and its gate opening

Figure 6. Depth and discharge variation downstream of check no. 6 and its gate opening

Figures of depth variation downstream of structures show that for each structure after controlling the initial variations due to diversion change, the depth is maintained at target depth and is stabilized in short time. As a conclusion it could be states that the performance of developed P+PR automatic downstream control system for simultaneous and significant diversion variations of outlets is quite suitable and it could be used for direct participation of water users in management of water delivery.

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REFRENCES 1. Clemmens, A. J., Kacerek, T. F., Grawitz, B., and Schuurmans, W. 1998. Test case for canal control algorithms. Journal of irrigation and drainage engineering. ASCE, 124:23-30 2. Massah, A., 1380. Development of mathematical Model of AMIL, AVIS, and P+PR control systems in irrigation Canals. A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Science in Irrigation Structure. Faculty of agriculture, Trabiat Modares University (In Persian). 3. Monem, M. J., 1375. Introducing simulation model of irrigation networks and their performance optimization. 8th seminar of Iranian national committee of irrigation and drainage (In Persian). 4. Monem, M. J., Massah, A., 1382. Development of mathematical Model of AMIL hydraulic structure. 4th iran hydraulic conference, SHIRAZ (In Persian).

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The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

THE ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF THE PUBLIC'S INTERACTION IN THE SUFICHAY NETWORK

Farnaz Joulazadeh, Nafise Paknia, Zahra Pouryaghoub1

ABSTRACT According to the experienced cases in the past, the experience of the locals' participation in using water resources like the other forms of public interactions are influenced by modern management trends in a way that the concept of resource management and the relevant actions are changed for the most part. Although the establishment of up – to – date forms of management appears unavoidable because of the growing population and industrialization of the cities and urgent need for water energy, and also changing the public form of management into the governmental form is viable and the financial support by the governments plays a great role in the completion of this kind of projects, the absence of the public in these projects can be a remarkable weak point. When establishing new irrigation and drainage networks, which is one of the effective ways in water resource development, we can benefit the participation of the public in scheduling, construction, completion and maintaining the projects, and of course the participation of the public in completion and maintenance is more tangible and therefore we got the idea to start our Water - Supplying Cooperative Companies (WSCCs). The WSCCs is clear picture of the public's participation in economical and social affairs management and accordingly the members who benefit the water resource projects have had a close interaction with the authorities based on the framework of the WSCCs and therefore the effective life of the projects has been increased and a better use of water, soil resources and investment offerings has been achievable and as a result, the project of the Sufichay WSCCs in the East Azerbaijan can considered as a successful model of this kind, but of course, like any other project, it has its own possible weaknesses which we are going to analyze in the following article: Key word: public's interaction, Water - Supplying Cooperative Companies, evaluation

1- MSc. Students of urmia university Email: [email protected]

Fax: 03352573497

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INTRODUCTION Over the past one hundred years, villagers in the East Azerbaijan Province have employed various methods including: making infiltration tunnel, digging wells, making diversion weirs (which initiates side – flowing streams) across rivers, conducting water to reservoirs for long – term storage. To manage water - supply affairs based on seasonal changes, monitoring taking turns in water resource using and distributing water resource shares among individuals, villagers invented some methods and formed special groups. After the advent of technology and industries in villages and development in communication facilities between cities and villages, traditional regulations began to suffer. In response to villagers' new requirements, WSCC were established in villages which were totally or partially located in each dam's downstream to supply water for agricultural uses. Around 76 WSCCs were established in the East Azerbaijan Province by financing 50,000,000,000 Rials (about 5,600,000 $) from 1992 to 1998.The first WSCC was started in Maragheh district (1992 – 1994) and later there was the second one in Bonab district (1994 – 1996). GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF THE SUFICHAY NETWORK: The Sufichay Network is located in the southeast of the Urumia Lake. It is a 120 kms drive from Tabriz City to this area in the southwest direction. The area neighbors with the southern sides of the Sahand Mountains in the north, with the western sides the Sahand Mountains and the Mardogh Valley in the east, with the sides of the Gharah Gheshlagh Mountains in the south and with the southeastern coastal salt marshes of the Urumia Lake in the south. THE LANDS COVERED BY THE NETWORK: The lands covered by the Sufichay irrigation and drainage n network are mainly divided and nominated as the following: District one (the lands around Maragheh City): this area is composed of the gardens and farms just above the Maragheh Diversion weir and also those around Maragheh City extending for approximately 2500 hectares. District Two (The right - hand bank): This area is composed of the farming lands and gardens of The Maragheh – Bonab Plain and those around the Sufichay River and is irrigated by the canal initiated from the Maragheh Diversion weir located in the right – hand bank of the river. District Three (the left – hand bank): This area also extends as a wide plain in the left – hand bank of the Sufichay River. The water needed is supplied by Maragheh and Khanghah Diversion weirs. Whenever there is more rainfall, the extra water from the Maragheh Divrsion weir is directed to the Khanghah Diversion weir for more irrigation purposes.

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District Four (Bonab): this area is composed of the gardens and farms of the villages under the Sufichay River and the Bonab Plain and also some parts of the gardens and farmlands of the villages Zavaregh and Chelghaie. Note: Since the WSCCs of district one are not included in this statistics project, the related information is not available in this article. THE RESEARCH METHOD In this research for statistically evaluation of the WSCCs we benefited from measurement method. It is apparent that for estimating the research variables we employed two different types of questionnaires (one for the WSCCs and one for the managers) and possible variables include: the weak points and the problems relating to the activities carried on by the WSCCs which cosist of from irrigation problems, improvement in water use, collecting water charges, volunteering quality of the members and so on. THE OUTCOME OF THE EVALUATION A: An evaluation of the general features of the WSCCs: x The number of the members: the studied WSCCs can be divided into three categories. 1. The WSCCs with 32 to 100 members (7 cases) 2. The WSCCs with 110 to 182 members (5 cases) 3. and the WSCCs with230 to 575 members (5 cases). x The average age of the members: the minimum and maximum age of the members the the mentioned WSCCs is respectively 20 and 95 years old. The members of the WSCC in the group 3 are the oldest of all groups. x Literacy rate: more than 60 % of participants are literate. The literacy average of the members of the district 4 is the highest of all districts. x The managers' occupation: the majority of the WSCC managers (a total of 10 people) are farmers. x The extension of under farming lands of each member: the most extension of the cultivated lands belongs to the members of the district 2 (4.3 hectares) and the least extension goes to the district 4 members (1.2 hectares). x The extension of under farming lands of each WSCC: the most extension of under farming lands belongs to the Big Russet in the district 2 (1774 hectares) and the least extension goes to the Ghal'eh Khaleseh WSCC in the district 2 (72 hectares). x Earning statistics: the most income is for the WSCCs in the district 3 and the least amount is for the district 4. The last but not the least, even in the district 3 only 5.25 percent of the members approved a large increase in their income.

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B: An evaluation of general issues of the WSCCs: These issues have been evaluated in two categories. Firstly internal problems which relate to the system and performance of the WSCCs and secondly the external problems which do not initiate from the performance of the system but is imposed by different external factors. 1. THE INTERNAL ISSUES:

x Holding general meetings: the highest percentage of sessions is for the district 2 WSCCs (8.77 percent) and the lowest is for the district 3 WSCCs (3.33 percent). x Attending the general meetings: 50% of the members of the most of the WSCCs approved that they didn't attend the meetings. x Paying membership fees: for the most part the members of the WSCCs of the network (80 percent) paid the fees. x Holding elections for management committee in peace and freely: in the most of the districts the elections for the management committee have been held in peace and freely and of course in the district 4 we have the highest approval. x Possible disputes among the members: our findings show that there have been just a few disputes among the members and the district 4 has had the least number. x Possible disputes between the members and the managers: in this part we can also see the least number disputes and the district 2 has had the least number. x Possible disputes among the WSCCs: this kind of disputes are also very rare to happen and the highest number is for the district 4 because 3.33 percent of the managers have reported that there have been some WSCCs that have not cooperated with the other WSCCs because of their own benefits. x The references for settling the disputes among the WSCCs and their success in doing that: the findings show that the members have referred to the Water Affairs Offices of Bonab and Maragheh cities, the management committees and the managers, the Taavon offices and the judicial centers respectively to settle their disagreements. x The percentage of approval and fee – paying to the managers: most of the members in the three districts approved paying fees to the managers and even have emphasized that they will approve this idea if it is posed in the annual general meeting. 2. THE EXTERNAL ISSUES:

A: The common issues of all of the districts: The common issues can be categorized as the following: x The members do not perform the obligations they agreed on in the contracts. x Water supply is not safe and dependable.

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x Water shares are not distributed equally. x There are a few number of expert supervisors for the network. x The members have to pay water share charges even if there are some natural disasters or pests or there is no crop to be harvested. x There is no schedule for maintaining the equipment and tools. B: The common issues of each district: These problems include: x The water flow gates are not shut adequately. x The mangers make no request from the judicial officials to ban the illegal use of water resources. A SET OF USEFUL MANUALS In order to improve the network of the WSCCs, we offered the following suggestion in three categories: A: The short – term manuals: 1. Creating a steady formula for water share charges. 2. Scheduling a dependable repairing and maintaining method for measurement tools and devices and providing up - to - date information for the members all the time. 3. The Water Affairs offices of Maragheh and Bonab should coordinate with the WSCCs of the region when attracting new members. 4. The view points of the general managers should be considered of much value when signing new contracts. 5. The water share tariff be delivered on time. 6. The canals should be cleaned and maintained regularly. 7. The network should benefit a judicial expert to defend the rights of their society. B: The average – term manuals: 1. Scheduling for distributing water shares equally, sufficiently and on time. 2. A supervision and evaluation unit should be established. 3. The WSCCs should be supported to found an office of affairs. 4. Performing cleaning and maintaining operations at the beginning of every farming season can have many benefits such as: cooperation among the members, creating a working relationship between the WSCCs and the water Organization of the region, reporting the changes and improvements and so on.

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5. Identifying the model WSCCs and introducing them in public and offering rewards to the members and managers. C: The long – term manuals: 1. Encouraging the different units of the Water Organization to accelerate the performance of affairs and duties relating to irrigation and drainage networks which are going to be used for the first time. 2. Having periodical visits to the networks of other regions to learn more about the weak points and the strong points of the Sufichay Network and teaching the managers how to measure the imported water to update their input and regarding the role of education in the development of the WSCCs. 3. Making a bed for active participation of the members in cooperation affairs. 4. Making an effort to vitalize the necessity of following cropping pattern and water supply needs and appropriate use of synthetic fertilizers and ... . REFERENCES 1. Tamanna, S. 2003. The analysis of the public's interaction in the Sufichay network and the evaluation of these interaction situation. Research report of ministry of East Azarbaijan regional watercorp 2. Taghavi, N. 2001. The analysis of the public's interaction in solution villages irrigation issues. Research project of East Azarbaijan cooperation.

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

FARMERS NETWORK FOR WATER SECTOR REFORMS IN SOUTH INDIA

R. Doraiswamy1

ABSTRACT This paper deals with practical experiences of one of the fundamentals of PIM i.e. Farmers Network for Water Sector Reforms (FNWSR) in South India undertaken by JalaSpandana. The basis to FNWSR is that the farmers are generally excluded from the process of policy formulation, and are mainly conceived as implementers of policies designed by others. It is posited that an explicitly multi-stakeholder policy process and balanced representation of the different interest groups in that, including farmers, will enhance the quality, acceptability and pace of water sector reform. In order to strengthen PIM through making PIM a farmers’ baby, FNWSR was initiated in Karnataka and later extended to States like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry, which have adopted PIM policy. The main objective of FNWSR is to facilitate farmers – the major stakeholders in irrigation to participate effectively in the political process of policy formulation and implementation. INPIM supported JalaSpandana to carry out FNWSR in 2004 and 2005. The results in terms of regular interaction with the concerned Ministry and Bureaucracy, pressure group to lobby for PIM, motivate fellow farmers to function efficiently at various levels of WUAs, etc seem alarming. In Andhra Pradesh, FNWSR succeeded in building pressure on the government and ensuring the continuity of WUAs. In Karnataka, the members of FNWSR succeeded in effective formation and functioning of project level WUAs institutions in four major irrigation projects. Similarly, in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry, FNWSR have made significant impact on the structure and functions of WUAs and PIM.

1- Mr. R. Doraiswamy is working as water resource specialist at JalaSpandana – South India Farmers Organisation for Water Management, Bangalore, India. JalaSpandana is a non-governmental organisation formed by the representatives of water users associations in South India. It has head office at Bangalore and State offices in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. Contact: [email protected], [email protected], www.jalaspandana.org, Phone: 91-80-22286161, 09448268401, Address: 72, 7th Cross, Chikkathayappa Street, Vasanthnagar, Bangalore 560052, India, www.jalaspandana.org.

