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The Truth, Rights, and More

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Resurrectıon Plants

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ISSUE 82

July • August 2011

The Anchorıng Effect

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A MAGAZINE OF SCIENTIFIC AND SPIRITUAL THOUGHT

Sometimes we leave the harbor and set sail to our past, trying to view it in all its magnificence; And sometimes we listen to it, as if it were music, and then dance to it like a whirling dervish and take wing.

At God’s Door: A New Life p. 32 The Great Questions of Existence with Paul Davies p. 50 July / August 2011

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ///// Rabbi Allan S. Maller

Book Review Civic Service Without Borders Anwar Alam

Fiction Big Germination Sermed Ogretim

Psychology The Anchoring Effect: How Our Prior Knowledge Affects Our Perception Y. Alp Aslandogan

A Moment for Reflection At God’s Door: A New Life Mary Lahaj

Dialogue Islamic Relations with Jews and Christians Kara Potter

Perspectives The Fountain: Metaphor and Magazine Jon Pahl

Poem Summer Evening Breeze Justin Pahl

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Cagri Sakalar

Medicine Rebuilding the Heart: Regeneration Fatih Kocabas

Biology It’s Not So Futile After All! Frank Merchant

Botany Resurrection Plants Safiye Arslan

Matter & Beyond

The Great Questions of Existence Interview with Paul Davies

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Lead Article

The Truth, Rights, and More M. Fethullah Gülen

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Emerald Hills of the Heart Sabr (Patience)

Q&A Using Abilities on the Path of God

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Genetics Functional Art in the Nucleus: DNA

July • August 2011

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Scıence

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Religion Fasting on Ramadan and Yom Kippur

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Arts & Culture

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See-Think-Believe It’s Me Peter, Your Liver! Irfan Yilmaz

Science Square 1. Writing of Our Worries 2. Life without Starlight 3. How Much Digital Information Can Mankind Store? 4. Tricking the Brain to Attack Alzheimer’s Disease

EDITORIAL /////

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documentary released in June depicted an assisted suicide. The man on the show was a millionaire, and sitting next to him was his wife as he drank the poison given to him by a doctor. Although the man signed a document beforehand proving his agreement with the suicide, the doctor asked him one more time whether he was sure of his decision. “Yes, I am sure,” the man replied, with a blank expression on his face, similar to that of his wife, who appeared cool, with her legs crossed and a smile on her face that looked rather forced—giving her support to the fatal decision of her dear husband, fulfilling her last duty. After drinking the poison, the doctor gave him some chocolate. His head fell on his shoulder after a while, sleeping, and a short time later, his heart stopped. A man is willing to die (why?), his family seems to have no objections (how come?), there is an institution assisting this family (how come?), it is being recorded and broadcast (what?!). The controversial documentary stirred up a reaction in some religious circles and pro-life charities, as viewers discussed the ethics of broadcasting euthanasia in the days following this program. But what is so chilly about this video is not whether a network should broadcast it, but a man’s willingness to end his own life. If life had any meaning for this person, he would not be willing to cause his own death. If he meant anything to his family, they would never allow him to do it. This story is so desperate, so heartbreaking, that it leaves us without words. Mary Lahaj of Boston shares with us a story in this issue that would counterbalance the hopelessness and dispel the dark clouds the above-mentioned documentary caused. “At God’s Door” is the story of a woman who was able to stand up on her own feet after a traumatic youth. Hers is a source of inspiration for many of us who have failed, or feel on the edge of a cliff at times, to rise up in belief for a new life. Professor Anwar Alam from India reviews a book on a global movement of education and dialogue: The Gülen Movement, Civic Service Without Borders is one of a handful of must-read books that authoritatively deals with this social phenomenon—called the Hizmet movement—affiliated with successful schools, dialogue activities, and relief organizations around the world. An interview with Paul Davies lays down some of the “Great Questions of Existence” and shares with us how science can contribute to our making sense of them. The Lead Article expounds on the rights of God and human rights, and how they are related. “Life” is one such right, and the Giver of Life certainly has something to say about this.

