Phaeton Magazine Issue 02

PHAËTON NEWSLETTER OF THE LONDON HISTORY OF SCIENCE SOCIETY VOLUME 1 ISSUE 2 www.historyofscience.co.uk

The use of Nazi research – an ethical dilemma

Plus: Science policy: technocracy or democracy? Astronomy and 18th-century navigation Event and book reviews Calendar of forthcoming events

Inside cover

Contents Editorial

5

Minutes of theinaugural meeting of theSociety

6

Photos

8

Recent society events

10

Immoral science: Nazi medical research

12

Calendar of forthcoming events

18

Technocracy or democracy: science policy

20

Clocks, chartsand almanacs

24

Book review: ‘The PeriodicTable’

28

Albert Einstein Photographed by Oren J. Turner (1947) 3

London History of Science Society Committee

Julia Flint

Nick Seeber

President

Chairman & Editor of Phaëton

Hen Crichton Treasurer

Sam Kuper Secretary

Rob Melville Event manager

Michael Nevard Webmaster

Kat Steger Campaign director

4

Editorial Welcome to the second issue of Phaëton – I hope that you will find it absorbing, interesting and entertaining. During the last few months the London History of Science Society has been very active: we have grown in members, and organised a number of events. Phaëton, however, has suffered due to my busy schedule: more time has passed than I anticipated since the first issue was published. I hope that the quality of writing we feature in this issue will be adequate recompense for the wait. The cover story, Michael Nevard’s exploration of the ethical problems with using data from Nazi medical research, is a compelling and thought-provoking article which I am sure will stir up passionate debate and differing opinions. Julia Flint investigates how decision-making for national science policy can be truly democratic, given the general lack in public scientific knowledge and understanding on which I commented in the last issue. My own article is on maritime navigation in the 18th century – a topic which has been covered in popular science writing before before, but which I hope you will find bears examination nonetheless. In this issue we also introduce book reviews, inaugurated by Joseph Nevard on Primo Levi’s The Periodic Table. We also feature reviews of the events the society has organised and attended in the last few months, photos from the launch party, and details of forthcoming events in London over the summer. Finally, I’m delighted to bring to your attention the new and improved website, where you will find not only digital versions of Phaëton, but also a calendar of forthcoming events, a discussion forum and the latest Society news. Looking forward to a fascinating summer, Nick Seeber London, 15 May 2007 [email protected] 5

Minutes of the Extraordinary General Meeting of the London History of Science Society H e l d o n 1 7 t h N o v e mb e r 2 0 0 6 a t 9 . 3 0 p m T h e P i n t P o t , 1 8 3 To t t e n h am C o ur t R o ad , L o n d o n , W 1 T 7 P D Present:

J u l i a F l i n t – P r e s id e n t N i c k S e e b e r – C h a ir m a n H e n r i e t t a C r ic h t o n S a m K up e r Rob Melville Michael Nevard Kat Steger

Late:

(none)

A p o l o gi e s :

(none) Secretary’s note:

T h e m i n u t e s a r e n ot p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r . D u r i n g t h e m e e t i n g , t h e r e w e r e s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s w h e n a n um b e r o f separate discussions were being held simultaneously. For clarity, I h a v e d e c i d e d t o s e t t h e p r e c e d e n t o f tr a n s c r i b i n g b y s u bje c t f r o m t h e h a n d - w r i t t e n mi n u t e s . T h e r e s u l t i n g t r a n s c r i p t i o n t h e n o r d e r s t h e s ub j e c ts i n t h e m o s t r e a da b l e f a s h io n . I b e l i e v e t h a t th i s p r o c e s s p r e s e r v e s a l l n ec e s s a r y s e m a nt i c a c c u r a c y . Ea c h m e e t i n g ’ s m i n u t es are to be agreed at the start of the following meeting.

Special business T h e P r e s id e n t a n d C h a i r m a n w e l c o m e d al l p r e s e n t t o t h e inaugural meeting of the London History of Science Society. Each p e r s o n p r e s e n t w a s p r e s e n t e d w it h a c o p y o f Ph a ë t o n ( v o l . 1 , i s s u e 1 ) a u t o gr a p h e d b y t h e P r e s i d e n t an d C h a i r m a n . T h e P r e s id e n t a n d C h a i r m a n a g r e e d t h a t o t h er t h a n t h e m s e lv e s , t h o s e p r e s e n t w e r e p e n d i n g m e mb e r s o f t h e S o c i e t y , p o s s e s s i n g e q u a l r i g h t s t o m e mb e r s .

A. Approval of agenda A v o t e w a s n o t c a l l e d , b ut n o - o n e o b j e c t e d t o t h e a g e n d a .

B. Approval of previous minutes T h i s b e i n g t h e i n a u gu r a l m e e t i n g , t h e a p p r o v a l o f p r e v i o us m i n u t e s w a s no t o n t h e a g e n d a .

C. Open issues T h i s b e i n g t h e i n a u gu r a l m e e t i n g , t h e r e w e r e n o o p e n i s s u e s .

D. New business D . 1 . E l e c t i o ns o f O f fi c e r s T h e P r e s id e n t p r o p o s e d t h a t H e n r i e t t a Cr i c h t o n s h o u l d b e t h e S o c i e t y ’ s Tr e a s u r er . T h e C h a ir m a n s e c o n d e d t h e p r o p o s a l . A n

6

o p e n v o t e w a s h e l d , w i t h a l l p r e s e n t i n fa v o ur o f t h e p r o p o s a l . I n the same way, Rob Melville was elected Events Manager. T h e C h a ir m a n p r o p o s e d t h a t S a m K up e r s h o u l d b e t h e S o c ie t y ’ s S e c r e t a r y. T h e P r es id e n t s e c o n d e d t h e p r o p o s a l . A n o p e n v o t e was held, with all present in favour of the proposal. In the same w a y , M i c h a e l N e v ar d w a s e l e c t e d W e b ma s t e r a n d K a t S t e g e r w a s e l e c t e d C a m p a i g n Di r e c t o r . D . 2 . A i ms , O b j e c t iv e s , M a n i f e s t o T h e a i m s o f t h e S o c ie t y w e r e d i s c us s e d b r i e f l y . A l l p r e s e n t s e e m e d b r o a d l y i n f a v o ur o f t h e m a n i f es t o p ub l i s h e d i n t h e f i r s t i s s u e o f P h a ë t o n . Th e p r o p o s a l s o f •

p ub l i s h i n g P h a ë t o n q u a r t e r l y o n 1 5 t h F e b , 1 5 t h M a y , e t c ,