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1. INTRODUCTION In South India, states like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry have adopted Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) either through passing an exclusive Act or enacting its existing Irrigation Act that emphasizes on PIM (Doraiswamy, 2003). The PIM policy formulation and implementation has been the business of the government agency in a top down approach. The government agency enjoy the discretionary powers in implementation of the PIM programme, which often lead to down play essential elements required for the success of the PIM. Farmers who occupy the central position in the Participatory Irrigation Management were not given prime importance in policy formulation and implementation. Moreover, mere enactment of policies that emphasizes on WUAs in itself is not sufficient to make PIM success, what matters significant is the successful implementation and periodic review of the policy. Participatory Irrigation Management viewed from the larger context of decentralisation policies of the government suffers more from lack of political will to empower end users. The regular interventions of the governments as per the wishes of the political parties hampers the progress of PIM programme. In South India, the field experiences clearly shows that the interest shown to WUAs vary from Minister to Minister (who occupies water resources portfolio in the government) and from the government to government. This approach generates the gap between the government and users and to a large extent push farmers in to passive receiving end. As the success of PIM lies in equal and successful participation of all the stakeholders working in water sector, it is imperative that PIM becomes majority concern. In the process of PIM policy formulation and implementation, farmers need to take lead role and treat PIM as their baby and not some thing given from outside. Thus, Farmers Network for Water Sector Reforms (FNWSR) was conceived to facilitate PIM programme in South India. In this paper, we discuss the emergence and success of farmers network and way forward in the context of PIM in South India, especially in states like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry in South India. The first and second section deals with area profile, description of farmers network, need in general and in specific context of PIM policy. The third section illustrates how the FNWSR was carried out in South India emphasizing on the support received from International Network for Participatory Irrigation Management (INPIM). Fourth section deals with achievements, lessons and future perspective of applicability. 1.1. AREA PROFILE

Andhra Pradesh is geographically the fourth largest State in India (67.8 million acres) and the fifth largest, in terms of population. The population of Andhra Pradesh was about 75.7 million in 2001 with a population density of 272 inhabitants per square kilometer (Government of Andhra Pradesh, 2004). The rainfall in the state varies from 568 mm to 1159 mm. Agriculture in Andhra Pradesh is largely dependent on rainfall: more than 50 per cent of the cultivated area is rainfed. It is estimated that only 42 per cent of the gross sown area of nearly 11.36 million acres receives irrigation water at present. The state produced Vision 2020 document emphasizing on holistic approach towards water resources development (Naidu, 2000).

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Karnataka is the eighth largest State in the country and is located in the Deccan plateau. The geographical area of Karnataka is 1,90,498 sq.km accounting for 5.81% of the total area of the Country. Up-to the end of March 2000 a total irrigation potential of 36,22,921 ha. (Including ground water is created). The annual normal rainfall is 1138 mm received over 55 rainy days. It varies from as low as 569 mm in the east to as high as 4029 mm in the west. About 2/3rd of the geographical area of the State receives less than 750 mm of rainfall (Government of Karnataka, 1995, 2002). Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry is geographically eleventh largest State in India (130 lakh hectares) and has 7 per cent population of the country. The net area sown in Tamil Nadu is about 60 lakh hectares (ha) of which about 30 lakh hectares or 50 per cent get irrigation facilities from sources like canals (9.50 lakh ha), Tanks (9.00 lakh ha) and Wells, Tube wells (11.50 lakh ha). The total area of Pondicherry is 293 Sq kms with a population of 6,08,338 according to 1991 census. In 2000, the net area cultivated is 24,402 ha, gross area cultivated is 42,398 ha and net irrigated area is 21,628 ha and gross irrigated area is 33,643 ha. There are 84 tanks systems distributed in Pondicherry and Karaikal regions of which 54 are tank systems and 25 are non tank systems. There are over 8000 tube wells, which irrigates the net area of about 15000 ha.

2. FNWSR DESCRIPTION 2.1. WHAT IS FARMERS NETWORK Farmers Network is the powerful way of bringing farmers from different parts of the political boundaries and various levels of water bodies on to one common platform. This common platform enable farmers to play constructive role in the politics of water especially in the process of policy formulation and implementation. In other words, Farmers network is basically to gain access to water policy details, power politics, new technology and information relevant to water sector reforms. In this paper, farmers network refer to farmers using the water in the command area in various sizes of water bodies like major, medium and minor irrigation projects. This farmers network could not be called as Network of Water Users Associations as WUAs were not established in all irrigation projects in these States, either due to lack of policy or the delay in the process of policy implementation. Thus, the project FNWSR is conceived as a means to generate political vibration in the Participatory Irrigation Management domain. FNWSR is established at various levels of water bodies especially at irrigation project level, sub basin and basin level (JalaSpandana 2004, 2005). 2.2. WHY FARMERS NETWORK IN PIM

Although, there are several benefits accrued out of farmers network, in this section we focus on farmers network in the context of PIM. The development and management of irrigation sector in India, especially in South India is highly centralised by the Government agency. Participatory Irrigation Management or Irrigation Management Transfer calls for devolution of power, which gives rise to interest conflicting among various stake holders. As a result, section of the people particularly elected representatives and officers of Irrigation Department enjoying authority over irrigation

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system find all means and ways to evade power transfer to WUAs (Hooja 2006). The history of decentralisation in India including the local government like Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI) clearly shows that the already well established group like Member of Legislative Assembly (MLA) and Member of Parliament (MP) are not happy in loosing power over their constituencies especially on water, which is one of the powerful natural resources (Baumann, 1999). Farmers are usually on the receiving end and are highly unorganized. To self initiate and volunteer to form themselves into network becomes rather difficult task as the farming conditions in South India is more on a subsistence level, the farm size varies from 1 hectare to 15 hectares per farmer. They lack common platform to negotiate and contest for rights, responsibilities and powers from their counterpart like Irrigation Department and other elected representatives. Farmers network enable to provide necessary and appropriate recommendations to the Government, which otherwise may not be captured in true and original sense (Alders et. al, 1993). In South India, there are hardly any NGOs directly working with WUAs in major and medium irrigation systems. The normal practice adopted by irrigation department in eliciting information from the water users associations is to pool few WUA representatives in workshop organised at State level. This approach still becomes the task of irrigation department and never turns out to be farmers task on a regular continuous basis. It becomes imperative to establish farmers network to make PIM a majority farmers concern on a permanent basis (Aw and Diemer 2005). Farming community in South India, is again not to be viewed as homogenous group. The farming community is divided in to several groups based on caste, class, region, location of the irrigation project in a river basin, etc,. In most of the villages in South India, the village hegemony is based on elite characteristics, which could be social, economic and political in nature. The past experiences have shown that small group of people in the WUAs control the entire functioning of WUAs, which is against the principles of PIM, thus hampering the success of PIM. It is pre requisite for the success of PIM to bring farmers on one common platform cutting across these boundaries. FNWSR reduces the damage caused due to varied perceptions and interpretations made by different stakeholder groups on Participatory Irrigation Management. In South India, during the initial periods Participatory Irrigation Management and Irrigation Management Transfer was interpreted by section of the people as transfer of burden from Government to farmers. In addition, PIM was interpreted as an attempt made by the Department to divide farming community and further create conflict among water users. Moreover, the tendency among farmers in South India is that they believe and come to common understanding when fellow farmers speak positively. This is the better approach in sharing scarce resources and resolving water conflicts (Doraiswamy 2004). The field experience shows that farmer to farmer technology transfer is more efficient than any other agency attempting to convince farmers on several positive aspects of PIM. In other words, knowledge sharing between and among farmers from different irrigation projects help boost the success of the PIM programme. The recent trend in water allocation and demand shows that there is increasing demand from various sectors like drinking, industries, environment, tourism, etc. It is imperative to farmers to safeguard the interest of farming community which is dependent on Agriculture to the extent of 65 to 70 per cent in India.

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Farmers network plays constructive role in modernisation programme carried our in canal irrigation projects. Most of the modernisation programme in canal system focus on physical works with emphasis on technical aspects of irrigation. The social component especially involvement of water users is not given prime importance despite of WUAs existence in the project area. 3. CONTEXT OF PIM 3.1. PIM IN ANDHRA PRADESH

In order to improve irrigation performance, the Government of Andhra Pradesh took a progressive and innovative step to empower the farmers to manage and operate the irrigation resources through formation of Water Users Associations in the year 1997. An exclusive Act called Andhra Pradesh Farmers Managed Irrigation Act of 1997 was enacted, which provides the legal support for the functioning of these WUAs. At National and International Level, this is a major reform effort and is the first large scale exercise at delegation of water management powers to water users (Mollinga et al 2004). The objectives of this reforms are carrying O & M of the irrigation system and increase in agriculture production. The Act emphasized on formation of water users organisation at three level namely Water User Associations (WUAs), Distributary Committee (DC) and Project Committee (PC) for major irrigation projects, two tier structure (WUA/PC) for medium irrigation projects and single tier structure (WUA) for minor irrigation. During 1997, the elections were held democratically and 10,292 WUAs with 46,755 TCs members and 172 DCs formed in the State. Each WUA consisted of 4-10 TC members and there was direct elections to both TC members and President. Initially, the tenure of WUA was for five years. Andhra Pradesh Economic Reconstructing Project (APERP) is taken up to the tune of 962.26 crores, which has Water Users Associations support component. These organisations have taken up O & M and Minimum Rehabilitation works. The APFMIS Act 1997 was further amended by the Congress Government. Some of these amendments are co-opting the members of other elected bodies like PRI and MLAs and MPs in to WUAs. One of the positive aspect of these amendments is to make WUAs as permanent bodies with every two years one third of the Territorial Constituency (TC) member of WUA go out on rotation system and fresh elections conducted only in that TC area. It is reported that there are several benefits accrued after the formation of farmers WUAs, some of them are bridging the gap ayacut of 10.07 lakh acres1, no water problem or tension in tail end of the command area, farmers got 5-10 bags extra paddy, no crop submersion – flood waters quickly drained, the works were executed with speed and quality and there were no excess in estimated rates. The water charges were increased more than three folds i.e. from Rs. 60 per acre (paddy crop) to Rs. 200 per acre. In order to carry out the O&M by WUAs, provision was made in the Act to re-plough the water charges collected in the WUA area on the basis of proportion. 1- As reported by I & CAD, GOAP

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Table 1. Project/District wise WUAs in Irrigation Projects in Andhra Pradesh No of WUAs Name of the District Adilabad Ananthapur Chittoor Cuddapah

East Godavari

Major Total WUAs 33 48 0 78

208

Guntur

398

Karim Nagar Khammam Krishna

163 79 307

Kurnool

118

Mahabubnagar

39

Medak Nalgonda

0 116

Nellore

92

Nizambad

85

Prakasam

165

RangaReddy

0

Srikakulam

100

Visakhapatnam Vizianagaram Warangal

16 4 85

West Godavari

149

Total

2283

Medium

Minor

Total

260

331

305 580 217

375 592 311

211

436

0

64

462

18 38

495 381 270

676 498 589

159

289

520

564

550 596

564 721

630

765

279

380

300

489

184

189

Project Wise WUAs SRSP-8 Kadam -25 TBP HLC -48 TBP HLC- 46 KC Canal Thandava Project-12 Godavari Delta System -145 Yelluru Irrigation System-25 Chagalanadu LIS-26 Nagarjuna Sagar Right Canal-255 Krishna Delta System-143 SRSP-163 Nagarjuna Sagar Left Canal-79 Nagarjuna Sagar Left Canal-100 Krishna Delta System-207 TBP HLC-6 TBPLLC-57 KC Canal-55 RDS-34 PJP-5 Nagarjuna Sagar Left Canal-86 Musi Project-30 Pennar Delta System -68 Somasilla Project-24 SRSP-8 NizamSagar-77 Krishna Delta System-17 Nagarjuna Sagar Right Canal-148 Vamsadara Project-54 Narayanapuram Anicut System25 Nagavali System -21 Thandava Project-16 Nagavali System-4 SRSP-85 Krishna Delta System-16 Nagarjuna Sagar Left Canal-2 Godavari Delta System-131

38 22 12 16

17

12 12

5 14 9 43 16

24 5

416

522

6 18 49 23

331 444 658

365 497 7566

13

226

388

410

8076

10769

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Table 2. Project / District wise Distributary Committee in Andhra Pradesh S.No 1 1

Name of the Project 2 Vamsadhara Project

2

Nagavali

3

Narayanapuram

4.

Tandava Reservoir

5.