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The Fountain Magazine

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THE

uth,

Rights

Lead Artıcle M. Fethullah Gülen

AND MORE

he Truth is one of the beautiful of names of the Divine, al-Haqq, which is linguistically both an infinitive and an adjective. Some of the meanings that flash through from the shade of the Truth are an immutable reality whose existence is absolute, compliance with the true nature of a thing, the opposite of falsehood, and to exist as oneself. It also denotes a share or portion, preordination, and duty. Indeed, this word is the unique source of all rights, whether they are real, proportional, relative, or nominal; it is the true essence and the very foundation of the reality that spans all universes. All truths, whether we are cognizant or not, truths that are either exoteric or esoteric, material or spiritual, peripheral or central, are each a theophany of the divine name the Truth revealing itself in various wavelengths. Each are a shade or reflection from the disclosure, permanence, and existence of this name in the realms

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in which it operates (af’āl) and produces works (āsār). The Truth may sometimes relate to the imagination and at other times to what is apparent; but what we behold and comprehend beyond this noble name is the reconciliation between the mind and the eyes, the subjective and the objective, and between knowledge and the known. Yes, the Truth is a title of the agreement between these phenomena, and it ultimately alludes to the “self-existent One.” Existence is in two kinds: self/ independent and dependent. “The One that essentially exists” exists by and of oneself and this attribute is exclusive only to God Almighty, the unconditionally rich One Who is in need of nothing, the absolutely Independent, the One free from all shortcomings, Who is neither a matter, a substance, nor a quality, nor is He bound with space, the one and only Lord of eternity and the Possessor of all perfect attributes. The Truth in this sense is one of the beautiful names of the Divine, and all other truths and rights are nothing but Its manifestations and disclosures in their respective ways. The agreement between oneself and the outer world and their uniform nature are not as such by themselves or by their own rights; they exist by His right, because He deems them necessary, thus granting them the right to exist and be. It is false to bind their being to themselves, for self-existence is not possible for them—things are real only in relation to the Truth. They maintain temporarily in this world bound with the calendar of Divine destiny, and indefinitely in the world to come. In this respect, truth is One in its independent existence. It is the absolute and immutable existence of the Divine Truth; everything else is a ray thereof. All things other than Him exist dependently, thus are defective due to their permanent need for a point of support. Yet, because they exist through the rays of the Truth, they are considered to be existent and constant. All that we consider constant in its existence is a ray of the light of the Truth’s existence. Each emergence, development, work, activity, duty, and responsibility that occurs in “the realms of 6

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acts and works” carries a value as long as it is related to the Truth. Any activity that cannot be connected or related to the Truth, anything that is not operated, started with, analyzed or synthesized according to this relationship, is false and a means of devastation. All kinds of operations, initiations, and activities, and whatever outcome they may yield, even faith and virtuous deeds (if virtuous is still the right word) that are not related to the Truth are nothing more than delusions, propositions, and—in the words of the lawgiver Prophet—“fatigue in vain.” True believers relate all their deeds to the Divine name of The Truth; it is indispensable, and with this conviction they take action. They consider being faithful to The Truth as a compulsory levy, and as a sign of Divine grace. Respect for The Truth adorns their lives, and they are always occupied with it. They value transient, perishable, and seemingly deceptive things—things that are in one sense the opposite of truth because of their dependent, relative worth, which is the measure of their engagement with them. Believers seek for what is eternal and permanent—for that which promises direction and a good ending, for that which reminds of Him, for that which speaks of Him in plain words, for that which falls within the Truth in the true sense of it, for that which prompts considerations of the Truth in the spirit. They always thrive to walk along the axis of truth determined by the True One. Their path is as wide as a highway along which they believe in truth, act in truth, relate in truth, speak in truth, stand with truth, and behave in truth. They call upon the Truth to overcome all obstacles as they head for the True One’s pleasure. They carry out their works faithful to the truth, are always occupied in truthful activities, and tirelessly work to elevate truth. When they are supposed to take, they take only what is due to them. For the rights they are expected to grant, they do so without failure. They are always cautious about those things that do not have any relationship to the truth, for they lead to falsehood. Truth—and rights in relation to

it—has a wide domain of connotations: the opposite of falsehood, the heavier side of the scale balancing power, everyone’s lot, and the fulfillment of individual rights pertaining to interests, privileges, needs, and obligations as recognized by a legitimate regime. The real proprietor of all these rights is God, the Truth, to whom all parts and wholes, substances and qualities, causes and effects belong to. Nevertheless, through some authorized posts, He conferred these rights to some in the form of interests and authorizations, and to others with the capacity to benefit from these interests and to assume authorities. Those who take on these capacities have to maintain a balance by caring for public rights as much as individual rights. On the face of what we can see in this world, these rights are assumed by individuals or corporate bodies. Still, as touched upon above and to emphasize once more, all rights belong to God, the True One, and they have been entrusted to human beings as gifts. What we call “the rights of God,” “the rights of human beings,” or “civil rights” arise from legal judgments developed from these rights and pertain to the jurists’ terminology. Now, let us open a small window into the jurisprudential classification that deals with rights under three headings: 1. The rights that are due only to God, as God Almighty is the true Owner of everything. Public law that “relatively” belongs to the society is considered within these rights. 2. Rights of individuals by virtue of natural provision that allows people with the capacity to possess, appropriate, increase, and benefit from them. 3. Rights bound with provisions under common law that relates to both individuals and the society with respect to interests, benefits, and capacity to appropriate. Rights that are due to God only are superior to all other rights. These rights are immune from all interventions, the way they operate cannot be changed, and they have priority—