•

f o r g i n g l i n k s w it h t h e R o y a l S o c i et y , a n d

•

a r r a n g i n g d i n n e r me e t i n g s ,

w e r e s u p p o r t e d b y al l p r e s e n t . T h e C h a ir m a n o f f er e d t o h o l d r es p o n s ib i l i t y f o r e d i t i n g a n d p ub l i s h i n g P h a ë t o n e v e n i f i t m e a n t r e l i n q u i s h i n g h i s C h a i r m a n s h ip – t h o u g h i n t h e e n d t h is w a s n o t f e l t t o b e necessary. N o -o n e w a s a s s i g n ed t h e t a s k o f fo r g i ng l i n k s w i t h t h e R o y al Society. T h e d u t y o f a r r a n g in g d i n n e r m e e t i n g s w a s s e e n t o b e t h a t o f t h e Events Manager. D . 3 . A d m i n is t r a t io n c o s t s , fu n d i n g a n d m e m b e r s h ip f e e s ( r e mo v e d o n p ub l i c a t i o n ) D . 4 . P a t r o n a g e a n d r e c r u it m e n t ( r e mo v e d o n p ub l i c a t i o n ) D.5. Call for articles T h e C h a ir m a n i s s u e d a c a l l f o r a r t ic l e s t o b e s ub m i t t e d fo r p ub l i c a t io n i n t h e ne x t i s s u e o f Ph a ë t o n.

E. Any other business T h e S e c r e t a r y p r o p o s e d t h a t at e a c h m e e t i n g , a t l e a s t f iv e m in u t e s o f d i s c u s s io n s h o u l d b e m a n d a t e d t o b e d ev o t e d t o t h e h i s t o r y o f s c i e n c e . Th e P r e s i d en t s e c o n d e d t h e p r o p o s a l , a n d i t w a s u n a n i m o u s l y v o t e d fo r . A d i s c u s s io n o n t h e H o o k e f o l io e n s u e d .

F. Agenda for the next meeting To be set.

7

Photos from the inaugural event

8

9

Society events 17 November 2006

By removing the notes from the gaze of

Lecture on the Hooke Folio

the Royal Society, and in more recent times generations of Historians of Science,

The president reports: The inaugural event

Hooke shot himself in the foot as no

of the London History of Science Society

record remained of his invention, leaving

was held on Friday 17th November 2007

the

in a lecture theatre at UCL. The pioneering

priority

of

Huygens’s

watch

unchallenged! The hitherto unseen pages

members attended an enthralling Royal

of the folio have shed light on Hooke’s

Institution lecture given by Lisa Jardine

claim which, previously been believed to

entitled ‘The Rediscovered Hooke Folio:

be unfounded, has been disputed for

What Happened Next?’

centuries.

As an authoritative Robert Hooke expert,

The lecture closed with some thought-

and author of the popular book, ‘The

provoking comments about the ‘business’

Curious Life of Robert Hooke’, Lisa

of science, the developing of protocols and

Jardine was able to offer us a riveting

standards to which scientists have to

insight into the history of this newly

conform, and to which Robert Hooke was

discovered folio. The folio was discovered

so bad at conforming.

in a “country house” in “Hertfordshire” (although a Freudian slip led us to suspect

After

the

lecture,

drinks

and

light

that its actual location was somewhere

refreshments were served to the audience

entirely different).

at the venue and the members of the Society had the opportunity to talk to

The folio consists of Hooke’s transcripts of

Professor Jardine. Mr Sam Kuper was

the proceedings of the Royal Society,

introduced to the members of the Society

copied from the minutes taken by Henry

by Prof. Jardine and was admitted as a

Oldenburg, his predecessor as secretary

member forthwith.

of the Royal Society. These pages are followed by Hooke’s own rough notes from his

time

as

secretary.

Lisa

Inaugural meeting of the Society

Jardine

believed that Hooke had removed the

The Society then rejoined to a local

minutes from the official transcripts of the

hostelry and held the inaugural meeting of

Royal Society in order to painstakingly

the Society. The minutes were captured by

prove, perhaps amongst other things, his

the new secretary of the Society, Mr Sam

claim to the invention of a pocket watch

Kuper, and can be seen on page 7 of this

before Christian Huygens published his

issue.

design in 1675.

10

Photos of some of the members can be

entertaining and salutary insight into the

seen on pages 8-9. For copies of the

lives of Boswell and his contemporaries.

photos please contact the President.

From sheepskin condoms to mercury medicines,

the

Chairman

heard

how

eighteenth-century Londoners battled the

4 February 2007

pox.

President’s dinner The members of the Society were kindly

5 March 2007

invited to have dinner with the President at her London residence. Over a delicious

More on the Hooke folio…

dinner

was

Professor Jardine gave a follow-up talk on

discussed, ideas for future event proposed

the Hooke folio to an audience at the

and new friendships made. It was decided

Cambridge University Library. This was

that the next dinner would be hosted by

attended by the Secretary who informed

the Chairman, with a date to be decided.

the society that some progress had been

the

history

of

science

made in the study of the folio. A report by the Secretary will follow in a further issue

27 February 2007

of Phaëton.

In Armour Complete: Practising Safe Sex in the Eighteenth Century 21 March 2007

Famously ‘indelicate’ in his choice of female

company,

the

diarist

The Last Man Who Knew Everything:

James

Boswell enjoyed a lifelong relationship with

Thomas Young

‘Signor Gonorrhoea’. Alternating between

Young’s most recent biographer, Andrew

bouts of unrestrained licentiousness and

Robinson, gave a talk at the Royal College

bitter

of Surgeons on this incredible man – a

remorse,

Boswell's

history

of

venereal disease was probably typical of

pioneer

in

so

many

many men and women in Georgian

medicine,

London.

mathematics,

Natasha McEnroe, Museum Manager of

navigation. The Chairman bought a copy

the Grant Museum, UCL, provided an

of Robinson’s book – a review will be

linguistics, actuarial

fields:

physics,

Egyptology sciences

and

forthcoming in the next issue of Phaëton.