Godavari Delta System

6

Yeleru Project

7

NSRC

8

NSLC

9

Krishana Delta System

10 11

Pennar Delta System Somasila Project

12

K.C.Canal

13

TBP HLC

14 15 16 17

TBPLLC RDS Nizamsagar Kadam Project

18

SRSP

19

Musi Project

Name of the District 3 1. Srikakulam 1. Srikakulam 2. Vizianagarma Subtotal 1. Srikakulam 1. Visakappattinam 2. East Godavari Sub Total 1. East Godavari 2.West Godavari

No of D.Cs 4 8 4 1 5 5 3 2 5 25 20

Sub Total

45

1. East Godavari 1. Guntur 2. Prakasam Sub Total 1. Nalgonda 2. Khammam 3. Krishana 4. West Godavari Sub Total 1. Krishna 2. Guntur 3. Prakasam 4. West Godavari Sub Total 1. Nellore 1.Nellore 1. Kurnool 2. Cuddapah Sub Total 1. Ananthapur 2. Cuddapah 3. Kurnool Sub Total 1. Kurnool 1. Mahabubnagar 1. Nizamabad 1. Adilabad 1. Karimnagar 2. Warangal 3. Adilabad 4. Nizamabad Sub Total 1. Nalgonda Grand Total

5 30 18 48 10 9 13 32 29 20 2 3 54 6 5 8 6 14 5 6 1 12 10 6 10 5 21 9 1 31 6 312

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3.2. PIM IN KARNATAKA

In order to make the best utilization of available water, the State in June 2000 amended its Irrigation Act of 1965. The amendments emphasise irrigation management turnover from the irrigation Department to Water Users Cooperative Society (WUCs) at primary, distributary, project and State level. At present there are about 3000 WUCs registered under the Cooperative Act in the State and making progress in forming project level federations in major irrigation systems (Doraiswamy, 2001, 2005). The WUCs are empowered to decide on the cropping pattern, fix and collect water charges based on the volumetric supply and conflict resolution. Further, WUCs are entrusted the task of carrying out Maintenance work and Water Management through formal Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between Irrigation Department and WUCs. In addition, the WUCs were given other rural development works like laying roads to farm lands called as Our road our farms ‘Namma Holla Namma Rasthe’. WUCs are also encouraged to take up other income generating activities like fertilizers and pesticides dealings, and other agriculture inputs. At present, there are four project level water users institutions in major irrigation systems namely Malaprabha and Ghataprabha Irrigation systems in Krishna Basin in North Karnataka and Harangi and Kabini Irrigation Project in Cauvery Basin in South Karnataka. Table 3. CADA Wuse WUAs Progress in Karnataka as of 31-05-2006

Area: in Ha

Achievement as of 31-05-2006 Sl. No

Target Registration MOU Handing Over Name of the Area (No. of CADA Irrigated WUCs) No. of Corresponding No. of Corresponding No. of Corresponding area WUCs area WUCs area WUCs Tungabhadra

1 Project

Malaprabha &

2 Ghataprabha Cauvery

3 Basin Project

363000

835

418

238000

147

96500

147

96500

344739

600

552

274700

457

229858

228

229858

416768

599

549

228795

228

120539

228

119083

259834

530

468

229438

362

177471

22943 8

362

118737

298

290

115784

105

42545

11578 4

105

36402

79

59

26143

22

8365

26143

22

1539480

2941

2336

1112860

1321

675278

1321

673822

Upper

4 Krishna Project Bhadra

5 Reservoir Project Irrigation

6 Project Zone Total

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3.3. PIM IN TAMIL NADU AND PONDICHERRY

Tamil Nadu initiated the formation of WUAs in 1980s. Further, in 1994-95 Agriculture Engineering Department undertook formation of WUAs under World Bank assistance more seriously by providing financial assistance. Later, in the year 2000, the Government of Tamil Nadu enacted New Act called Tamil Nadu Farmers Management Irrigation System (TNFMIS) Act on the same lines as that of Andhra Pradesh. According to TNFMIA Act WUAs will be formed at three levels of the irrigation system namely primary, distributary level and project level. Table 4. District wise details of Elections to WUAs under WRCP in Tamil Nadu S.No

Name of the District

District wise details of coverage of Elections Total No Total No Total No Total of WUAs of Villages of TCs Command (ha) 276 306 1218 47905 21 39 102 4248 229 391 1022 33472 47 159 256 15791 154 387 734 30753 80 233 381 22461 78 313 430 25094

I.

Chennai region

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Kanchipuram Tiruvallur Vellore Dharmapuri Tiruvannamalai Villupuram Cuddalore

885

1828

4143

179724

II.

Sub Total Madurai region

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Pudukkottai Dindigul Madurai Theni Virudhunagar Ramanathapuram Sivagangai Thuthukudi Tirunelveli Kanyakumari

1 17 56 32 9 69 82 66 162 46

1 34 433 65 35 218 246 152 536 158

4 81 337 176 53 369 402 317 793 285

84 4637 72563 11824 7197 21577 34034 16401 65685 25955

Sub Total Pollachi region

540

1878

2817

259957

III.

18. 19.

Erode Coimbatore

49 101

135 507

288 603

49993 119887

Sub Total Grand Total

150 1575

642 4348

891 7851

169880 609561

T.C: Territorial constituencies.

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The government of Pondicherry is carrying out community based tank rehabilitation programme under the financial assistance of European commission. The NGOs are engaged extensively to build the capacity of tank users. However, there is no State policy that emphasizes on PIM and empowerment of tank users associations. 4. IMPLEMENTATION OF PIM IN SOUTH INDIA 4.1. ANDHRA PRADESH

Andhra Pradesh, one of the States in India to enact an exclusive Act called Andhra Pradesh Farmers Managed Irrigation Systems Act of 1997 did not establish Project Committees although envisaged in the Act. It confined formation of WUAs to primary and distributary level of irrigation projects. As a result water users participation at main system management and its linkages with primary level WUAs, which is a prerequisite for system performance and water use efficiency did not materialize. The main system management and the decision making authority rest with the project engineers and district officers. The procedures to conduct elections to WUAs is centralised, the decision to hold elections and its operational logistics was in the discretion of the State Government. One of the major draw back of such procedures on PIM is the break in the continuity of WUAs. After the WUAs completion of the first tenure, the State Government did not conduct elections even to primary and distributary level WUAs across the State and the management was taken over by Irrigation Department from WUAs. As a result, there was a gap in the continuity of WUAs. The revenue collection in irrigation projects constitute central position on the sustainability of WUAs. In AP, irrigation is provided by Irrigation Department and revenue collection is carried out by Revenue Department. As a result of multiple department involvement, the collection rate was below 50 per cent. The sharing of data regarding the extent of water tax collection by revenue department is not appreciable. Further, the apportionment of water tax to WUAs, DCs and PCs are not regularly carried out by revenue department. Thus, WUAs are deprived of their due share of revenue generated out of water tax and reduces interest in the functioning of WUAs. As a result, the maintenance of irrigation system is directly affected (Vaidyanathan 1999). 4.2. KARNATAKA

In Karnataka, the registration of WUAs is carried out under State Cooperative Societies Act with the fixed range of command area for each WUAs. This policy applied to major, medium and minor irrigation projects. The model adopted in Karnataka was similar to Maharashtra model of cooperatives1. This created serious problems in minor irrigation sector in pooling up more than 10 to 15 tank spread in the radius of 10 Kms to form one society. Initially, in major irrigation projects, the momentum of forming water users associations did not gear up due to cooperative principles.

1- Maharashtra adopted major reforms in water sector in 2005. It moved away from cooperative model to ensure total participation of the water users.

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The formation of WUAs federation at project level requires high degree support from department officials. As the WUAs in Karnataka are registered under Cooperatives Act, the representatives of WUAs had to shuttle between the two departments. In addition, the absence of model bylaws caused immense delay in the process of formation of project level users institutions. Although, PIM policy applies to all irrigation projects in the State, some of the officials of the irrigation department were not prepared to adhere to the policy contents. The representatives had to struggle obtaining the information on the implementation of the policy in some irrigation projects to convince the officers in their project. One such example is the water tax collection by the WUAs, representatives of federations had to show to their officers the singed MOU obtained from other irrigation projects. The volumetric supply of water management in Karnataka over looks the issue of quota fixation and entitlements. Memorandum of Understanding signed between Irrigation Department and WUA with regard to water management is one sided. As the quota and entitlement is not clearly defined, the breach of MOU do not give any hold on the part of WUAs to make irrigation department accountable. The quota and entitlement is the pre requisite to achieve equity particularly in irrigation projects that has large tail end deprivation (Doraiswamy and Mollinga P, 2002). As per the policy, the operation and maintenance of the canal network lies with the Irrigation Department. In order to ensure quality and quantity work, WUAs insist that it should be the responsibility of WUAs.

4.3. TAMIL NADU AND PONDICHERRY

In Tamil Nadu, PIM was not implemented with true spirit as envisaged in the PIM policy. The formation of WUAs confined to primary level despite of the policy mentioning about distributary and project level committees. Further, the formation of WUAs under the World Bank supported project called Water Resources Consolidation Project (WRCP) was extended to only those irrigation project that was covered under it. The formation of WUAs as per TNFMIS Act was not taken up in Cauvery River Basin, one of the major river basins in Tamil Nadu. In rest of the irrigation projects, the WUAs formed under Command Area Development (CAD) Programme continued. Thus remain the difference in the structure of WUAs formed under CAD programme and WRCP. The operation and maintenance work of the canal system is carried out by government department with little transparency in the process of tendering the works to contractors. The TNFMIS Act was made uniform to all categories of irrigation projects. This created problem both in terms of structure and functions of users participation in tank system. Tank system is usually treated as social institution that belongs to village. The new policy tried to segment tank users associations on the basis of the fixed range of area to form the tank users associations. As a result in some cases tank users associations belonging to particular tank was divided and in most cases it became collection of several tanks that went against the traditional principles of tank management locally called as kudimaramath. Although, farmers participation in tank restoration programme is well appreciated in Pondicherry, the State Water Policy is yet to be shaped. FNWSR generated good

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amount of awareness among the farmers. The State is yet to detail PIM policy, for which the farmers are rising their voice. 5. INPIM SUPPORT TO FNWSR JalaSpandana developed concept note to facilitate “Farmers Network for Water Sector Reform in South India” based on the very positive experience with farmers network approach, gained particularly in Karnataka through Pragathi a Farmers NGO. Upscaling and strengthening of farmers networks on water issues is felt necessary to increase the momentum of water sector reform. The concept note was further developed and transformed into project proposal with the support of Dr. Peter P Mollinga, Senior Research Fellow, ZEF, Bonn, Germany and Mr. J. Raymond Peter, the then Executive Director, INPIM, Washington D.C. JalaSpandana was fortunate enough to get the financial and other support from INPIM through South Asian Consortium for Interdisciplinary Water Resources Studies (SaciWATERs) Hyderabad. The project was successfully implemented in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. 5.1. OBJECTIVES OF FNWSR General objectives

x Contribute to a participatory water resource planning process by establishing Farmers Organization that can actively engage in discussion and decision-making on water resource policy formulation and implementation at different levels. x Integrated Water Resource Management on social equality and equity through Farmers Organisation. x Overall development of water resource sector and reduce burden on the State exchequer. Specific objectives

x Establish and Strengthen a Farmers Organization in four States exclusively to work on water sector. x Capacity building of office bearers and farmers in this Farmers Organisation x Design and implement strategies and activities for effective water management. x Preparation of Water Policy by Farmer’s Organisation

5.2. MAIN ACTIVITIES

Networking farmers Establishing communication structure Undertake capacity building Define and undertake water sector reform initiatives and strategies

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5.3. FNWSR DESIGN

The FNWSR was designed in such a way that the water users network could be established at various levels of irrigation system. In major and medium irrigation system depending on the size of the command area and the length of the canal, farmers workshop were organised to suit the convenience of the farmers. In tank systems, the workshops primarily focussed at district level. As most of the irrigation projects with in the sub basin and basin level are getting into conflict due to the centralised decision making regarding which project should go for irrigation during the season. Farmers network at sub basin was felt essential to address issues between the irrigation projects with in sub basin and basin. JalaSpandana organised series of state level workshops that facilitated farmers to directly interact and place their resolutions to the Ministers, bureaucracy and policy makers. The workshops adopted methodology that facilitated farmers to review National and State Water policy, Participatory Irrigation Management policy and its implementation bottlenecks, roles and responsibilities of the farmers in making PIM successful programme and sustainable interaction with system managers. The workshop played constructive role in bringing farmers from tanks, irrigation projects and officers on a common platform to find ways and means to carry PIM forward in these States. In the process, Non Governmental Organisations were roped in to make PIM majority concern (Rooy 2001). 5.4. FNWSR INTERACTION WITH STATE OFFICERS

FNWSR maintained good relation with concerned stakeholders, especially department officials were carried out in all the three States. The officers like Secretaries of Irrigation, Officials of Water and Land and Management and Training and Research Institute (WALAMTARI), Hyderabad, Irrigation Management Training Institute (IMTI) Trichy and Water and Land Management Institute (WALMI), Dharwad, Engineer in Chief for WRO, Chief Engineers, Superintendent Engineers, Executive Engineers and Assistant Executive Engineers and other officers of Irrigation/Water Resources Organisation (PWD) and CADA were constantly interacted on issues pertaining to PIM. 5.5. PIM TOUR (YATRA)

JalaSpandana after visiting most of the districts in the respective states and building rapport with department officials and other professionals assessed the need for state level workshops of farmers on PIM. The field visits also showed the need to have a dialogue with the authorities involved in PIM programme in the States. The tour programme was organised with coordination and cooperation of regional organisations shown below in the tour plan. Mr. J. Raymond Peter, ED, INPIM participated in one such PIM Yatra undertaken in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

5.6. INFORMAL PROJECT LEVEL COMMITTEES

JalaSpandana facilitated farmers network to evolve into district/project level informal committees in irrigation projects. Farmers participation in main system management is

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felt essential. Although, the PIM policies in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu have envisaged project level committees, only Karnataka is formally making progress in formation of project level committees. Thus, JalaSpandana facilitated formation of informal project level committees to set model and lobby for formation of project level committees in irrigation projects. 5.7. NATIONAL WATER POLICY

As the National Water Policy is published in English and many farmers in the States, particularly in South India are unable to read and digest the same. Thus, JalaSpandana translated the National Water Policy in Kannada, Tamil and Telugu and circulated free of cost to farmers.