no other right can surpass them. Pardons cannot be operated, conciliations cannot be sought, nor can they be forfeited, not even can it be attempted. Violation of any of these rights, in whatever form and nature, relates to the public and renders all of society the plaintiff; however, the protection of these rights has been conferred to the state on behalf of the public to investigate violations. Every member of society has the right to complain about such violations and testify when necessary. Rights of God in Islam include prescribed prayers, fasting, purifying alms, pilgrimage as well as taxations like ushr (tithe), sadaqa al-fitr (compulsory charity paid after the month of Ramadan), haraj (land tax), legal punishments and expiations. Rights in kind, receivables, and provisions on individual freedoms under private law are also considered within this category according to their respective degree of significance. In Islam, individuals are granted the full discretion of things they are eligible to use, as long as they do not waste and use extravagantly. They may choose not to benefit from some of their due rights, and redistribute them to others, or spend in learning and education, establish foundations and thus convert their charity into a lasting one. Individuals may give up from some of their rights and forgo some of their claims from other individuals or the public. Benefits and interests in common law belong to both individuals and the public, thus decisions over these rights are made according to the balance whether a certain right weighs heavier on the scale of the individuals or the public. Such matters are usually taken care of by jurists. Human rights are what we speak of more than ever in our age. According to Islam, every human being is born free. Every one is equal to one another in their rights and worth. Freedom of thought, freedom of expression, and freedom of conscience are indispensable rights of every individual. Islam recognizes the same rights and opportunities for everyone regardless of race, sex, language, and religion. As a whole these rights cover the spiritual and physical aspects of human beings, in addition to the rights defined today and those that will be defined in the future. Throughout human history, human rights have evolved through lengthy processes until we have attained the current level of understanding; yet, it is questionable whether this level is sufficient. There have been great struggles in this direction many times: definitions were stretched to extremes, and many false actions were taken—while correcting one falsehood, another was produced. When a certain framework was finally drawn, efforts to perfect it with revisions, editing, and fine-tunings have never come to an end, and are not likely to very soon. Corrections, expansions, and elaborations have brought along new sets of mistakes. Frequently, good will and endless efforts have brought about nothing but disappointment, which either resulted in a loss of hope or back to square one. Problems have never ended, neither have alternative searches. Many thoughts have been rendered worthless due to oppositions and disputes, while many fantasies have been chased after in delirium for no greater purpose than to fill in the gaps; this delirium does not appear to be coming to an end soon. Human rights were comprehensively defined with the advent of Islam. These rights, which were expressed in earlier religions only in general terms, or left latent as allusions that needed explanation with independent reasoning, were established once more by the very clear style of the Qur’an and the Prophet’s practice, without leaving room for deviation. The Holy Qur’an has outlined human rights in detail in an utterly unique language. One can see a great emphasis on the protection of these rights in the Qur’an, which declared certain sanctions according to the conditions in question. The lawgiver Prophet clearly delineated these rights with the transactions he carried out himself. He warned insistently that these rights also pertain to the rights of God, and being in full compliance with them is necessary. In Islamic terminology, all rights originate from God’s will, and each are a blessing entrusted as a sign of His grace even if out of our will to humanity. Rights, therefore, are granted to every human by creation and they cannot

The Truth is one of the beautiful names of the Divine, and all other truths and rights are nothing but Its manifestations and disclosures in their respective ways. The agreement between oneself and the outer world and their uniform nature are not as such by themselves or by their own rights; they exist by His right, because He deems them necessary, thus granting them the right to exist and be. July / August 2011