11

Immoral science: Ethical problems posed by Nazi research

expendable

lead

to

the

creation

of

comprehensive programs of such research into hypothermia and hypoxia. The work was organised by the SS under the control of Heinrich Himmler, and was led by Dr Georg Weltz a radiologist. Initially the work experimented on animals but the research was extended to human subjects, which

Michael Nevard

were conducted by Dr Sigmund Rascher. This body of work is perhaps the most

What are the limits of science? In the

clear

example

of

the

journey towards knowledge of the world,

ruthlessness of the Nazi scientific mindset,

and faced with the innumerable problems

which was also applied to research on

of research, some scientists left behind

malaria, antibiotics, chemical weapons,

any humane or ethical restrictions in

poisons,

pursuit of results. Perhaps some of the

techniques. Due to its strong backing from

most horrifying examples of this took place

the government, detailed documentation

in Nazi Germany during the Second World

and results have survived and can be

War. At the Nuremburg Trials, twenty-

analysed today.

weapons

brutality

and

and

surgical

three doctors and scientists were charged Where

with war crimes and crimes against

does

the

evidence

of

these

experiments come from? At the end of the

humanity for their role in experiments

war,

carried out on unwilling prisoners in

amid

jubilation

in

their

home

countries, the Allied forces in Germany

concentration camps, and participation in

faced the grim task of uncovering the

the mass murder which took place there.

details of the crimes that had occurred

For what end was science perverted in this

under Nazi rule. Major Leo Alexander of

way? And is it possible for any of the

the US Army Medical Corps, was given

results to be used by reputable scientists?

the task of investigating the so-called the

‘scientific research’ into hypothermia which

German military was faced with a host of

had been carried out at the concentration

problems concerning its servicemen in

camp Dachau. His 1946 report, “The

hostile environments. In particular the

Treatment

Luftwaffe desperately wanted to improve

Exposure to Cold, Especially in Water”,

the survival of its airmen at high-altitude

also known as the “Alexander Report”,

and after having fallen into the icy waters

includes his analyses of both human and

of the North Sea. By 1941 the use of

animal

experiments of human subjects to provide

information from interviews with some of

knowledge of these problems was seen as

the perpetrators. This document, included

essential, and the general attitude of

as evidence at the Nuremburg Doctors

viewing certain groups in society as

Trial, provides a clear and dispassionate

During

the

Second

World

War,

12

of

Shock

from

experimentation,

as

Prolonged

well

as

account of the atrocities committed in the

devised: the first, to determine the human

acquisition of the results and has proved

body’s response to freezing water; the

to be a controversial document since it

second, to test and evaluate various

was written. The reason is that, given the

rewarming techniques for hypothermia

lack of controlled scientific evidence into

victims. All of these experiments were

hypothermia, reputable scientists have

carried out at Dachau concentration camp

wanted to cite the report as evidence in

in Germany, under the direction of Dr

their

Rascher.

research.

questionable

Over

time,

scientific

both

validity

the

of

the A wooden tank measuring 2x2x2 metres

results, and the ethical defensibility of

was

using information obtained in such an

of

what

happened

water

and

ice

and

and 2.3°C. The experimental subjects

about scientific ethics. We shall give a account

with

maintained at temperatures between 12°C

immoral way, have fuelled a wider debate

brief

filled

were placed in the tank, sometimes

at

dressed in the uniform of a German

Dachau, look at the possible scientific

airman,

value of the results, and consider some of

and

sometimes

naked.

The

subjects’ rectal and skin temperatures

the ethical questions they raise.

were monitored along with their heart Tanks Of Ice

rates. Both blood and urine was sampled to test for a range of effects. In the

By the summer of 1942, the Nazi scientists began

a

program

of

study

rewarming

into

sets

of

experiments

various

techniques were tested: rapid rewarming

hypothermia using human subjects. Two principal

experiments

with a hot bath; body-to-body rewarming;

were

packing in blankets; vigorous massage of the whole body; diathermy of the heart (using a electrical current to heat the heart tissue), and various chemical stimulators. The human cost of these experiments is not easy to quantify. The suffering caused to individuals was certainly extreme, and there many fatalities as well as unknown long-term effects. The Alexander report stated

that

107

experiments

were

performed on unconsenting prisoners, of which at least 13 died. However, Walter Neff, an assistant to Rascher claimed that up to 300 subjects were involved with 80 to 90 fatalities. The identities of the individuals used are not known but it Heinrich Himmler

appears the priority for subject selection

13

from Dachau’s diverse prisoner population

rewarming where, in this case, the victim

was: Jews, foreigners, gypsies, criminals,

was forced to lie next to a nude female

and political prisoners.

subject.

Some evidence was found that the type of

In

clothing worn by the victim did affect the

Auschwitz to determine whether the rapid

cooling process and certain protective

rewarming method would be successful for

outfits could minimise the danger of

victims of cold-air-induced hypothermia. In

hypothermia. The physical condition of the

spring 1945 Rascher and his wife were

victims also effected the rate of cooling

imprisoned by the SS, and after a failed

with emaciated subjects experiencing a

escape attempt they were executed just

faster

being

two weeks before the Allies entered

immersed in the water. Violent shivering

Dachau. Although the reason for his

and stiffening of the limbs took hold as the

capture and death is not known, it is

skin temperature dropped rapidly in the

thought that Himmler, in charge of both the

first 5 minutes of exposure, and after 40 to

SS and the scientific program, was trying

50 minutes in the tank the face of the

to prevent Rascher testifying against him

subject turned blue. At a core temperature

after the end of the war.

temperature

drop

after

early

1943,

Rascher

moved

to

of 31°C, consciousness began to cloud Is it science?