5.8. STATE ORGANISATIONS

One of the significant development under FNWSR is the emergence of Farmers Organisation to work exclusively on water related issues with special emphasis on PIM. These State organisations are registered under the State societies Act and have offices in respective States. Pragathi – Farmers Society for Rural Studies and Development, an NGO formed by the farmers/ representatives of water users/farmers already existed in Karnataka. Similar organisation in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu was successfully formed as follows.

JalaSpandana FNWSR activity

JalaSpandana Society in Andhra Pradesh

Pragathi in Karnataka

TVNN in Tamil Nadu

PVNN in Pondicherry

Project/District level, Sub basin and basin level in each State

Diagram 1. State Organizations of Farmers Network

5.9. SOUTH INDIA FARMERS’ WORKSHOPS Under FNWSR three workshops were organised at South India Level were organised in January 2004 at Indian Social Institute, Bangalore, December 23rd 2004 at United Theological College campus, Bangalore and 25th May 2005 at BMP, Urban Health

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Centre, Bangalore. Dr. Peter Mollinga, participated in first two workshops and Mr Raymond Peter participated in third workshop. The agenda of the workshop were to share the project experiences, best practices, intervention methodology, success of PIM and lessons learnt from each of these State and strategies for future action. 5.10. PUBLICATION

JalaSpandana has purchased the domain www.jalaspandana.org and the site is a multilingual website that caters to farmers and other stakeholders with the information on the water sector reforms including capacity building and other on farm activities. JalaSpandana is publishing quarterly newsletter in English and regional languages like Kannada, Tamil and Telugu. In Andhra Pradesh, the title of the newsletter is JALAVANI, in Karnataka it is called RAITHA PRAGATHI and in Tamil Nadu it is called NEERVALAM 6. OUTPUTS 6.1. ANDHRA PRADESH

In Andhra Pradesh, as mentioned earlier that the government was not keen on continuing WUAs after the completion of first term either through holding fresh elections or continuing the existing body. In 2003, farmers network took initiative and met the then Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, Mr. N. Chandra Babu Naidu and demanded to continue WUAs in Andhra Pradesh. There was a direct interaction between the farmers (former representatives of WUAs) and Chief Minister of the State. Further, the farmers network developed itself into pressure groups and continuously build pressure on the government through interacting with bureaucracy and other Ministers. The Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh took a decision to conduct elections to WUAs in thirteen districts that had water in the reservoir during the year. The elections to remaining nine districts was not conducted. The district/project level workshops organised by FNWSR facilitated formation of district level and project level informal committee of WUAs. This committees interacted among WUAs and with department officials to boost the success of PIM. Ground level lobbying for the elections for WUAs in remaining nine districts in Andhra Pradesh. In 2005, state level workshop was organised in which the Minister for Major and Medium Irrigation participated. Farmers presented the policy recommendations and demanded Minster to conduct elections in remaining nine districts. The resolution copy of the workshop was prepared and circulated to Minister for Major and Medium Irrigation, Minor Irrigation, Lift Irrigation, Revenue and Finance Departments. The Government of Andhra Pradesh took a decision just in three days after submission of resolution copy of the workshop to conduct elections in nine districts. The capacity building in irrigation projects was the most neglected part in the irrigation development. Farmers network further conceptualised Participatory Training Programme (PTP) to build capacity of WUAs and farmers on various facet of water management. The concept PTP was shared with Irrigation and CAD, Government of

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Andhra Pradesh, which was further developed by the participation of officers. Mr. S.P. Tucker, Principal Secretary, I&CAD conducted several rounds of workshops to develop the concept PTP and identify NGOs to carry out capacity building in irrigation projects. An attempt is also made to revitalize Water and Land Management and Training and Research Institute (WALAMTARI). The operation and maintenance is yet another issue that needed attention for the successful functioning of WUAs. As per the PIM policy, revenue department is to make apportionment to WUAs, DC and PC out of the water tax amount collected from the water users. This apportionment was not happening for past few years and WUAs were unable to carry out operation and maintenance of canal system and also to function as WUAs. Farmers network had regular meetings with department officials and demanded for apportionment to carry out regularly. Farmers network pursued the issue of water tax collection and apportionment. To a large extent representatives of WUAs were divided over the issue of WUAs taking over the responsibility of water tax collection. Farmers network highlighted the positive elements of WUAs taking over water tax collection responsibility. As a result, many WUAs express willingness to collect water tax collection. The department is considering to hand over water tax collection on pilot basis in irrigation projects where WUAs are expressing interest. 6.2. KARNATAKA

In Karnataka, farmers network made significant landmark in the field of PIM. Operation and maintenance work by the WUAs, appropriate representation of WUAs in Apex body, Cooperative Act versus Societies registration Act were some of the issues raised by farmers network. Informal project level WUAs federation established by FNWSR speed up the process of formation of WUAs, increase membership and project level federation. The members of FNWSR was instrumental in forming federations in Ghataprabha irrigation project and Harangi Irrigation Project. The secretary of JalaSpandana who was spear heading FNWSR became the president of project WUAs federation in Harangi irrigation project in Cauvery Basin. She is the first woman to become the president in a federation that has 86 WUAs with the command area of 54591 hectares. This is an historical achievement in Gender and PIM. Karnataka adopted volumetric supply of water distribution. WUAs and Irrigation Department enter into Memorandum of Understanding to carry out the water management. The MOU with present model is one sided and do not give any leverage for the WUAs to make claims due to breach of contract by the government. One of the significant pre requisite for volumetric supply is fixing the quota and entitlements. This element is overlooked by the department. Thus, volumetric supply is not being carried out in true spirit. FNWSR is working out mechanism with the government to move towards actual volumetric supply. In addition, the issue of water rights and entitlements is also being taken up by FNWSR. FNWSR is helping department officials in implementation of PIM policy. The process adopted elsewhere in forming WUAs, federations, MOU, operation and Maintenance,

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etc. are documented and circulated to officers in other parts of the State. In other words, FNWSR produce documentary evidence to show the progress of PIM in different irrigation projects in the State, this is one of the strategies for speedy implementation of PIM. This approach is very helpful in irrigation projects that has some resistance from the department officials to empower WUAs. 6.3. TAMIL NADU AND PONDICHERRY

Similarly, in Tamil Nadu FNWSR empowered farmers with the contents of State water policy and PIM programme in the State and elsewhere in the country. The networks developed at district/project level started interacting with the irrigation and CAD officials constructively and started demanding the implementation of project level committees. The PIM programme with the fixed area for WUA ran into serious problems in tank systems. FNWSR identified these problems encountered during the elections in terms of the Structure, functions and other logistics and brought to the notice of PIM experts and policy makers. This was realized by the policy makers and considered for changing the area of each WUA under tank systems. At present FNWSR is constructively involved in the policy discussions on PIM in Tamil Nadu. It intends to make PIM one of the major component in the forth coming project taken up by Tamil Nadu under the financial loan from World Bank to the tune of Rs. 3050 crores to take up the project titled Irrigated Agriculture Management of Water Resources Management. The members of FNWSR both in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry became pro active in terms of operation and maintenance of water bodies. WUAs demanded the details of the works tendered to carry out in the area of WUAs and regularly monitored the works. FNWSR also promoted establishment of offices for WUAs and records maintenance. 6.4. Women in Networks A special focus was laid on promoting women in networks, which is found essential to develop awareness among fellow women and build pressure on the government to promote women’s role in WUAs through the necessary amendments to PIM policy in the State. The intensified meetings promoting women participation in WUAs resulted very positively in Harangi Irrigation Project, one of the major irrigation project in Cauvery Basin in which the General Secretary of JalaSpandana (member of farmers network) became president of project level WUCs federation. Trainings were provided to members of farmers network on leadership qualities and motivating the elected representatives. One of the main issues is to avoid confrontation with the other elected representatives in the constituency by way of interacting with them and briefing the activities undertaken by WUAs and achievements like water use efficiency, water tax collection, quality and quantity of work, sense of ownership over canal system by water users and reduction in burden on the State exchequer.

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7. FUTURE APPLICABILITY The FNWSR has immense scope in promoting PIM in South India. It is quite evident from the field experience that the success of PIM lies with intensive struggle between the water users, bureaucracy and elected representatives of other bodies. There is consistent resistance from most of the department officials to empower WUAs. On the other hand, the culture of change in the government or Minister also creates gap in the frequency level of interest extended towards PIM. Most of the state governments express large part of interest in construction of projects and less importance to software component of irrigation projects like empowerment of WUAs. In all these states, the implementation of PIM even to the extent envisaged in the state policy is lagging behind. Under such circumstances, further amendments or modifications in existing policies become mirage when left to the bureaucracy to carry PIM forward. There is need for constant pressure or the lobbying group to ensure successful implementation of PIM and further changes in PIM policy. 8. CONCLUSION Farmers network is the pre requisite for the success of participatory irrigation management that warrants devolution of power from department to water users. FNWSR not only enables negotiate and contest with the government agency but also facilitate building consensus and cooperation from fellow farmers. The implementation process becomes smoother through FNWSR. It is evident from the above text that the FNWSR has created considerable impact on PIM through creating awareness among farmers, direct interaction with the policy makers, facilitating implementation process, etc, with limited financial resources. PIM in these states are majority concern, particularly farmers.

REFERENCE 1. Alders Carine, Haverkort Bertus and Veldhuizen Van Lawrens, (1993): Linking with Farmers Networking for Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture, Intermediate Technology Publishers, U.K. 2. Aw Djibril and Diemer Geert (2005): Making a Large Irrigation Scheme Work, A case study from Mali, The World Bank, Washington D.C. 3. Bauman Parri (1999): Democratizing Development? Panchayat Raj Institutions in Water Shed Development in India in Participatory Watershed Development – Challenges for twenty-first century, Oxford University Press. 4. Doraiswamy R and Bhavanishankar B.S (2001): Irrigation Policy Reforms – Peoples perceptions on the amendment bill to irrigation act of 1965 of Karnataka, Sahayoga, Bangalore 5. Doraiswamy R, et. al, (2003): Farmers Organisation and Water Policy in South India, edited by Doraiswamy R, Mollinga P and Rajagopal A, published by Wageningen University, The Netherlands and National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad, India,

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6. Doraiswamy R and Mollinga P, (2002): Tailenders and other deprived in irrigation in India: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra by A. Rajagopal, R. Doraiswamy, Peter P Mollinga, K.J. Joy and Suhas Paranjape, Irrigation and Water Engineering, Wageningen University, The Netherlands. 7. Doraiswamy R and Gujja B, (2004): Understanding Water Conflicts - Case Studies from South India, Pragathi – Farmers Society for Rural Studies and Development, Bangalore. 8. Doraiswamy R, (2005), Irrigation Policy Reforms in Karnataka, in book Karnataka Economy: Issues and Concerns, edited by Vishwanatha and Jayasheela, published by Academic Publishers, Bangalore. 9. Government of Andhra Pradesh (2004): Annual Report of Irrigation and Command Area Development, Unpublished Report, Hyderabad, India. 10. Government of Karnataka (1995): Brochure on Irrigation Statistics in Karnataka 1993-94, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Bangalore. 11. Government of Karnataka (2002): Karnataka at a glance 2000-2001, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Bangalore. 12. JalaSpandana, (2004, 2005): Farmers Network for Water Sector Reforms in South India, Unpublished Report, JalaSpandana, Bangalore. 13. Hooja Rakesh, (2006): Management of Water for Agriculture – Irrigation, Watersheds and Drainage, Rawat Publications, India. 14. Mollinga P, Doraiswamy R and Engbersen K (2004): Capture and Transformation: Participatory Irrigation Management in Andhra Pradesh, India in The Politics of Irrigation Reform, edited by Peter P Mollinga and Alex Bolding, Ashgate Publishers, London. 15. Naidu Chandra Babu, 2000: Plain Speaking, Viking – Penguin Books India. 16. Vaidyanathan A, (1999): Water Resources Management, Institutions and Irrigation Development in India, Oxford University Press.