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be purchased or traded, reduced, increased, or exchanged; they cannot be passed on to the discretion of the sovereign nor can they ever be used as a commodity. The greatest assurance of rights is when members of a society and the respected and honest authorities embrace this definition of rights wholeheartedly, and make it a part of their nature, honor it like their own souls, and strive for its protection. This perception of rights is only be possible in a society that recognizes these rights as gracefully bestowed by God Almighty, a society that is appreciative to all the blessings of the Divine, a society that proceeds straightforward with an extraordinary refinement, believing in the fact that they will be held accountable tomorrow for what they do today, a society that upholds the truth and respects all rights. It is not possible to talk about human values and human rights in the truest sense of the word among masses who have no faith in God and the Day of Judgment, masses who do not follow scriptures or acknowledge messengers—they do not value rights nor do they show respect to truth. They have no appreciation for essential matters of belief; they give the impression of having some kind of faith, but a faith of their own, which revolves around sensuality. For them, it is not faith if it does not give way to their carnal desires; it is not science if it does not comply with their wishes. Those who are not from among them cannot be a scholar, and—when completely lost in delirium—they consider everyone other than themselves ignorant and every believer 8

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reactionary. They defame those who do not think the same as outdated, and in classifying individuals they divide society into camps. Indeed, their thoughts do not stem from common sense, and their behavior is bigoted. The satanic intellectual legacy they have inherited is an overused, worn-out conflictual dialectics1 that is deceptive. The crude power they employ against truth is a desperate, diabolical product of impotent reason; when they fail intellectually, it is customary for them to resort to demagogy or conflictual dialectics, a method implemented for the first time by Satan at the mysterious order of God to prostrate to the Prophet Adam. Thus, Satan can be considered as the inventor of conflictual dialectics; its later subcontractors have been the abusers of power who failed against the truth. Muslims always strived at the highest of their capacity to observe human rights in the most scrupulous manner, not least during the Age of Light—the time of the Prophet. Their firm faith in God and the Hereafter, their well-settled spiritual conviction for the superiority of the rule of law, and their determination to continue on the straight path required them to act in harmony with the nature of their being. A genuine aspect of their condition was to be in sincere servanthood to God Almighty. They painstakingly fulfilled what was expected of them, and remained upright by their inner inclinations, which were shaped by the consciousness of “perfect goodness,” or ihsan—consciousness that God is All-Aware and All-Seeing. They did what they did because they

were ordered to do so, aware of the fine line between obedience and disobedience. They welcomed all the orders and advice of the Prophet, the Master of the Law, wholeheartedly; during his time, opposition was limited to a small circle of hypocrites. None of the Prophet’s words were left floating; whatever he said reached its target and went far beyond mere semantics. When the Prophet honored Medina, he meticulously observed the stipulations of the Charter he signed with a diverse community of different faiths, worldviews, and ethnicities. Regardless of religion, race, and social rank, the law was equally implemented for everyone, and the city of Medina became a safe haven for each community. It was a golden age and the town of the Prophet was like a garden of Paradise. Those who remained close to this age have been close to God and to fellow human beings, while others who failed to strive against their carnal desires and ambitions and darkened their centuries have turned to dust. Neither the Medina Charter, nor a few examples confined within this framework, were all Islam had to say about human rights. The Sultan of Messengers taught us about human rights throughout his lifetime. He warned us to pay the utmost attention to all rights, and never to ignore even seemingly minor ones. For him, anything that is underestimated is no longer minor. He reminded us how far the respect and fear of God Almighty could reach, so that he could prevent the violations of major rights. He was determined, and always implemented what he said.

He was known for his sensitivity and virtue, and these qualities made every every believer set a throne for him in their hearts. Just before he passed away to his Lord, he gave his farewell to an angelic community of tens of thousands during the hajj—his one and only major pilgrimage—and addressed not only them, but all his followers to come until the end times. One last time, he recounted all the principles he had been teaching for years, and each of his statements during the sermon were a human rights declaration. Masters of speech could indeed discern that every word of his final sermon resonated with his lifetime message. His audience, not unfamiliar with these sayings, perhaps was honored to hear those pearls from him again, though they were stated rather differently this time. The Prophet declared his message one last time to his community, a community of loyal followers who drank in his words and practiced them, to pass them on to the next generation. The Sultan of Speech touched on many diverse issues that day, from the rights of God to family law, and laid down in one sense the core of his mission. The majority of all rights belongs to God, and thus he started his sermon, naming other rights according to their significance, though it may be to the extent of a passing note or an implication. “Fear God and refrain from disobeying Him” was his first word. As a matter of fact, belief in God and obeying Him with due respect would be an assurance and sanction of respect for all human rights. Lack of it would render respect for human rights very difficult, perhaps impossible. Then he pointed to the duties and responsibilities of spouses to one another, repeatedly emphasizing that women are blessings preciously entrusted, and must be treated accordingly. He warned about the harmony within the family as an essential principle that makes a society what it is and urged us to fear God in this respect. He trod on all the deeply rooted customs from the time of ignorance. Protection of one’s property, life, mind, religion, and progeny was one