and as the temperature dropped further the

heart

beat

became ragged

and

In many cases of unethical and illegal

irregular. Between 25.7°C and 24.3°C the

experiments carried out in the name of

subject died of cardiac arrest. Of seven

science there is

known victims of this method, the total time of immersion before death was between 53 and 106 minutes. The rewarming results

indicated that

immersing the victims in a hot bath (40°C to 50°C) was the most effective way to treat

the

particularly

hypothermia to

reverse

victims the

and highly

dangerous ‘afterdrop’. The ‘afterdrop’ was the phenomena when the victim’s core temperature continued to drop even after being removed from the water, explaining why rescued pilots sometimes died halfan-hour after being rescued, even after attempted rewarming. In general the other techniques were shown to be relatively ineffective

particularly

Sigmund Rascher

body-to-body

14

very little recorded

information that survives the demise of the

possession. Immediately after the war, the

perpetrators. This means that the full

cooling curve from the Dachau results (the

horror of the crimes committed and the

rate at which the core temperature of the

true suffering of the victims slips into

victims

unrecorded history. However, in the case

measurements from US pilots that had

of the Nazi hypothermia research Himmler

been rescued from cold water. The non-

himself

were

fatal portion of the Dachau data seemed to

discovered by Major Alexander even

fit well with these other results and so

though the labs themselves had been

seen as reasonable. The data were also

completed destroyed before the Allied

used as part of investigations into the

troops arrived at the concentration camps.

viability of using hypothermia to preserve

kept

records

which

fell)

was

compared

to

the life of the heart during open-heart Since

this

data

was

discovered

surgery. A set of studies on temperature

researchers in hypothermia have used and

variation, and some on the cardiovascular

referenced the Dachau data. This has in

system

turn sparked a highly-charged debate

referenced the Dachau data,

primarily to corroborate particular findings.

about whether the findings have any scientific validity, and whether it is right to

Aside from these example of the data

reference them in contemporary research

being used, many scientists have had

papers. It appears that American military

significant

scientists had little doubt about the validity

argued that Rascher was not a trained

of the data that had survived in Himmler’s

researcher, and since he clearly was a

The gates of the concentration camp at Dachau

15

reservations.

Some

have

sadistic murderer he cannot really be

standards. At the time, small numbers of

trusted. However he worked with two main

experiments

collaborators Holzloehner and Finke who

considered sufficient evidence to support a

did have the required scientific credentials,

hypothesis without the requirement for

and the work seemed to have been used

controlled repetition and statistical analysis

within the Luftwaffe and Wehrmach in a

of significance. It is also evident that,

way which suggests the Nazi’s had no

under the pressure of war, experiments

problems with the results’ credibility. On

would

the other hand, Andrew Ivy of the

documentation limited to the essentials

University of Chicago, who evaluated the

only. This lack of reported detail does not

data for the Nuremburg trials, suggested

show

this greatest of medical tragedies was

necessarily shoddy, especially as most of

compounded by the fact that they added

the

“nothing

destroyed.

of

significance

to

medical

and

have

that

case

been

the

researchers’

studies

rushed

and

methodology

own

were

papers

was

were

science”. However later he conceded that It seems then that, from a utilitarian point

some of the data were “obviously good”

of view, the findings from Dachau did have

and there had been “some very worthwhile

some value, and were certainly used for

results”.

various worthwhile ends. However, some Doctor Robert Pozos, a specialist in

people, including relatives of victims, and

hypothermia at the University of Minesota,

survivors,

believes that most of the data obtained

accepting the data’s validity gives some

already existed from

kind of acceptance of the Nazi philosophy

experiments on

believe

been conducted on volunteers by dropping

believe that if it can be used for some

their core temperature by 2°C or 3°C, with

good end, and particularly if helping to

no risk of death. Recent studies of

save lives, then the data should be used in

rewarming

also

an appropriate and respectful way. As we

attempted to partially replicate the Dachau

have seen, the findings from Dachau have

experiments but under safe, controlled and

already

humane conditions. Rascher’s conclusion

scientific ends, and this cannot be undone.

that

However this debate is highly relevant to

body-to-body

ineffective

was

rewarming

corroborated

researchers

dismissed

findings

useless

as

the

because

was

but

used

for

Conversely,

partially

that

have

it.

even

animals, and the experiments could have

techniques

produced

that

various

others

worthwhile

science as a whole.

the

Dachau of

Never Again?

the

“emaciated condition of the subjects as

In our discussion we have only looked at a

well as questions regarding the protocol

small part of

and accuracy of the results”.

the Nazi

experimental

programme; concentration camp inmates and other unwilling human subjects were

Another problem is the difficulty of judging

also used to investigate: altitude sickness,

the Dachau research by modern scientific

16

drinking sea water, infectious diseases,

There are, in fact, many real life cases

battle

where

injuries

and

their

treatment,

the

same

crucial

dilemma

is

and

involved: how should science treat work

sterilisation, and research related directly

that was done unethically. After the

to ethnic cleansing policies. It is also

Second

apparent

unethical

scientists were taken to the United States

programmes have, at various times, been

to assist with the arms race against the

carried out under other governments

Soviet Union, ignoring the fact that some

across the world, particularly in countries

may have been involved in unethical

at war.

experimentation.

chemical

weapons,

that

fertilisation

similarly

World

War

many

Today

with

German

differing

moral views towards human cloning and It is useful here to consider how science

embryonic stem-cell research the same

should deal with possible contemporary or

issue is raised, but without the added

future cases of military scientists using

complexity of considering the ethics of

people deemed as ‘expendable’ to further their

governments

aims.

Consider

weapons research. If you are a professor

a

who believes that abortion is a moral

hypothetical future scenario: a repressive

wrong, how can you assess the work of a

regime is developing biological weapons

colleague who believes the opposite?

and to in order to protect its soldiers it is

What about quoting that research in one of

also secretly testing antidotes to these

your own papers?

agents on political prisoners sentenced to death. Given that the scientists involved

Inevitably the whole debate over the use

have

of

been

educated

at

respected

data

from

unethical

research

is

universities, and have access to current

dependent on individuals’ own ethical

scientific thinking, it is possible that the

codes and on how they view the place of

research could be seen as valid with

science in society. It also reflects one’s

respect to the latest scientific standards.

position on how far individual’s rights

Given this, what would be the right thing to

should be subservient to the greater good.

do with a report on this work that fell into

In the face of war, or great suffering

the hands of a right-minded researcher

caused by disease there will always be the

from an opposing nation? Should she

tendency to push aside the limits of what

destroy or ignore the report? or would it be

is acceptable, but some people believe

more ethical to use the results to help

that any use of results obtained in this way

develop

possible

is not justified, even at the loss of scientific

forthcoming biological attack? It seems

progress. With the Dachau hypothermia

likely that most people would say the

data it has been used by reputable

findings from the unethical source should

scientists, but accompanied with a clear

be used if it is scientifically valid, cannot

explanation of how the results were

be gained from other ethical sources, and

obtained, and the suffering inflicted on the

could have a direct impact on saving lives.

innocent victims. Whether even this is

vaccines

against

a

acceptable is up to you.