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The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT (PIM) IN MAHARASHTRA STATE, INDIA – A CASE STUDY

Dr. Sanjay Belsare1

ABSTRACT Maharashtra has long tradition of farmers’ participation in irrigation management in the form of Phad systems and Malgujari tanks. In the nineties, the first Co-operative Water Users Association (WUA) was established in the Mula Irrigation Project. With its success, Government of Maharashtra (GoM) has been promoting PIM in the State. WUA are responsible for the operation, maintenance and management of the area and receives the prescribed water quota in the form of bulk volumetric supply along with the freedom to grow crops of their choice. Over last 10-15 years, there was appreciable growth in WUAs. There are number of success stories, underlining the importance of WUAs. On the other hand, there are also some instances of no appreciable improvement in performance of irrigation projects with WUAs. To evaluate the actual performance of WUAs a study was conducted, which covers WUAs from various parts of the State. The paper discusses the outcome of this study, reasons for good or poor performance, difficulties in functioning, area which needs attention, challenges in up-scaling etc and steps taken by GOM to solve the difficulties in progress of PIM. The paper also discusses future course of action to strengthen PIM initiatives in the State. 1. INTRODUCTION Maharashtra State is situated in the southwest of India. It is the third largest State (30.8 Mha) with the second largest population (97 million) in the country. Agriculture has been the prominent occupation to provide food and fiber to the growing population of the State. The State economy is dependent upon agricultural production. Irrigation facility is regarded as the key element of irrigated agriculture. The modern agriculture and irrigation practices play a key role in alleviating rural poverty.

1- Dr. Sanjay Belsare - Executive Engineer , Palkhed Irrigation Division, Water Resources Department (WRD), Nashik-2 Fax No. 0253 – 2579904, Email: [email protected]

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2. CLIMATE AND RAINFALL The State has a tropical climate. The annual rainfall varies from 400 mm to 6000 mm. The average rainfall of the State is around 1300 mm of which 88% falls during June to September and remaining between October to December. It has therefore a greater impact on State’s water resources planning. 3. SURFACE WATER RESOURCES The geographical area of the State is divided into basins of Krishna, Godavari, Tapi, Narmada and narrow basins of west flowing rivers of Konkan. The average annual availability in above basins is anticipated as 163.82 BCM, out of which permissible use as per interstate tribunal award is 125.94 BCM. 3.1 IRRIGATION POTENTIAL CREATED

Irrigation potential of hardly 0.274 Mha was created in the State during pre-plan period i.e. prior to 1950. As agriculture is the prominent occupation, the State has concentrated upon construction of irrigation projects. There was manifold increase in irrigation potential creation. By 2005, the State has created 4.0Mha irrigation potential using surface water resources. The State has constructed almost 2700 major, medium and minor irrigation projects, which is around one half of the country’s total population of dams. The ultimate irrigation potential, through both surface water and ground water resources, has been estimated as 12.6 Mha. 4. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PIM Maharashtra has a long tradition of participatory irrigation management. Phad systems in Northern Maharashtra and Ex-Malgujari tanks in Eastern Vidarbha are living examples of it. 4.1 PHAD SYSTEM The Phad system on canals has been implemented since the medieval period on Panzara, Girna, Mosam & Burai Rivers, which flow through Nasik & Dhule districts. Water was diverted by constructing bandharas across these rivers. Several beneficiaries belong to a single Phad. A sole type of crop is used to be harvested in a Phad. They use to cultivate perennial crops in the first Phad, two seasonals in the second, seasonals in the third whereas a crop would be grown in the fourth in case water is available. The crops are rotated in different phads in a 4-year cycle. 4.2 MALGUJARI TANKS The tenure of Gond kings saw the creation of series of tanks in Vidarbha. It is given to understand that nearly 10,000 tanks had been constructed nearly 300 to 350 years back in the districts of Chandrapur, Gadchiroli, Bhandara & Nagpur in Wainaganga Basin through the entirely private enterprise of the Kohali community i.e. by deploying their own money and efforts.

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4.2.1 Development in post-independence period

To encourage participation in irrigation management by farmers, the then Bombay Province in 1947 had created canal advisory committee, block level water committee and corporate body of landowners. In 1976, Maharashtra Irrigation Act-1976 has come into force. The chapter III, section 60, of the act provides for modalities in which water committees are proposed to be formed and to whom water is to be supplied on volumetric basis. Considering National Water Policy-1987 and Maharashtra Irrigation Act-1976, the Government of Maharashtra initiated pilot project of establishing water users’ associations. In 1989, on Mula project Shri. Datta Sahakari Pani Wapar Sanstha has been established in Nevasa Taluka of Ahmednagar Disrtict. The same year 3 WUAs were established in Waghad project of Nashik District. 5. STATUS OF PIM IN MAHARASHTRA The State has broadly divided into six regions viz. Konkan, Western Maharashtra, North Maharashtra, Marathwada, Nagpur and Amravati. These regions have different geographical, social, agro-climatic scenario, which certainly has had an impact on PIM development in the State. The progress of development of WUAs in the State is given below.

Sr. No

Region

Functioning

Total

Agreement is Registered but Proposed over but yet to yet to sign (Under various start functioning agreement stages of formation)

No.

CCA (ha)

No.

CCA (ha) No. CCA (ha) No. CCA (ha)

No.

CCA (ha)

1

Konkan

8

958

5

604

18

2863

59

12829

90

17254

2

Nagpur

37

12955

112

48403

207

90014

549

275478

905

426850

3

Amravati

178

51361

86

26548

309

86914

589

251356

1162

416179

4

North Maharashtra

190

66492

142

41272

195

64086

73

21460

600

193310

5

Western Maharashtra

309

73027

30

3600

267

69372

1958

482599

2564

628598

6

Marathwada

138

63321

87

37965

272

135394

67

20851

564

257531

Total

860

268114

462

158392

1268

448643

5885

1939722

3295 1064573

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5.1 SUCCESS STORIES OF PIM

There are many success stories of PIM. Waghad Project, Nashik is a medium project having CCA 9642 ha. As stated earlier, PIM started with 3 WUAs in tail end, now WUAs are formed all over the command area. The WUAs have formed project level federation, which is successfully managing irrigation of the entire project. Similarly, Katepurna Project, (Akola), Manar Project, (Nanded), Kukadi Project, (Pune) and Choolband Project, (Gondia) have shown remarkable improvement in project performance with PIM. The Pimpalnare Project, (Nashik), Tekepar LIS, (Bhandara) and Bramhanwada Project, (Buldhana) are successful examples, exhibiting improvement in utilisation and diversification as a result of practicing PIM. 5.2 EVALUATION OF WORKING OF WUAS FUNCTIONING IN THE STATE

Directorate of Irrigation Research and Development (DIRD), Pune is established in 1969. It is a state-level organisation dealing with research in irrigation management and drainage works. DIRD has field offices throughout the State. This organisation is also entrusted with work of monitoring and evaluation of WUAs in the State. In order to know the working of WUAs in the State, GoM has carried out evaluation of functioning WUAs in the State. Total 439 WUAs throughout the State have been taken up for the study. The regional breakup of these WUAs is as follows 8 from Konkan, 64 from Marathwada, 139 from Western Maharashtra, 150 from North Maharashtra, 8 from Nagpur, 70 from Amravati. For this purpose information was collected through specially designed questionnaires. The DIRD has compiled all the information and analysed it. The analysis came out with the following findings. 5.3 GENERAL FINDINGS

The general findings of the evaluation study are summerised below. Konkan region is coastal region having plentiful rainfall. However, it is backward in irrigation and PIM development is negligible. The Western Maharashtra’s north part is drought prone and is irrigationally developed. It shows significant development in PIM. It is also worth to take note of Amravati region where PIM movement is gathering momentum in recent time due to appreciation of benefits of PIM, by the farmers. There are WUAs having: x CCA between 100 to 250 ha

42 %

x Chairman aged above 40 years

77 %

x Chairman working for more than 2 years

79 %

x Irrigation throughout the stretch of the canal

69 %

x Users numbering between 100 to 200

51 %

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Evaluation of WUAs brought to the fore following facts:x After transfer of management to WUAs, it has shown that there is x Improvement in irrigation efficiency in 66 % WUAs. x 34% WUAs have diversified their cropping pattern by growing wheat, sunflower, cornflower, soybean, sugarcane, banana, gram, orchards and flowers. x Watercess recovery in 34 % WUAs has increased due to establishment of WUAs. x The management grants and O & M grants are partially disbursed to 48 % of WUAs. x As much as 31% of WUAs have balance amount at their disposal and accounts of 40% WUAs have been audited. 5.4 LEARNINGS

Some important lessons learnt are as follows: x WUAs are generally formed in tail areas. For success of PIM, it is necessary that WUAs be formed throughout command area. x WUAs are still reliant on the Government, for want of management and maintenance subsidy. x It has seen that there is no sufficient increase in membership after formation of WUAs. x In majority cases, canal systems are transferred without rehabilitation of the system. Also there is no fixed time schedule for completion of rehabilitation work, which is generally subject to availability of funds. The condition of canal many times restricts sustainable development of WUAs. x The WUAs are registered under the Co-operative Act. As Co-operation Department is loaded with their own work, least attention is being paid on sustainable development of WUAs. x WUAs have apprehension about securing due water quota provided in the agreements. 5.5 REASONS BEHIND SLOW PROGRESS OF WUAS

Some of the basic reasons for slow progress are given below: x Canal system needs to be rehabilitated before transfer to a WUA. However, deferred maintenance due to inadequate O&M funds deteriorated the canal system, prolonging its transfer to WUAs.

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x Farmers had a feeling that Government is completely responsible for supply of water to them and thus forgo any help in maintaining it. x Lack of funds caused untimely or sometimes no disbursement of grants to WUAs slowed down the growth of WUAs. Inadequate training and capacity building of members of WUAs and lack of understanding and enthusiastic support from the Department officials causing meager progress in the objective of spreading the WUAs across the State. 5.5 CHALLENGES

Government of Maharashtra (GoM) has now made mandatory to supply water for irrigation through WUAs only. So far 2590 WUAs are registered on 875 Thousand ha, while 3295 WUAs covering 1064 Thousand ha are under various stages of formation. GoM has prepared Master Plan for formation of another 7500 WUAs on remaining 2.7 Mha area in coming 5 years. The real challenge however lies in making WUAs selfsustainable. It is observed that impact of PIM is restricted to few success stories. It is our objective to upscale it without loosing its quality and impact. There are challenges in upscaling, some of which are as below. 5.6.1 Challenges in up scaling of PIM

x Simple procedure for formation of WUAs x Time bound rehabilitation of canal system before transfer to WUAs x Huge requirement of funds for rehabilitation x Training and capacity building of members of WUAs as well as field officers x Re-engineering of lower level management staff x Political will and commitment of the Department x Self-sustainable design of WUAs x Conflict management among WUAs and with canal officers x Monitoring and evaluation 5. REFORMS INITIATED BY THE GOM The GoM has been pioneer in implementation of PIM. There are number of successful examples of PIM. The approach of Maharashtra has been gradual but convincing. During last 3-4 years, GoM has initiated a number of reform measures supporting PIM.