their help when needed. Such truthof the key issues he stressed over and ful believers strived to restrain their over with refreshed breath, as if he carnal desires, and tried to live as was speaking from beyond, standing mystics, spending their lives turned on the rim of the other world. “Your toward Heaven, thus turning this Lord is one, and your father is one: world into a heavenly garden. all of you are of Adam, and Adam These people of light used lastwas of soil,” and he raised his voice, ing solutions for the protection of offering a golden key to solve a maminorities, laborers, children, the jor problem that afflicts our age like sick, the homeless, and the unema plague. ployed, through various funds and In the sermons he delivered durfoundations. It was not basic human ing the farewell hajj, he always rerights only that were under care in ferred to a grand court where each of the world of Islam: others also had us will be questioned on the minurights over the possessions of Mustiae of our lives, and enjoined us to lims—it was a tax on the wealthy for carefully observe rights of all kinds. those who were in need. And as they Certain issues of human rights have shared their belongings, believers not yet been resolved even in modwere very careful not to make others ern times. Islam, however, estabfeel indebted for this favor. lished very firmly the principle of For as long as we represented lawfulness centuries ago. Unless defour values, this is how we have beinitely judged, no one is a criminal, lieved, lived, and behaved. When and even the convicted has certain significant junctions like belief, rerights that can never be taken away. ligion, and goodness have cracked No one should be interrogated based apart, then falsehood has replaced on probabilities; no one should be the truth, the powerful have optortured. Each right is precious and pressed the weak, and rights have should never be undermined. The been violated. Then God has taken power should be dependent on the away from us consciousness of right, and no right can be sacrificed fraternity, feelings of security and against power. compassion, respect for rights, and Power has always been like the all the blessings He had graciously arch-enemy of truth, be it in social, entrusted. Would He give them economic, administrative, and poback? I do not know. But He always litical life. Those who have crude granted them to those who were power used this power according truthful in their liabilities, faith, to their own self-interest. They insubmission, and patience. He never terpreted life as an arena of conflict deserted those who were loyal to and struggle, thus denied rights to their word and turned to Him in deothers as much as their power and votion to truth. prevailing circumstances allowed them to; “I have the power!” they cried, God has an infinite number of names, starting with the Truth as they deliriously How great it is for a servant to uphold it, raised their sword to Think, why did the blessed Companions read sura Asr, the sky. Before they adjourned. But for those who take the truth For well-versed in this chapter is the secret of salvation and what is right True faith comes first, followed by prayer By truth and perseverance: this is humanness, as their point of When all four are combined, there are no more worries for you. support, they have preferred the good M. Akif pleasure of the True One, placing virtue over their personal interests as well Note 1. Conflictual dialectics here refers to an atas they could. They considered all titude in which one relies solely on his or rights as manifestations of the beauher reason and observation with a false tiful Divine name of the Truth, and confidence in his or her own abilities, observed them accordingly, as they and the truth is rejected on materialist grounds. have embraced all human beings as brothers and sisters, and rushed to July / August 2011

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Religion Rabbi Allan S. Maller Allen S. Maller is the former Rabbi of Temple Akiba in Culver City, California. He has authored several books and is currently the editor of a series of prayer books for the Jewish High Holy Days.

I

am a Reform rabbi who has been studying Islam for more than 50 years. Reform Judaism is the largest branch of the three major denominations of Jews in America. I think it is vitally important for our generation to understand how much Islam and Judaism have in common, and fasting is one area where this harmony is evident. In the U.S. and Canada, Jews and Muslims are the religious groups that noticeably practice fasting. There are several religious values involved in fasting; Muslims will see many similarities, and a few differences, in the following teachings from the Jewish tradition.

Fasting is an exercise in will power. Many people think they can’t fast because it’s too difficult, but actually the discomfort of hunger pangs is relatively minor. A headache, muscle soreness from too much exercise, or a toothache are more severe than the pain temporary hunger produces.