17

Calendar What happened to the polymaths? Oliver Morton, Andrew Robinson & John Whitfield Wednesday 16 May 7.00pm (£8/£5) Lecture Theatre 1, The Royal College of Surgeons of England Join the News Editor of Nature and this series' speakers to discuss why there are so few modern polymaths, and if there ought to be any at all.

Society visit to the Foundling Museum

The Asiatic Enlightenments of British Astronomy Simon Schaffer

Saturday 9th June 4pm (£5/£4) 40 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AZ The Foundling Museum tells the story of the Foundling Hospital, London's first home for abandoned children and of three major figures in British history: its campaigning founder the philanthropist Thomas Coram, the artist William Hogarth and the composer George Frideric Handel. This remarkable collection of art and social history is now housed in a restored and refurbished building adjacent to the original site of the Hospital, demolished in 1926. Up to a thousand babies a year were abandoned in early 18th-century London. In 1739 Thomas Coram established a “Hospital for the Maintenance and Education of Exposed and Deserted Children” which looked after more than 27,000 children until its closure in 1953. The Foundling Museum tells the story of the foundlings, how they lived and displays the many poignant objects relating to their lives at the Hospital.

Wednesday 23 May 5.30pm (Free) Lecture Theatre 1, The Cruciform Building, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT. Followed by a reception in the Wilkins North Cloisters The crises of empire and their impact on our own cultures are high on the contemporary political agenda. The status of western sciences plays a major role in these debates. Some claim that their global dominance demonstrates the supreme value of one kind of knowledge; others that their worldly rule depended on the militant projects of imperialism. Complex encounters between British astronomers and scientists were played out in Bengal where, in 1789, an Arabic translation of Newton’s Principia Mathematica was produced by a Shi’ite scholar and political agent. How and why was this work conducted?

18

How the media promotes the public misunderstanding of science Ben Goldacre Tuesday 26 June 7.00pm–8.30pm (£8/£5) Small Hall, Friends Meeting House, Euston Road, London NW1 2BJ From MMR to the formula for the worst day of the year: every day in the media we are bombarded with miracle cures, hidden threats, amazing breakthroughs, and wacky boffin stories. But is there any evidence behind them? Often there is none: but we can find patterns in the dirt, reflecting broader themes. If we are charitable, the pace of medical development has changed since the golden age of medicine, and the many smaller, incremental discoveries of modern medicine don't lend themselves so readily to exotic headlines. But there are also more sinister forces at work. Bizarre and bad science reporting in the media may well be the product of ignorance among journalists, and the need to sell readers to advertisers. But more than that, these stories are often planted by people with clear personal and commercial interests, who exploit the flaws in the media's approach to science for their own gain. And if the stories weren't so funny, it would all be very upsetting.

Islam and Medicine Aziz Sheikh, Salim Khan & Ehsan Masood

Society Summer visit to the Chelsea Physic Garden

Thursday 19 July 2007 7.00pm-8.30pm (Free, but book in advance) Wellcome Collection, 183 Euston Road, NW1 2BE

Date to be confirmed, please check the Society website (£7/£4) 66 Royal Hospital Road, London SW3 4HS Situated in the heart of London, this 'Secret Garden' is a centre of education, beauty and relaxation. Founded in 1673 by the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries, it continues to research the properties, origins and conservation of over 5000 species.

How do Islamic-era ideas of the human body compare with Western medical theory and practice? Join a doctor, a Hakim (traditional physician) and a philosopher to explore how two different medical systems are trying to live together in the modern world. What implications do these different views present for us as patients? Speakers include Aziz Sheikh, Professor of Primary Care Research and Development, University of Edinburgh, Salim Khan, Director, Mohsin Institute, Leicester. The discussion will be facilitated by journalist Ehsan Masood.

19

Science Policy: Technocracy or democracy?

Throughout this era peer review alone was used

to

regulate

science,

and

the

autonomy of scientists was unchallenged by those outside the scientific community. Alongside this, a ‘deficit model’ postulated that the public did not understand enough

Julia Flint

to make science policy decisions, and that any public resistance to science policy

Science policy decisions affect every one

was due to their misunderstanding of the

of us.

science.

So, why should a government

department decide, for example, which Cases of alleged fraud in science in the

vaccinations our children should have?

1980’s

Nick Seeber’s article on popular science

In 1998, Dr. Andrew Wakefield challenged

understand enough about the prevalence,

the technocracy. He published a paper in

aetiology and prognosis of childhood

‘The

diseases to be able to make informed

Lancet’

suggesting

a

possible

causative link between the combined

decisions about vaccinations. In the past

Measles, Mumps and Rubella (MMR)

this has led to a ‘technocracy’ where the

vaccination and autism. He concluded that

experts make the decisions, dismissing

single vaccines should be given instead,

the views of the ‘ignorant and uninformed

and

public’1. But does this lack of education or any

of

important to be left only to the scientists’4.

They do not

preclude

autonomy

greater public scrutiny, as ‘science is too

us to the fact that the general public have

understanding

the

scientists3. There began to be calls for

writing in the last issue of Phaëton, alerted limited scientific literacy.

challenged

in

2002

commented:

"What

precipitated this crisis was the removal of

public

the single vaccine, the removal of choice,

involvement in scientific policy making? I

and that is what has caused the furor -

argue that ‘deliberation democracy’ could

because the doctors, the gurus, are

be used to effectively combine informed

treating the public as though they are

scientific opinion with values and beliefs

some kind of moronic mass who cannot

representative of the population, and

make

create responsible and respected scientific

an

informed

decision

for

themselves." The opinion that the public

policy.

should be more involved in scientific Between

1945

and

the

1980’s,

the

policy-making

is

now

widespread.

predominant model for science policy was the

‘Social

Contract

for

http://www.nsf.gov.od/lpa/nsf50/vbush194 5.htm) 3 E.g. Accusation of David Baltimore, an MIT Nobel laureate, of deliberately misrepresenting results 4 Department of Trade and Industry (2000) White Paper on ‘Excellence and Opportunity : A Science and Innovation st Policy for the 21 Century.