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In July 2001, GoM has taken policy decision to supply water for irrigation through WUAs only (with a timeframe). The supply of water will be on bulk volumetric basis. The volumetric measurement of water for irrigation is in vogue in Maharashtra since 10-15 years. The farmers are well aware about volumetric measurement. Farmers have freedom to grow any crop within the water quota given to WUA. The charges of water are also increased in 2001 to meet O & M of the canal system. The increase is almost 1.5 to 2 times of previous water charges. To clear arrears from farmers, innovative scheme has been launched. The participation of farmers is not only sought for management but farmers are involved in planning, construction of minors also. It has been made mandatory to form WUAs before construction of minors. The GOM has also decided to set up the Maharashtra Water Resources Regulatory Authority (MWRRA) to regulate water resources within the State. It will facilitate and ensure judicious, equitable and sustainable management of water resources of the State. 6.1 MAHARASHTRA MANAGEMENT OF IRRIGATION SYSTEM BY FARMERS To empower WUAs, the GoM has enacted the Maharashtra Management of Irrigation Systems by Farmers (MMISF) Act 2005. 6.1.1 Salient Features of MMISF Act

MMISF has various innovative provisions to strengthen the PIM initiative. The MMISF act lays down simple easy procedure for formation of WUAs. The registration of society shall be done by the Water Resources Department itself. Salient features of the Act are as follows : x Water for irrigation shall be supplied to WUAs only x Water will be supplied on volumetric basis x WUAs have freedom of cropping pattern x Adequate representation to tail enders and women members is provided in the management committee of WUA x Time bound programme of completion of rehabilitation works before transfer to WUAs x All landholders or leaseholders must be member of WUAs (unlike earlier 51% of landholders or 51% users). 6.1.2 Process adopted for enactment of the Act

The draft of bill has been prepared taking into consideration the best practices available in the PIM. The draft is discussed among users, NGOs, experts at various regional centers before translating it into a bill.

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The bill was introduced in assembly for approval. Considering the importance of bill, joint select committee of legislative members of all major parties from both the houses is formed. The joint select committee has deliberated clause-by-clause provisions and suggested suitable changes therein. Any act should reflect the people’s common feeling which make the act acceptable to masses. The MMISF Act will go a long way in strengthening the PIM cause. The enactment of MMISF Act 2005 has cleared the way to go in for PIM in full swing. 6.2 STEPS TAKEN BY GOM TO STRENGTHEN PIM

Maharashtra has a long tradition of co-operative movement in the State. The cooperative movement has been very successful in finance sector (e.g. banking) as well as industrial sector (sugar factories). The co-operative movement is a way of life for everybody in Maharashtra. There is consensus among all political parties to adopt participatory approach in irrigation management. The MMISF bill is thoroughly discussed with all party members of the legislature. Minister for the WRD has headed the committee and taken lead in forging ahead the PIM movement in the State. In irrigation management, farmers have already welcomed PIM approach but it has not so far been adopted on big scale due to limitations discussed earlier. But with assured flow of funds for rehabilitation, an exclusive act for PIM on scene, there will be no difficulty in mass implementation of PIM. There are number of good examples of WUAs promoted and supported by field officers. Top level as well as middle level officers is convinced about PIM and there will be positive support from the Department’s side. GoM has taken a number of initiatives to facilitate effective and speedy implementation of PIM. Some important initiatives are as follows: 6.2.1 WUAs model

As described earlier, MMISF bill has taken utmost care to provide WUAs model, which will be self-sustainable and also have adequate authority to discharge functions smoothly. There will be a legal agreement between WUAs and competent authority, safeguarding due interest of WUAs with commitment to provide bulk water use entitlement. The appropriate powers of canal officers (Section Officers, Deputy Engineers and Executive Engineers) are delegated to WUAs as per provision of the bill. WUAs will now have to deal with only WRD for day-to-day functioning as well as, registration, auditing etc. WRD will provide full technical support in initial years to facilitate working of WUAs. The adequate representation is being provided in managing committees of WUAs to members from tail, middle and head alongwith due representation to women. The WUAs will be allowed to keep certain portion of water charges for management,

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operation & maintenance of the canal system. The effort has been made to adopt best practices in this or other sectors within the State as well as in other states. The bill provides clear and fair arrangement for conflict resolution among WUAs and canal officers. Due opportunity is given to aggrieved party to place their grievances before an impartial forum. 6.2.2 Effective communication with WUAs

An utmost care is taken in developing effective communication with WUAs. The dialogue between WUA and Department as well as with other WUAs is vital for success of PIM. Therefore it is planned to have workshop twice a year, wherein difficulties and possible solutions are discussed vis-a-vis WUAs, field officers and policy makers. The feedback of the workshop will be used for under taking suitable corrective measures in implementation of PIM. It is also planned to publish newsletters fully devoted to PIM to appraise the developments taking place in PIM in different parts of the State. It will help in exchanging information as well as sharing experience in order to take this movement ahead. It is also under active consideration to institute an award for best performing WUAs to appreciate their effort and motivate others to work better. 6.2.3 Training and Capacity Building

Training and Capacity Building plays crucial role in taking ahead the PIM movement. Water And Land Management Institute (WALMI) will act as nodal institute in training, which will impart training to officers, member of WUAs, Trainer of Trainers (TOT) and will also play role of mother NGO. As WALMI infrastructure may not be sufficient to conduct training of field officers as well as members simultaneously. It is proposed to carry out training with trainers’ team consisting of experts from irrigation, agriculture and social sciences. These trainers’ team will be trained at WALMI, which in turn trains functionaries and field officers at field level. The training activity is designed as continuous wherein training will be provided as per needs and with the development of PIM. It has also been planned to take help of NGOs to nurture the WUAs and facilitate WUAs in discharging their functions.

6.2.4 Maharashtra Water Sector Improvement Project

To carry out rehabilitation of canal system in time bound manners, the GOM has taken up Maharashtra Water Sector Improvement Project (MWSIP). The MWSIP envisages transfer of management to WUAs after adequate rehabilitation. To inculcate ownership among farmers, farmers have to contribute 500 Rs. /Ha in rehabilitation of the canal system. The system will be rehabilitated to carry the designed discharge, through the canal and disnet.

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6.2.5 Monitoring and evaluation of WUAs

Last but not of the least importance is, monitoring and evaluation of WUAs in the State. It is very important in case of any developmental activity, particularly in social development, wherein timely monitoring evaluation and undertaking corrective action is necessary. If right action is not taken at right time, there will be a lot of damage to the development accomplished and sometimes it would be difficult to move ahead. Therefore, it is proposed to have monitoring and evaluation through third party directly reporting to decision-making level. The consultant will collect information through well-designed questionnaire and through Management Information System. The corrective action will be taken based on timely feedback. A co-ordination committee is established, consisting of WUAs from different regions, NGOs, policy makers and few field officers, to facilitate working of WUAs. The coordination committee will meet at least once in a quarter. 7. WAY AHEAD The GoM has also enacted Maharashtra Water Resources Regulatory Authority Act to regulate water resources within the State. It will facilitate and ensure judicious, equitable and sustainable management of water resources of the State. It provides water use entitlement to individual farmers. Conferring water use entitlements to individual farmers will be path-breaking development in irrigation sector in India. There is also a provision of transfer of water use entitlements for maximizing irrigation use efficiency. Therefore, MMISF Act coupled with MWRRA Act will consolidate PIM and will ensure the sustainable development and management of water resources in the State. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Maharashtra has long tradition of Participatory Irrigation Management. In nineties, Water Users Associations (WUAs) are formed in irrigation projects on pilot basis, but as of now WUAs are formed in length and breadth of the State. A study was conducted to evaluate performance of WUAs functioning in the State. The aim of the study was to find out improvement in performance before and after transfer of irrigation management to WUAs. The study has provided insight into hindrances in functioning of WUAs and measures to improve its effectiveness, which in turns improves the performance of irrigation projects. It reveals the reasons behind the slow progress and also highlights important learning and challenges to upscale PIM in the State. GoM has initiated series of reforms to strengthen PIM. A stand-alone act (MMISF Act - 2005) has been enacted to provide legal backing to WUAs. The water for irrigation will be supplied volumetrically through WUAs only and there will be legal agreement between WUA and competent authority. The act adequately empowers WUAs to discharge their functions with delegating appropriate powers of canal officers to WUAs. The State has gone further in providing water use entitlement to individual farmers and establishment of independent water resources regulatory authority to ensure judicious, equitable and sustainable management of water resources of the State. It is observed that Irrigation management transfer improves the service delivery as well as financial performance of the Project. It is not time to discuss whether to go in for

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PIM or not, but to up-scale it without loosing its quality and impact. There is need to have committed support from WRD and timely efforts to build WUAs to shoulder the responsibility. It is also essential to strike harmony between goal and efforts of Govt., NGO and Community. The Maharashtra case study would provide insight into important aspects of PIM and possible measures to strengthen WUAs movement. Though Maharashtra approach to PIM is gradual, but with reforms in place and changed mindset of officers of WRD and farmers, PIM could lead to sustainable irrigation management.

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The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN QAZVIN AREA

A. Ghasemi1, S. A. R. Razavi2, A. Yousefi3, A. Lashgari4 & M. M. Rahmani5

ABSTRACT Since last fifty years, gradual progression in management style of irrigation and drainage systems supported by promotion of people's participation in management trend has faced the government-oriented or hindering mechanisms to critical challenges at global scale. Genesis of this mind-set could largely facilitate evolution of change management through the four-stage process including: diagnosis, denial, cooperation and participation. The largest infra-structural establishment of Qazvin was created during 60s and 70s. It enjoys 1200 km. concrete canals bearing conveying capacities of 30 m3. The network imitates a telescopic model in operation with hydro-mechanical diversion and checks (Amil) installed at its upstream. The Irrigation Management system in Qazvin (QIM) also follows full public governance as being experienced everywhere across the country. This traditional management, parallel to over-dated structures has left nothing but a depreciated and inefficient network in Qazvin. A holistic plan for capacity building and empowerment of local farmers was founded in the province to develop a participatory management and promote due changes towards optimum utilization and maintenance of the network. The initiative is reliant on a treeshaped model and consists of: farming groups, water users associations, unions and their apex Federation at provincial level. Upon direct election of farmers' representatives and formulation of legal instruments, managerial and maintenance affairs in main and lateral canals were gradually transferred to the local clients. Presently, many commitments encompassing structural rehabilitation and water distribution have been shifted to the farmers in Qazvin, followed by logistic and 1- M.Sc. in Irrigation Structures, and Managing Director of Qazvin Irrigation Management Co. (QIM), & Initiator and Executive of Qazvin Participatory Irrigation Management Project. Address: Shahid Bahonar Bulvd., Qazvin, Iran. Tel: +98281-2233-187, Email: [email protected] 2- Director of Planning Affairs in QIM Tel: 09127809890 Email: [email protected] 3- Director of Int'l Affairs - Dept. for Extension and Farming System, Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture (MOJA) Tel: 09123394834 Email: [email protected] 4- Director of Engineering Affair in QIM, Tel: 09121825791 Email: [email protected] 5- Director of Technical Affairs in QIM, Tel: 09122827745 Email: [email protected]

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administrative works handled by private sectors. Dynamic involvement of the young men and women at managerial and technical levels scattered at WUAs branches or Federation posts remarks for outstanding aspects of the PIM system in Qazvin. To date, the mode applied for creation of CBOs (community-based organizations) and legislation of NGOs in terms of Water Users Association (WUAs) in Qazvin, generates a national pattern over the state. Keywords: Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM), Participation, Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT), Empowerment, WUAs, NGOs, CBOs

1. INTRODUCTION In addition to professional mind-sets, well-designed policy and a 20-year perspectives (National Development Horizon in year 2022) supported by National Constitution (Article 44), have demonstrated a clear horizon for NGOs’ development especially in the process of Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM). Presumably, fundamental studies would contribute to discover the reasons behind the poor performance of irrigation operations, as well as, low productivity of agricultural activities and their barriers. Lots of ongoing challenges and inconsistencies in irrigation networks are referred to mismanagement of the related systems. Shedding light on the public bodies’ function, removal of parallel duties, simplifying operation cycles, developing accountable management system, and generating a committed management to mobilize peoples’ participation, would greatly create a spring board for organization and empowerment of farmers’ communities , and ultimately, for changing the traditional water management at national scale. The target area intrudes the Taleghan River Basin bearing an extension of 1000 km2, containing the Qazvin irrigation network with 80,000 (ha) surface areas. Qazvin Development Project (QDP)1 has foreseen to distribute an average discharge of 460 m.m3/y into 278 (m.m3) for agri-business purpose and 20 m.m3 for artificial recharging of water- tables in Qazvin plain. The grand and multi-purpose Project has provided noble opportunities for provincial development, particularly in cultural, social, infrastructural and occupational dimensions just next to political and economic pole (Tehran) of the country. To this end, various and large production enterprises been so far established which reinforce the basic changes in the area. There emerged also several challenges and disparities during 30–year management process of the irrigation network in Qazvin, mainly owing to the following reasons: -

Poor utilization of the network’s structures;

-

Off–service status frequently reported from hydro-mechanical Checks, C.H.O, and Turn- out gates;

1 -Formerly registered as "Ghazvin Development Project-GPD" by the World Bank

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-

Illegal offending in the network witnessed by creating numerous farm outlets as well as unauthorized wells; and

-

Fatal events due to frequent fall of the vehicles or people into the canals.