Don’t most people think that being happy is the most important thing? Isn’t eating one of the most accessible pleasures we have? Why should people limit their culinary pleasures? More outrageous, why should we afflict ourselves by fasting? Why do Islam and Judaism restrict their adherents from the simple pleasure of food each year? For the entire month of Ramadan, Muslims fast from first light until sundown, abstaining from food, drink and marital relations. The Qur’an says, “Oh you who believe! Fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you, that you may (learn) selfrestraint” (2:183). Why should the Torah decree for Jews a day of fasting (Leviticus 16:29, 23:27) when for twenty-four hours adult Jews (in good health) are supposed to trouble their bodies by abstaining from eating, drinking and marital relations? Both religions teach us that what we do not eat may be even more important than what we do eat. All animals eat, but only humans choose not to eat some foods that are both nutritious and tasty. Some people do not eat meat for religious or ethical reasons. Jews and Muslims do not eat pork for religious and spiritual reasons. On fast days such as Yom Kippur—the Day of Atonement and the ninth of Av (a day of mourning like the Shi’a observance of Ashura on the tenth of Muharram)—Jews do not eat or drink anything at all, and abstain from marital relations for twenty-four hours. Fasting results in many different outcomes that help bring us closer to God. First of all, fasting teaches compassion. It is easy to talk about the world’s problem of hunger, easy to feel sorry that millions of people go to bed hungry each day. But not until one actually feels it in one’s own body does the impact truly hit home. Compassion based on empathy is much stronger and more consistent than compassion based on pity. It is a feeling that leads to action. Fasting is never an end in itself; it has many different outcomes. But none of the other outcomes are of real moral value if compassion is not enlarged and extended through fasting. As the prophet Isaiah said, “The truth is that at the same time you fast, you pursue your own interests and oppress your workers. Your fasting makes you violent, and you quarrel and fight. The kind of fasting I want is this: remove the chains of oppression and the yoke of injustice, and let the oppressed go free. Share your food with the hungry and open your homes to the homeless poor” (Isaiah 58:3-7). Second, fasting is an exercise in will power. Many people think they can’t fast because it’s too difficult, but actually the discomfort of hunger pangs is relatively minor. A headache, muscle soreness from too much exercise, or a toothache are more severe than the pain temporary hunger produces. I have on one occasion fasted for three days, and found that after the first twenty-four hours the pain decreases slightly, as the stomach becomes numb. The real reason it is challenging to fast is because it so easy to break the fast, since food is almost always in easy reach — all you have to do is take a bite. Thus the key to fasting is the will power to decide again and again not to eat or drink. Our society has increasingly become one of self-indulgence; we lack basic self-discipline. Fasting opposes our increasing “softness” in life; when people exercise their will power to fast, they are affirming their self-control and celebrating mastery over themselves. We need continually to prove to ourselves that we can do it, because we are aware of our frequent failures to be self-disciplined.

Fasting is good for the soul. It often serves as an aid for spiritual experiences. For most people, especially those who have not fasted regularly before, hunger pains are a distraction. People who are not by nature spiritual or emotional individuals will probably find that a one-day fast is insufficient to induce an altered state of consciousness.

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The third outcome of fasting is improved physical health. Of course, one twenty-four hour fast will not have any more effect than one day of exercise; only prolonged and regular fasting promotes health. The annual fast on Yom Kippur can, however, awaken us to the importance of how much and how often we eat. For many years, research has shown that when animals are slightly underfed, receiving a balanced diet below the normal quantity for maximum physical health, their life spans were prolonged from 50 to 100 percent. With all the additives placed in food these days, a reduction of total food intake is healthful. More important, since our society has problems with overabundance, fasting provides a good lesson in the virtue of denial. Illnesses caused by overeating are increasing in affluent Western countries, such as the incidence of diabetes. Sixteen million people in the United States have diabetes, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diabetes can lead to blindness, kidney disease, heart disease, nerve damage, amputation and sometimes death. The prevalence of the disease is related to high rates of obesity and sedentary lifestyles, which increase the risk of developing the disease. More than half of adults in Los Angeles are overweight, and 60 percent do not get regular exercise. One-fifth of all those who are obese will develop diabetes. Thus going without any food, or even water, for a twenty-four hour period challenges us to think about the benefits of the spiritual doctrine “less is more.” Fourth in our list of outcomes is that fasting is a positive struggle against our dependencies. We live in a consumer society, and are constantly bombarded by advertising that tells us we must have this or that to be healthy, happy, popular, or wise. By fasting, we assert that we need not be totally reliant on external, material things, even essentials such as food. If our most basic need for food and drink can be suspended for twenty-four hours, how much