Science’2.

1

Science and Public Policy : from government to Governance 2 Vannevar Bush ‘Science: The Endless Frontier’ (Washington: United States Government Printing Office:

20

Furthermore, ‘unless the public’s values

In an environment of mistrust of expert

and attitudes are recognised, respected

opinion, such as that created by the MMR

and weighted along with scientific and

fiasco, there is a greater risk that activists

other factors’5, there will be no public

might ‘seize control of decisions on their

support of any decisions reached.

own

terms’,

and

their

unfounded

arguments might hold greater credibility Wakefield’s research however, was “fatally

with the public7. Numerous groups and

flawed” 6 and ten of the thirteen authors have

since

retracted

their

websites currently proclaim the evils of

published

vaccination, reaching a wide audience to

interpretations. But official statements and

whom these ‘expert’ opinions are just as

further research dismissing his claims

credible as those of the mainstream

could do nothing to relieve many mothers’ doubts and concerns.

medical profession.

Understandably,

vaccination rates dropped considerably. Dr

Even now, after Wakefield has withdrawn

Wakefield may have thought he was giving

his statements and been discredited by

parents choice, but ‘expert’ opinions were

the medical profession, vaccination clinics

conflicting and the average parent lacked

are full of mothers asking if the MMR

the scientific literacy required to analyse

vaccination will make her child autistic.

the papers for themselves. How could a

Clearly parents require more explanation

parent know who to believe or trust?

about

the

vaccination

policy,

and

reassurance that their values and beliefs

5

House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology’s report, ‘Science and Society’, 2000

6

7

Sheila Jasanoff ‘Technologies of Humility: Citizen Participation in Governing Science

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3510721. stm

21

are understood and have been taken into

vaccination: not only because he does not

account by the ‘experts’. Evidently flooding

see how it immediately affects him, but

them with options, without providing the

also because he realises that his vote

education with which to make informed

counts so little amongst the millions of

choices, is not the answer.

voters – an example of so-called ‘rational ignorance’8. Such a man might thus be

Of course, every parent has the right to

swayed easily by advertising or mass

refuse vaccinations, and so it could be

opinion (‘tyranny of the majority’) and

argued that it is up to individual parents to

would be unlikely to deliberate on his

satisfy themselves that they have made

decision before voting in a referendum.

the right decision. However, we have

Finally, it would be practically impossible

already heard how policy decisions lead to

to organise serious deliberation by the

restrictions of choices, exemplified by the

whole public and referenda on every topic.

withdrawal of the single Measles, Mumps and Rubella vaccines.

Although this is the only way that the

Furthermore it

whole public could be driven to reach

takes great courage for a scientifically

informed opinions, it clearly would not

illiterate parent to completely ignore the

work in practice.

strong recommendations of a medical professional. I therefore believe that the

So we have seen that both extremes – on

public needs more than just choices about

the one hand a technocracy, on the other

the extent to which they follow policy; they

the involvement of the whole public – have

need input into the creation of the policy.

serious limitations with regards to scientific policy making.

Collecting votes from the whole public (for

halfway house, a compromise that could

example by a referendum) is the only way

instil elements of democracy into science

to truly reflect the views of the public.

policy decisions, without compromising

However, we have already seen an

their veracity. Deliberative democracy has

example of the public having inadequate scientific

expertise

to

make

been proposed as a solution to this

such

problem. It aims to include the views and

decisions. Education is needed before the

values of the public in science policy

public take any responsiblity for science

without holding a referendum for the whole

policy. Secondly, although it is obvious that

the

public

are

able

to

public. Proponents of the process see its

inform

origins in ancient Greece: in Athens there

themselves when it is in their interests, for

was no place to gather together the whole

example during times of national crisis or

population for debate. Therefore a group

when considering vaccination of their own

of citizens, chosen by lot, would debate

child, there are plenty of scientific policy

the issues on behalf of the public. In his

decisions that do not enter the individual’s consciousness or concern.

But perhaps there is a

paper, ‘Deliberative Democracy’, James

A currently

childless man may not see the need to 8

become

informed

about

the

Anthony Downs, ‘An economic theory of democracy’

MMR

22

Fishkin uses three metaphors to defend

such a blow by statistically insignificant

the principles of deliberative democracy –

and inappropriately interpreted research.

the

filter

(deliberation

to

filter

out

indefensible views), the mirror (political equality as the group is representative) and the mob (no tyranny of the majority as debate is kept dispassionate) 9.

The

tendency towards rational ignorance is also removed as the vote of each individual matters more.

The decision

reached by the group is assumed to reflect the decision that the entire population would have reached had they deliberated in this way. Policy makers then have the chance to promote this representative informed opinion rather than choosing between

following

uninformed

and

unreflective public opinion (no filter) or ignoring

public

opinion

entirely

and

following their own single informed opinion (no mirror). It seems to me that the public would be happier to co-operate with science policy and follow mainstream expert advice if they

knew

that

some

like-minded

individuals had had the opportunity to assess and discuss all the available evidence, and that the values and beliefs used to make the decision reflected not just scientists but the population as a whole. Perhaps if a consensus conference had been held for the MMR vaccine debate, parents would have respected the resulting

policy

and

the

vaccination

programme would not have been dealt

9

James Fishkin, ‘Deliberative Democracy’ in R.L. Simon (ed.), The Blackwell Guide to Social and Political Philosophy’ (Oxford: Blackwell), pp 221 - 238

23

and two thousand lives were lost in the

Clocks, charts and almanacs: 18th century navigation

English Channel. In the public uproar following

this

tragedy,

particular

importance was placed on finding a solution to the problem of longitude: that is, discovering the distance East or West of a meridian such as Greenwich or Paris. In theory, this is a fairly simple problem, as it only requires precise knowledge of the

Nick Seeber

time difference between the meridian and 10

the current location ; but early 18th century

During the 18th century, the colonial

knowing exactly where stars and planets

would allow successful trade and conquest

would be at a precise time in the future)

across the globe. In particular, determining

which was at that time inadequate. Thus,

longitude whilst at sea was seen by the

relevant

problem

an

which

maintaining an accurate knowledge of

especially

justified

meridian time presented a challenging

vast

problem. Stimulus for its solution was

investment to find a solution through any reliable

means.