The overall 5-year plan adopted by Qazvin Irrigation Management Co. (QIM) could organize 30,000 local farmers’ under 158 Irrigation associations and 9 unions dominated by an apex Federation. Since 2002, organization and transferring network management to CBOs (Community-Based Organization) deserved central priority and agenda by QIM, which fortunately, led to successful implementation. This initiative was basically accepted and supported by the Ministry of Jihad–e–Agriculture, and the National Water Resource Management followed by assignment of QIM as the national pilot for PIM commencement.

2- CHANGE AS DRIVING FORCE IN DEVELOPMENT Organizations require fresh and dynamic thoughts and approaches for their existence and progression. For improving the living standards in the evolving pace of the current status, it is inevitable to emphasize on identification of changes in the surrounding environment, as well as, derivation of adequate responses to new conditions. Innovation and creativity account for core aspects of competent organizations and individuals. The initiative seriously stresses on educating potential managers as the core elements of continued improvement and builders of due capacities for qualified man powers to undertake new commitments. Meanwhile, certain technical groups have to be shaped to liaise with public and private sectors .To realize this principle, proper ground should be paved for shaping specialized groups at public or private sectors. Political and social forces shall accelerate or hamper development of new organizations. Recent changes and their sustainability happened in socio-economic and political settings, relies on governmental efforts bestowed to ongoing institutional and thinking reforms. Identification and examination of bottlenecks and the factors behind certain misunderstanding, as follows, assumed for the initial steps to attract the beneficiaries' confidence: I.

Gaps or inconsistencies in rules,

II. Mispromising of some authorities, III. Inefficiency of few executive bodies, and IV. Poor reaction of judicial system against the offenders. The existing executive or administrative bodies, particularly, setting fresh cooperation and interaction with farmers, would subject to change through enhanced capacities and creativities amongst the players and farmers of the same area. Qualitative concept of "competency–oriented influence" consists of three elements including capability, accountability and morality represent. If farmers & beneficiaries control the above mentioned condition, it will be effective in the process of empowerment and it will develop CBOs.

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3- EXECUTIVE PROCESSES OF PIM IN QAZVIN The Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) initiative started its operation since 2002, using local potentials within a 3-year schedule and three general stages: first stage: the company's bound, second stage: Qazvin province bound, third stage: national level. Key characteristics of this idea focus on setting an inter-communication among all institutional processes, in a sense that, the precedent stages have to be well–established in the following years. Organization of the WUAs in Qazvin plain followed on the identified local requirements and specifications. This task has to get built upon the speed and ease in detection and meeting the needs of every area, and to wards this target, the initiative confronted diverse cultures and sub-cultures with varying aspirations raised over the vast plain in Qazvin. 3.1. FIRST STAGE:

This stage comprised of confidence–building, system–development, planning, databanking and processing within the QIM premises (staff and target clients) during 2002-03. The most significant prerequisites for development of participation in different activities, spell out for in-depth belief and basic support dedicated by top managers. The proposed legal management system in the network entails the following key measures: 1- Collecting the beneficiaries’ views and consulting them to reflect the barriers and inconsistencies; 2- Setting full–coordination in all planning and decision–making processes; 3- Examining the collected views and perspectives followed by offering useful suggestions; 4- Directing general mind–sets toward improvement of social, cultural and economic affairs; and 5- Collaborating in the processes of execution and supervision of related techno– economic plans. Organization of local irrigation management, as a reliable bed for transferring possible commitments, relies on general culture and technical background of the individuals concerned, and will put into practice through attracting the beneficiaries and building reciprocal confidence. Designing local irrigation management was tracked by consolidating common hierarchical interactions and ties, followed by election of managers and practitioners at different levels within the system. Different tiers of election and representatives are shown in diagram 1.

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Head of the Federation Managing Directors of the Federation (3 persons)

Third stage

Managing Board of the Federation (11 persons) WUAs Managers (158 persons) WUAs Managing Board (1000 persons) Farming Group heads (3000persons) Farmers (30,000 persons)

Second stage First stage Before operation

Diagram 1. Election and institutionalization for PIM development in Qazvin

Various programs been foreseen and fully implemented in this stage including: -

setting flow–chart cycle;

-

formulating IMT model;

-

Collection of basic information as statistics on lands, landowners, and water needs;

-

cropping patterns of the area under channels III;

-

Derivation of due indicators for information classification;

-

Encoding the joint turn–out spots (6 digits);

-

planning on due methodologies and matrices for election of farmers’ representatives in neighboring plots (100 & 1000 ha.);

-

Water–logging in combined wells; and

-

drafting typical agreements for water supply and network exploitation based on 158 turn-out points in channels III

3.2. SECOND STAGE:

This stage encompasses coordination, organization, institutionalization, and establishment of local irrigation management especially on canals II, completed in Qazvin during 2003-04? The operational range of the IMT stepped beyond the QIM and even covered key executive institutions at provincial level. Other important measures, as follows, were also taken into account and completed during this stage: -

Registration of 30,000 farmers from 88 population centers;

-

Assigning the managers in farming blocks;

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-

Encoding the farmers’ representatives ;

-

Filing the related 158 WUAs and dispatching them to the provincial Office of Cooperation for certification;

-

Transacting the file containing Article 5 of the Act on “optimum use of agri– water for WUAs” to provincial Water and Agriculture Authorities;

-

Concluding proper agreements on water supply and utilization; and

-

Forwarding financial issues and order registration affairs for WUAs’ operations on canals II.

Meanwhile, the procedure for structuring the Local Irrigation Management pursued the following steps: (i) Planning for viable and comprehensive participation of local users in exploitation and maintenance of the network, in line with, deserving due entitlements for CBOs and WUAs. (ii) Volumetric submission of water to farmers’ representatives at specific points, and based on approved cropping pattern i.e. cereals 50%, summer crops 25%, and fallow 25%. (iii) Formatting and prioritizing certain tasks and operations as indicated in Table 1 below: Table1. Structural and organizational sequences of PIM in Qazvin No.

Farming unit

Farming area (ha.)

CBOs' working domain

1

Plots

10-20

Farmers' Representatives

2

Groups

20-100

Group-heads

3

Blocks

100-1000

WUAs

4

Area

1000-10,000

LIM/ Distributors

5

Agricultural Pole (Qazvin plain)

Gross 80,000 ha. Net

60,000 ha.

Apex Federation

Following shows the flowchart of the water users’ arrangement in Qazvin which was approved and operated by General Assembly in 2005:

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"Diagram2". Flow- chart of the Federation and its lower tires in Qazvin plain

3.3. THIRD STAGE:

This stage included activation of provincial Federation, regulation of inter-relationships between the local offices and unions, rendering technical services, transferring the shares, and entrusting the ownership with partial failure, during 2004-05? This stage was partially geared to national level and hence, its completion relies on new policy and legislation to be reformed and circulated later on. During this stage, few obligations adopted, as follows, but not yet covered due to certain legal or administrative obstacles standing far beyond the QIM liabilities: -

land surveys and cartographic operations (Cadastre Mapping ) over the WUAs domains;

-

Supplementing the available documents by precise re-examination of the network’s segments and status;

-

Preparing official minutes on transferring of channels III and IV to the WUAs ;

-

Transferring the QIM shares to the new local users;

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-

Refunding the water rate in favor of network rehabilitation; and

-

Official devolution of the canals ownership to the WUAs.

In the third stage, the QIM, as the planner and operator of this initiative, could implement possible mandates as described below: -

Expansion of water-ordering registration and checking the requests across the water rights;

-

Rendering water sale and services at local irrigation management offices (on Canals II); and

-

Activation of the Federation for practical involvement of the farmers in operation and maintenance of the network.

4. PIM DEVELOPMENT IN QAZVIN AND ITS IMPSCTS 4.1. TRAINING THE STAFF AND WUAS MEMBERS

Normally, administrational systems together with working cycles and methodologies always tend to retain the ongoing and daily commitments. Training and disseminating the new approaches developed by top managers of executive institutions play a basic role in promotion and change of such passive system. To this end, appropriate training courses were conducted towards up-scaling knowledge and potentials of QIM and Federation staffs. The foregoing courses were designed and practiced at large scale and in cooperation with other organizations. Following are the courses convened by QIM during the past 4 years: -

Training course on PIM development implemented as group–works for managers, experts and technicians, followed by weekly meetings participated by QIM, Federation and unions’ Managers. As a whole, 36 work–groups were formed on organizing suggestion system.

-

Training course on utilization and maintenance of the irrigation system which run for two weeks and targeted some QIM and Federation staffs to raise their knowledge and proficiency.

-

Training course on social prevention and protection which aimed at prevention of offending in the network area, and conducted in collaboration with provincial judicial authority for 170 participants of QIM and local users.

-

Training course on IMS (quality, environment, professional hygiene and immunity), which operated in cooperation with R.W.T.U.V Iran Co1. Of Iran and focused on promoting internal auditing of IMS for experts and technicians in QIM and Federation.

-

Training course on First Aids which realized to make the staffs and members prepared against probable events during operation or even beyond the network

1- A German agency responsible in certifying certain standards and qualification in Iran

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limits. This course was carried out for 40 hours in cooperation with National Red Crescent Organization at A and B levels in 2006. -

Training course on machinery operation and maintenance which launched for 40 hours to upgrade the drivers’ competency at Alborz Industrial Complex.

-

Training course on fire-extinguishing practices performed at QIM to expose QIM and Federation staffs to fire suffocation methods in assistance with provincial techno –vocational organization and Fire- Station in 2006.

It seems convention of successive training courses, as well as, participatory working cycle for proceeding current and developmental businesses have underlined the PIM success in Qazvin. 4.2. GENERAL ACTIVITIES AND INFORMATION DISSEMINATION

Active participation at national/international conferences related to management of irrigation and drainage, and exchanging the findings have always been regarded as crucial priorities in the QIM. To this end, the Company developed and activated its web-page in 2005, followed by another page for the Federation in the next year. This web station now stands for the first e-news forum of non-governmental irrigation management across the country. 4.3. Roles of the youth and women in the project

Creation and fixing occupational status together with self–confidence would contribute in rising managerial pace and impacts of the youth and women communities. They are so qualified and strong that can jointly launch continuous struggle against poverty and construct their homeland. Many of them shared in development with their intrinsic motivations and powers. Simultaneous with the Associations or Federation operation's in Qazvin , and gradual commitment in the largest irrigation network of the area, numerous empowered men and women stepped in and undertook crucial functions at medium or high positions. They occupied key professions as managing directors, accountants and planning managers in the Federation or the local irrigation offices. Presence of female top managers next to the male authorities in agricultural CBOs, has generated well– structured organizations for enhancing the irrigation management system with appreciable achievements at provincial scale. To date, the gender ratio governing on employed experts and technicians depicts a prevalence of the females to males (57%). They also possess a reasonable ratio (40%) in general occupations distributed at various services in Federation and the local irrigation offices (Diagram 3)

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˼̵̢ ˞̂˱ ˼˟

Person

1264

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

18

12 9 4

5

5 1

0 ̰̮ʵ́˷˼́˽ Under Diploma ̰̮ʵ́˷ post Diploma Gender:

3

3

Diploma

̰̮ʵ́˷ ̡̣̼Bachelor̵̀˜̭̂͂ Total ̬ʾ ̘̲˭

ˤ̶͂̂˭

Female ̳˽

Male ˷

Diagram3. Gender comparison on WUAs staff in Qazvin 4.4. Impacts of PIM implementation

The PIM in Qazvin was set into fruit through: -

Planning for balancing or reduction of incompetent man powers;

-

Transferring subsidiary functions to external operators; and

-

Paving the way for WUAs’ participation in utilization and maintenance of the network ;

This initiative generated authentic outcomes, as follows, which gradually extended to target beneficiaries: 1- Facilitation of office works or field operations through narrowing functions;

the network

2- Down-sizing the public interventions and hence, balancing the number of staff at QIM; 3- Reduction or even stopping the users’ approaches to public offices, and in particular, to QIM by 95%; 4- Introduction of local irrigation management in channels II, III and IV and remarkable save in people’s cost and time; 5- Devolution of passable functions to local people and gradual substitution of public sector by CBOs; 6- Defending of farmers’ rights according to the proposed conical chart of accountability; 7- Transparency of interactions between the farmers and governmental bodies , and possibly reduction of organizational offending and corruptions;

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8- Separation of responsibilities and equitable distribution of water and expansion of social justice; 9- Reduction of water losses and seepages in favor of promotion in irrigation performance; 10- Reflection of useful comments for improved utilization and maintenance of the network; 11- Planning for controlling and removal of unauthorized or non-standard turn–outs; 12- Saving in water consumption for its subsequent impacts on exploitation and control of Qazvin water-catchment. 13- Raising productivity through fixing, maintaining and utilizing the network; 14- Setting minutes on submission of the network and its segments followed by bedding for essential protection of national assets. 15- Confirming the theory on effectiveness of participatory irrigation management (PIM) or consultation in Iran ; and 16- Creating employments for experts or technicians at Unions and Federation scales. 5. RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1. TRANSFERRING THE FUNCTIONS TO THE LOCAL CLIENTELE