more may we learn to limit our needs for all non-essentials? Judaism and Islam do not advocate asceticism as an end in itself; in fact, it’s against Jewish and Muslim law to deny ourselves normal physical pleasures. But in our overheated consumer society, it is necessary periodically to turn off the constant pressure to consume, and forcibly remind ourselves that “Man does not live by bread alone” (Deuteronomy 8:3). Fifth, fasting serves as a penance. Though self-inflicted pain may alleviate some guilt, it is much better to reduce one’s guilt with offsetting acts of righteousness. This is why charity is an important part of Yom Kippur, and the same is true for Muslims during Ramadan. Indeed, Judaism teaches that fasting which doesn’t increase compassion is ignored by God. The concept of fasting as penance helps us to understand that our hunger pains can be beneficial. Contemporary culture desires happiness and comfort above all else. Any pain or suffering is seen as unnecessary, even evil. Though we occasionally hear people echo values from the past that suffering can help one grow, or that an existence unalloyed with grief would lack certain qualities of greatness, many today think that the primary goal in life is to always be happy and free from all discomfort. The satisfaction one derives from the self-induced pain of fasting provides insight into a better possible reaction to the normal, external suffering we will all experience throughout our lives. Taking a pill is not always the best way to alleviate pain, especially if by doing so we allay the symptoms without reaching the root cause. Sixth, fasting is good for the soul. It often serves as an aid for spiritual experiences. For most people, especially those who have not fasted regularly before, hunger pains are a distraction. People who are not by nature spiritual or emotional individuals will probably find that a oneday fast is insufficient to induce an altered state of consciousness. Those who have fasted regularly on Yom Kippur might like to try a two- to three-day fast (liquids permitted after the first 24 hours). It is best to go about daily activities and devote late

evening or early morning to meditation and prayer. Having already fasted for Yom Kippur, one may simply extend the fast another thirty-six to forty-eight hours. We are prohibited to fast prior to Yom Kippur; eating a good meal prior to Yom Kippur Eve is a mitzvah (religious duty), because Judaism, like Islam, opposes excessive asceticism. The seventh outcome of fasting is the performance of a mitzvah, which is the one fundamental reason for fasting on Yom Kippur. We do carry out mitzvot (religious duties) in order to benefit ourselves, but because our duty as Jews requires us to do them. Fasting is a very personal mitzvah, with primarily personal consequences. Fasting on Yom Kippur is a personal offering to God, from each and every Jew who fasts. For more than 100 generations, Jews have fasted on this day; fasting is part of the Jewish people’s covenant with God. The principal reason to fast is to fulfill God’s commandment, but the outcome of the fast can be any of a half-dozen forms of self-fulfillment. But simply knowing that one has done one’s duty as a faithful Jew is the most basic and primary outcome of all. Finally, fasting should be combined with the study of Torah (the five books of Moses specifically, or Scriptural texts in general). A medieval text states, “Better to eat a little and study twice as much, for the study of Torah is superior to fasting.” Indeed, the more one studies, the less one needs to fast. Fasting is a very personal, experiential offering. However, though study is also a personal experience, it takes place with a text and/or a teacher. The Divine will is often more readily and truly experienced in study or in spiritual dialogue with others than in solitary meditation. May our fasting become a first step toward the removal of the chains of self-oppression and narrow-mindedness that enslave us, our neighbors, and our world! May future years of shared fasting by Muslims and Jews lead to a greater understanding and respect through increased acceptance of religious pluralism. May we always be part of those organizations and movements

that are fully committed to contributing to world peace, and who are equally committed to respecting both our own religion and our neighbor’s. Muslim scholar Fethullah Gülen points out that the Abrahamic faiths (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) and some non-Abrahamic faiths (Hinduism) accept that there is only One source for all religions, and pursue the same goal. Gülen states: “As a Muslim, I accept all Prophets and Books sent to different peoples throughout history, and regard belief in them as an essential principle of being Muslim. A Muslim is a true follower of Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus, and all other Prophets. Not believing in one Prophet or Book means that one is not a Muslim. Thus we acknowledge the oneness and basic unity of religion, which is a symphony of God’s blessings and mercy, and the universality of belief in religion.” Gülen’s description of universal religion as a symphony is an excellent illustration. One cannot have harmony if everyone plays the same notes; and one cannot have symphony if everyone plays the same instruments. Individual conductors and composers are different, but the source of musical creativity is One. According to a hadith narrated by Abu Huraira, Prophet Muhammad said, “The prophets are paternal brothers; their mothers are different, yet their religion is one (because they all have the same father)” (Bukhari, Book 55, Hadith 652). July / August 2011

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BOOK REvIEW Review by

Anwar Alam Professor and Director, Centre for West Asia Studies, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India.