In

addition,

provided by the Longitude Act of 1714,

accurate

which

astronomical observations both on sea

the

almanacs,

both

creation

of

essential

self-taught Yorkshire clockmaker George

empire. At the same time, as astronomy

10

Longitude (distance East or West of an established meridian): Since the earth performs one complete rotation per day, 1 day = 1440 minutes = 1 revolution of the earth = 360° degrees of longitude Therefore, 4 minutes = 1 degree of longitude So if ‘local noon’ (when the sun is highest in the sky, measured using a sextant) is at 1.55 pm according to a chronometer set to Greenwich time, you are 115 minutes or 28° 45’ West of the Greenwich meridian.

served navigation, navigation was being by

astronomers:

for

example,

observations of the transit of Venus were the

purpose

of

several

simultaneous

voyages in 1761 under the auspices of the Royal Society of London (of which more later). Deficiencies

in

navigation

had

for

‘Longitude Board’. The brilliant work of the

the

establishment of a successful maritime

used

prizes

longitude at sea, administered by the

nautical for

lucrative

accurate and practical measurement of

allowed, respectively, a charting of the and

offered

techniques which would allow the reliable,

voyages and at home were critical: these globe

sea-borne

time required a predictive astronomy (ie

a premium on navigational expertise that

as

that

using astronomical observations to tell the

(Britain, France, Germany and others) put

government

was

chronometers were too inaccurate, and

expansion of the major European powers

British

reality

been

Latitude (distance North or South of the Equator) can be calculated from a measurement of how far the sun is from the horizon at ‘local noon’ and does not require a chronometer.

brought into sharp relief in Britain by the Shovel disaster of 1707, when four ships

24

Harrison – “the lone genius who solved the

measuring angles between the moon and

greatest scientific problem of his day” – in

a celestial point of reference from aboard

building immensely accurate individual

a ship; and mathematical equations to

marine chronometers has been publicised

predict the motion of the moon in the

in popular science writing – most notably

future. The exhaustive, accurate and long-

Dava Sobel’s ‘Longitude’ (1996).

term observations of the Astronomer Royal John Flamsteed provided the frame

It has been argued, though, that the

of fixed stars in the heavens, whilst the

compilation of accurate lunar and celestial

reflecting quadrant of John Hadley allowed

almanacs under the aegis of the Longitude Board

was

of

far

greater

value

sufficiently accurate observations to be

to

made. Finally, in 1755, James Bradley,

navigation during the latter half of the 18th

another Astronomer Royal, compared the

century, and I am inclined to feel that this

tables

is justified. An almanac allowed repeated

mathematician

corrections to be made to even an inferior

Eulerian

chronometer by frequent astronomical observations,

resulting

in

with

his

using own

accomplished through the work of Nevil Maskelyne, who tested Mayer’s tables on several voyages and later implemented

the idea that there was a binary ‘either/or’ chronometers

equations

Mayer

develop a nautical almanac, which was

one-of-a-kind

during a prolonged sea voyage. However, between

Tobias

German

This set in motion a British effort to

mechanism that required no adjustments

struggle

the

adequate for the purposes of navigation.

required to construct and care for a constructed

by

observations, and found them to be

acceptable

accuracy whilst avoiding the cost and time exquisitely

made

the production of the subsequently annual

and

Nautical

almanacs during the mid-18th century is a

Almanac

and

Astronomical

Ephemeris, a publication which allowed

naïve and erroneous reading of a more

reliable and consistent measurement of

complex situation: the reality is that both

longitude to an accuracy of less than 1

components were required to construct a

degree.

workable solution that would benefit British The

In real terms, however, the contribution of

astronomical component of this solution

astronomy to navigation was far more than

was the measurement of ‘lunar distances’.

providing the material for almanacs. Being

naval

and

mercantile

interests.

able to know fixed positions on the globe’s The motion of the moon is comparatively

surface allowed more accurate geography

faster than the apparent motion of the

to be performed, and in turn enhanced the

fixed stars, which allows the moon to be

performance of other endeavours, such as

used as a clock if its motion can be

cartography. Writers have argued that the

predicted in advance and detailed in

ship can be considered an eighteenth

tables. To do this needs three things:

century instrument of discovery, as it

sufficiently complete tables of celestial

shaped the ways in which European

observation; an accurate instrument for

voyagers interacted with the locations that

25

they visited. In particular, the way Cook

Maskelyne to observe and measure the

charted the Pacific Islands is very strongly

transit of Venus across the face of the sun.

influenced by his method of sailing around

This would allow the measurement of a

the

the

quantity which was at the heart of

distances which separated points on the

planetary astronomy: the distance of the

land and constructing a cohesive map

Sun from the Earth. By measuring the

from

apparent

islands

these

whilst

triangulating

data,

combined

with

differences

in

angle

which

measurements of latitude and longitude at

Mercury made with the Sun at different

certain locations. These “marks on maps”

locations across the world, a numerical

could be made even more precise with

value could be given to this ‘constant’.

observations of eclipses or transits (which

Multiple expeditions were equipped with

could be used to determine a very precise

instruments and sent to various points on

‘local time’). The charting of the oceans

the globe, to maximise the chances of

which occurred during the late 18th

obtaining useful data; a vital ploy as the

century was another product of astronomy,

transit only occurred twice every 113

aiding navigation and, as a consequence,

years.

the travels of Europeans. Maskelyne’s expedition to the island of St. Helena was not an unqualified success, due to the cloudy weather which he experienced, as he recounted to Lord Macclesfield in a letter to the Royal Society. However, he did obtain several measurements of the transit, which he relayed in his letter, apologising in addition that he had not made an accurate measurement of the longitude of the location

from

observations. expedition observation

which In

he

made that

his

any

case,

an

was

sent

to

make

this

is

very

interesting.