Regarding the incredible progressions made by PIM in Qazvin, it is strictly recommended to apply public funds or subsidies in harmonization with the Federation’s opinions. There seems reliable stand provided to refund the water charges for required repairs and maintenances to be handled by Federation. 5.2. BASIC STUDIES AND INFORMATION DISSEMINATION

So far, extensive studies made to yield proper strategies for devolution of network’s functions and leadership to CBOs shaped in Qazvin. Now, its time to disseminate gradual information on PIM to attract attention and assistance from all players and practitioners involved. Besides, emphasis should be a attached to disclosing each and every corner of the initiative, followed by blocking anymore parallel studies and costs on IMT approaches. Along this trend, certain supplementary field-oriented surveys are also identified for possible convention and analysis. 5.3. SEPARATION UTILIZATIONS

OF

MANAGEMENTS

IN

WATER

RESOURCES

AND

Scholars highly stress on distinction of supplying and utilization of commodities owing to the core differences seen in their natures. The reason strongly stands behind formation of various production as well as utilization bodies in major fields as oil , gas, electricity, tele-communication, “water and sewage water” , etc. , whereas , the water sector still suffers from certain intermingled affairs in managerial fields, and pending for rational solutions to be outlined by eminent experts or managers. It seems, however,

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that the promising scenario adopted by electricity sector (comprising of separated supply and use divisions) shall be duplicated for water sector, as well. 5.4. FULL DEVOLUTION OF COMMITMENTS TO WUAS

It is suggested that all commitments foreseen in micro–water allocation to agriculture sector, followed by water resource protection, network and its premises control and supervision are handed over to provincial water utilization body. Presumably, few modifications applied to water management system of the M.O.E, shall provide a tailormade platform for such switch–over in obligations.

6. REFERENCES 1. Archives, Provincial Office of Jihad-e-Agriculture- Qazvin ; 2. Archives, Qazvin Irrigation Management Co. (QIM) 3. Aivani, Sayeed , Mahdi PH.D. 1995. “General Management”, Nei publication. 408 pages 4. Arvin-Pajouh Research–Cultural Institute 2000. Exposure to Participation System as Infra-structure for World and Islamic Advanced Management. Publication of Oil Ministry. 280 pages. 5. Bayani P. Ofrecio. Nov. 2005 Participatory Development and Management: A Corerstone of Philippine Irrigation Program, Tsukuba Asian Seminar, Japan 6. Central Secretariat of Urban Water Management. 2005. Tehran, Promotion of Women’s Role in Water Management, 238 pages. 7. Ghasemi, Ali. 2005. Tehran, Iran Regional Center on Urban Water Management Tehran Workshop on Women’s Participation in Water Management, (proceeding) 8. Morhead, G. & Griffin, R. 2003 translated by Alvani, Sayeed, Mehdi PH.D . & Memarzade, G.Reza.PH. D. 2003. Morvarid publication. 571 pages 9. Proceedings of the 11th Conference of the National Committee of IrrigationDrainage in Iran. 2003. No. 83 10. Sustainable development in a dynamic world: Transforming institutions, growth and quality of life. 2003. The World Bank

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007

STAKEHOLDER VIEWS ON THE MIRAAB SYSTEM FOR PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT OF MODERN IRRIGATION SCHEMES IN IRAN

Najaf Hedayat1 and Keith Weatherhead22

ABSTRACT Rural reforms in Iran have changed the land holding regime, cropping pattern, and market system. A study of stakeholder views on the modern Dez and Moghan irrigation schemes has suggested farmers and extensionists agree that the existing canal management is not sufficiently responsive to the new challenges of agriculture in the post-reform era, and that a more participatory management structure could help resolve the problems in water delivery. Iran already has a long-standing and successful model for participatory farmer management in the millennia-old Miraab system (Shaarebin) used for managing the Karezes and Qanats in the arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. This would appear to be a suitable model on which to build. The survey responses indicated that all three stakeholder groups (farmers, extensionists and water agency staff) would support the implementation of a management structure based on the Miraab system. All three groups indicated they thought that the government would support such a change. Detailed interviews, however, suggested that farmers and extensionists thought some water agency staff would resist its implementation as a threat to their existing authority. The research confirmed the importance of consulting different stakeholder groups, who might have different attitudes and perceptions of the problems and potential solutions. Keywords: Stakeholder views, Participatory management, Mirhaab, Iran

INTRODUCTION Agriculture is a vital sector of the Iranian economy contributing about 25% of the GDP. It employs about one third of the workforce in a country where there is a high rate of unemployment among the younger generation in rural areas (MoJA 2002). The Third FYP (1999-2004) aimed at achieving an annual expansion of irrigated land by 3.8% 1- Islamic Azad University, Dezful, Iran; 2 - Centre for Water Science, Cranfield University, MK43 0AL, UK. Tel +44 1525 750111 [email protected]

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with a corresponding annual increase of 4.4% of water supply for agriculture. However, water management in many of the schemes is poor. It is mostly conveyed, controlled and delivered through unlined canals (Anhaareh Sonnati), resulting in its rudimentary and wasteful use (MoJA 2002). The MoJA estimated the application efficiency of about 30 % in the Dez and 20% in Moghan. This causes of poor farming and adverse environmental impacts. The Dez and Moghan are the two largest modern irrigation schemes in Iran. They were originally designed to be operated by the state agencies and provide services for predominantly large agribusinesses. A major change in rural Iran after the Revolution in the late 1970’s was a land reform programme redistributing some of the former agribusiness’ lands among the small landless farmers. This was followed by a change in the cropping pattern that ideally necessitated a more flexible and reliable water delivery schedule than original rigid rotation regime was able to meet. Problems that have been observed and documented by various sources (e.g. MoJA 2002, Keshavarz 1993), including those observed by the lead author during his professional field visits, include: x Land fragmentation and tenure system in both schemes. x Uneven irrigation due to poor land levelling. x Environmental problems such as soil salinity, water logging and drainage problems (particularly in Moghan) due to poor O&M of the canals and imprudent on-farm practices. x Poor water conveyance and control systems, and hence poor delivery at the farm gates, arising from inappropriate design and inadequate or deferred maintenance of the hydraulic structures. x Lack of transparent authority over canal management, communication and cooperation between various stakeholders.

causing

poor

Direct management of the water distribution system by the state agencies appeared to have placed the farmers on a dependency situation and denied them the opportunity to participate in their O&M.

THE MIRAAB SYSTEM AND PARTICIPATORY FARM MANAGEMENT The Miraab system is a traditional Iranian water management institution that was used for operating and maintaining the Karezes and Qanats in arid and semi-arid regions of the former Persian Empire, including the location of present Iran. Until recently, these artificial subterranean hydraulic structures were widely used to supply water for irrigation and domestic use, not only in the central desert regions but also in some semiarid parts of Iran such as Dezful, where the Dez irrigation scheme is located (Behnia 1988). The Qanats and Karezes, of various lengths and shapes, were exclusively operated and maintained by private owners (most of whom were members of the farming community) through their representatives known locally as the Miraabs, Aabyaars and Tilmaaj (Malakqasemi 1996).

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The Miraab system was basically a bottom-up water management model whose operational principles were based on the service concept. In other words the needs of water users (e.g. efficient and reliable service delivery) within a given resource availability determined the ways in which the Miraabs operated and maintained the system. Their self-sufficiency in managing all the operation and maintenance (O&M) duties of the Qanats was assured by direct labour or financial contributions of the water users. In earlier times, the feudal landlords generally made their contributions in cash or crops, whereas farmers either offered direct labour or a package including labour, crop and cash. Certain farmers traded their water rights and devoted themselves full-time to the O&M duties in return for wages. Still others used the Nizaameh Moshaaee, a land pooling system for crop sharing with their neighbouring farmers, and rotated the O&M duties and farm works among themselves. The Miraabs had responsibility for making decisions on all aspects of O&M, including. collecting water charges and solving conflicts over water allocation, but were ultimately accountable to the Showrayeh bahrebardaraan (the supreme Miraabs council), which represented the whole farming community. Although the Qanat system is an old civil engineering concept, the Miraabs (as major operators and users) recognised the importance of introducing modern technology to meet the water requirements of their beneficiaries. The Qanat operators, through the Miraab system, have begun to incorporate modern design concepts such as the construction of concrete dams along the underground conveyance galleries in order to store water in the pools when the demand was minimal. They have also installed some heavy-duty pipes and valves in certain Qanat networks for more efficient water control, conveyance, and distribution. They have recognized the benefits of introducing modern maintenance techniques and better materials to make the operations simpler and the use of labour and financial resources more efficient. The indigenous Miraab system played a key role in sustaining the rural structures and livelihood of the farming community, for example in the central desert regions of Iran such as Ardekan and Yazd (Dehqanpoor 1999). This integrated approach to water management is suggested as a more cost effective and sustainable model for the management of the surface irrigation network.

STAKEHOLDERS’ VIEWS Stakeholders’ views were used to investigate the water delivery problems and their causes on the Dez and Moghan irrigation schemes, and then to investigate their views on alternative management systems. After preliminary field visits, four workshops were organised to identify the main issues. A survey was then undertaken of 100 farmers, 50 government agricultural extension officers and 50 water agency staff, augmented by 36 interviews. The major problems of water delivery relevant to the Dez and Moghan were identified by the workshops as inequitable allocation, inflexible supply, group conflicts and adverse environmental impacts. However, there was a significant difference in perceptions of the stakeholders surveyed n the nature and sources of the water delivery problems. The farmers and extensionists

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perceived inequity and inflexibility due to poor O&M in the main and secondary canals as the most important water delivery related problems. In contrast, the water agency staff regarded group conflicts over water allocation and adverse environmental impact, due to mismanagement of the tertiary and quaternary canals as well as poor on-farm practices, as the most important. Notably, the farmers and extensionists had similar views on all issues except on water charges, where the extensionists (agreeing with the agency staff) thought that it would be impossible to improve the water delivery without increasing the charges. In contrast, the farmers thought that higher charges alone would not help, because the problems lie with inadequate design of the hydraulic structures and the present inappropriate canal management system. The perceptions of respondents on modernization options varied. The farmers and extensionists regarded neither purely technical nor purely non-technical changes as adequate. The perception was that the farmers, extensionists and the agency staff, in that order, would support an integrated Miraab system as an appropriate management option. Although the survey responses suggested that all the stakeholder groups would support the Miraab system, the responses from the interviewees suggested that that the majority of the farmers and extensionists thought the senior water agency staff would resist it. The farmers and extensionists alleged that the agencies’ resistance was linked to their anxiety of losing authority in canal management. The response of the agencies was that they were willing to support the change but were doubtful of its chances of success, because the extensionists have not yet prepared the farmers to take up the new challenges. All three-stakeholder groups regarded the central government’s support for the change in the present system as crucial, and in their view it would be forthcoming.

CONCLUSIONS The Miraab system is an indigenous farmer-managed system that offers a viable alternative to the present state management system. All the stakeholder groups surveyed indicated they would support its introduction, though some doubts were expressed in interviews about senior water agency staff. It is suggested that farmer organizations should take the government’s interest in irrigation management transfer as a window of opportunity to take up the stewardship of, initially, the tertiary water distribution system. They should use their indigenous knowledge to achieve the flexible demand management required for viable modern farming. The commitment of farmers and support of other stakeholders are both crucial for success of the Miraab systems in the new working context. Successful management of the tertiary canals would be a good start for the ultimate establishment of the full farmers’ stewardship of the main and secondary canals in the future.

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REFERENCES 1. Dehqanpoor, M.R (1999). Qanats as the blood shrines of the Yazd croplands. A report (in Persian text) prepared for Soil and Water Management, Yazd Provincial Agricultural Department, Iran. 2. MoJA (2002). Managing water in irrigated agriculture. A text in Farsi published by the Technical and Specialist Training Group, Department of Technical and Infrastructures Affairs, Ministry of Jihad Agriculture, Iran. 3. Keshavarz, M.A. (1993). Improvement of the farm level infrastructures. A report in Farsi prepared for the Deputy Ministry for Infrastructure Affairs. Ministry of Agriculture, Iran. 4. Behnia, A. Sadeqiattaar, M and Kaveh, F. (1993). Irrigation efficiency under the Dez command area. (An unpublished report in Farsi). 5. Malakqasemi, D. (1996). Water Policy in Iran. A report prepared for the Deputy Ministry in Technical and Infrastructure Affairs, MOA, Iran.

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