As

Maskelyne stated: “I cannot conclude, my Lord, without

Nevil Maskelyne

making one remark, that if the late noble Dr. Halley were now alive, he could not

Expeditions,

too,

made

receive greater pleasure from seeing the

important

observation

observations and gathered data which was The

prime

example

of

the

transit

of

Venus

undertaken by astronomers of different

physically impossible to obtain without travel.

of

nations, conformably to his proposal, than

this

from finding it so warmly espoused by your

phenomenon is the expedition led by Nevil

Lordship, and the Royal Society, to whom,

26

as a perpetual body, whose care it would

distributed navigators formed a network of

always be to watch over the interest and

contacts who acted for each others mutual

advancement of science, he particularly

benefit, controlled by patronage from the

recommended it.”

state or natural philosophical societies. The result of this cooperation was

Treating the practice of expeditionary

establishment of a reliable framework

observations as an essential component of

which

astronomy demonstrates how great the

planetary

extension of the eyes of the astronomer in

to

its

knowledge

benefited

the

subsequent establishment of a global

collecting specimens to others who had would

use

led to the pattern of conquest and the

collectors could delegate the task of thus

could

Britain, the navigational advances directly

in the same way that 18th century

and

state

discipline of astronomy. With reference to

London or Paris to anywhere on the globe,

trained

the

commercial advantage, whilst the new

value of navigation was: it allowed a virtual

been

the

empire linked by maritime routes and

be

guaranteed by naval force. In some ways,

appropriate witnesses of ‘matters of fact’ in

then, Maskelyne’s Almanac, not George

distant locations.

Harrison’s marvellous chronometer, was In the eighteenth century, a complex and

the basis on which the British Empire was

reciprocal relationship emerged between

built.

the practices of astronomy and navigation which effected changes in the ways both the

world

and

the

heavens

were

visualised. Centralised astronomers and

27

arts combined with the all-consuming

Book Review

nature of either enterprise. The average novelist is unlikely to see the relevance of

Joseph Nevard

quantum theory to her explorations of ‘human nature’ while the mathematician is unlikely to see the point of using mere words to communicate that which is more

Primo Levi - The Periodic Table

clearly expressed in elegant equations.

(1975, Italian) Primo Levi is best known as a writer - ‘If

Trans. Raymond Rosenthal, 1984

This Is A Man’, his memoir of Auschwitz, is one of the seminal works of Holocaust literature - but he was a working chemist throughout his life. ‘The Periodic Table’ is a collection of autobiographical fragments (with a few short fictions) organised around Mendeleev’s organisation of the elements. In his words, it is more precisely “a micro-history…of

a

trade

and

its

defeats, victories and miseries”. As a result his personal life is almost completely passed over, and even the interruption of Auschwitz

is

not

given

special

prominence. Instead he describes long hours

of

painstaking

experiments

and

analysis,

occasionally

failed the

solutions to tricky chemical problems. The © Penguin 1995

book also contains the author’s reflections

Literature and science have rarely met

on broader concerns and it is thus that is

happily: the gulf between them seeming as

makes its claim on the realm of literature.

deep as that between fantasy and fact.

Levi’s structuring conceit, in which each

There are of course exceptions. The

chapter is named after an element, proves

essays of Francis Bacon are read for their

surprisingly flexible and provides the key

literary merit, for example, while Tom

to the text. Chemistry is a metaphor for

Stoppard and Thomas Pynchon, among

life. But Levi is to good a writer to stop

others, have shown a rare ability to

there. Like all great metaphors, this one

translate scientific theory into drama and fiction

respectively.

The

can be reversed - life is a metaphor for

problem

chemistry -

presumably lies in the mutual distrust

and

ultimately collapses:

chemistry is life / life is chemistry. This is

which exists between the sciences and the

fully expounded in the last chapter,

28

‘Carbon’, which imaginatively traces the

science of “unproved affirmations” and

journey of a carbon atom from limestone

outright lies. A student experiment to

to falcon to wine, etc. This exhilarating tale

produce zinc sulphate reveals that pure

reveals the truth that chemists know,

zinc will not react with sulphuric acid; an

despite

of

impurity is needed. As a Jew Levi was,

philosophers: life is simply a question of

according to the prevailing dogma, just

this one humble element.

such an impurity. Yet the impurity is vital

all

the

pontifications

for the reaction, for a change to take The young Levi regards the Periodic Table

place: “in order for the wheel to be turned,

as “poetry” and chemistry as “the missing

for life to be lived, impurities are needed”,

link between the world of words and the

and even soil must contain impurities to be

world of things”. (Words concern Levi. On

fertile. This moral is, of course, perennial.

one occasion he pursues etymologies with

As multi-culturalism comes increasingly

the same rigour in which he pursues his

under attack it might be worth considering

analyses. The analogy is implicit but clear.)

Chapters

spin

off

from

that chemical reactions are often violent

the

but without them there is no change, only

associations of each particular element to

the stasis which is death.

a more metaphorical level. Some of these connections are conventional - mercury

Further to this, Levi later speaks of matter

naturally leads to alchemy, and lead is the

as often manifesting “a cunning intent

metal of death - but many are deft and

upon evil and abstraction, is if it revolted

unexpected. Gold, for example, might be

against the order dear to man”. Thus his

expected to tell a tale of the evil of avarice

trade teaches him (and us) the folly of

like Chaucer’s ‘Pardoner’s Tale’, but for

hubris and the necessity of tolerating flaws

Levi it represents the dream of freedom

and

whilst imprisoned as a partisan. Heavy

processes and in human beings. To draw

uranium, generally carrying the weight of

such a counter-intuitive lesson from the

apocalyptic destruction, here serves as the

study of a strictly rational and supposedly

catalyst to an airy meditation on self-

predictable science is typical of Levi’s

delusion.

wisdom and his ability to compound the

imperfections

both

in

chemical

concerns of literature and science. It is not Chemistry also provides political lessons.

the depth of his moral and political

Growing up in Mussolini’s Italy, Levi sees

observations but his ability to reach this

in his science a riposte to the “stench of

profundity without neglecting his original

Fascist truths which tainted the sky”. Real

intention “to convey to the layman the

science, “clear and distinct and verifiable

strong and bitter flavour” of his trade which

at every step” stands, firm as matter itself,

is his greatest achievement as a writer.

as the bulwark against Fascism’s pseudo-

29

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