Civic Service Without Borders “The Gülen Movement] educates and socializes individuals without individualizing and politicizing the social.” (p. 152)

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T This is one of the first scholarly works that provide a detailed description of diverse features within the Gülen Movement. This integrated approach helps in enriching the understanding of the full breadth of the movement.

he Gülen Movement (hereinafter GM), as it is usually referred to in English, has attracted the attention of “critical public minds and scholarship” throughout the world in recent years for two important reasons. First, Fethullah Gülen’s ideas and praxis demonstrate the potential role of religion in reshaping the present violent, conflict ridden world into an inclusive, humanistic society and world order based on the principles of pluralism, intercultural dialogue, and mutual living. Second and more important, Gülen, through his twin tools of Islamic hermeneutics and public actions particularly in the field of education, has restored the “humane face of Islam” in the public eye—something that was lost due to centuries of a radical, positivist, secular and Orientalist narrative of Islam and more recently due to acts of violence in the name of Islam—and has demonstrated the complementarity of Islam and modernity. This reconciliation of faith and reason—both in terms of theory and action—solves a conundrum that has plagued the Islamic scholars for long. Çetin’s Gülen Movement: Civic Service Without Borders is an important contribution to a chain of literature that has surfaced on the GM in recent years. The title itself is an indication that the author sees the movement in transnational perspective and attempts to uplift the movement from “its narrow Turkish national location,” which is otherwise a dominant trend in the scholarly writings on the GM. Though the author did locate the emergence of GM in the national-political context of modern Turkey, the “Islamic civil ethic” or “service ethic”—what is called hizmet in Gülen’s Islamic philosophy—has inherent potential to outgrow the originating nationalpolitical context. No scholarly work on Islamic movements in modern Turkey is possible without a reference to the back background of Bediüzzaman Said Nursi and his work. Nursi was a remark remarkable scholar of twentieth-century Turkey who, through his Risale-i Nur

collection of epistles on Qur’anic thought, preserved the religious spirit in the secularizing society. However the near absence of reference of Nursi’s work in this book is surprising. This may be partly due to author’s approach and methodology that treats GM as social phenomenon rather than a religious phenomenon. This approach helps the reader to understand Gülen and the Hizmet movement that has flourished around his ideas and inspirations as a transnational social service movement. Çetin thus circumvents misperceptions that are very likely to arise from exclusively religious labels and associations. The Islamic dimension of the GM comes through the inspirational and motivational dimension of Islamic history and Islam-inspired values that Gülen utilizes in constructing a non-violent, peaceful, multicultural world. All this is done without having an exclusively “Islamic project,” which is otherwise the hallmark of political or cultural-social Islamic movements throughout the world. The strength of Çetin’s book lies in his comprehensive treatment of the GM. This is one of the first scholarly works that provide a detailed description of diverse features within the GM. Most of the previous works on this subject matter has dealt with one or another aspect of the GM. This integrated approach helps in enriching the understanding of the full breadth of the movement. Using the framework of multi-causality, or what author called “syncretic perspective,” Çetin first examined the dominant social movement theories (particularly, Resource Mobilization theory, Political Opportunity theory and Frame theory) and found them inadequate in explaining a faithbased movement such as the GM in non-Western societies. These theories, according to the author, suf suffer from the limitation of a political economy perspective that does not take into consideration the role of a “subjective idea” or at best treats it as a “dependent variable” in the emergence of a particular social phenomenon or movement. But this July / August 2011

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restrictive theoretical framework is incapable of comprehending the non-conflictual, voluntary, philanthropist, altruist, faith-based GM as political economy theories primarily operate on the “principle of selective cooperation and opposition” to state actions. The author strongly contends that the GM has registered a strong social presence (in people’s consciousness) through chains of study centers, publishing houses, periodicals, training and scholarship, institutions for preparatory courses for university entrance exams, healthcare facilities, dormitories for the students, aid to poor and vulnerable sections of society, press and media organs and other socioeducational public institutions. This social position was established before the GM became highly visible in the public sphere in Turkey and Çetin rejects the perspective that links the emergence of the GM with the recognition and tacit support of state institutions, particularly in the 1980s, a period marked by “IslamicTurkish synthesis nationalism.” Rather, the author exposes the politics of the elite, or what he called the “protectionist group,” in the name of “secularism” and “nationalism” in order to perpetuate its hold over the resources of the country and to this end long throttled the emergence of the democratic potential of Turkish society. It was Gülen’s Islamic mediated ideas, viewpoints, ethical and moral messages and the GM’s plethora of associated educational and social activities, which were/are conducted with sensitivity to “due process of law” and legal diligence,

Çetin tries to envision—though more elaboration is needed—Gülen’s humanitarian ideas as an alternative theory for constructing a human society based on principles of cooperative instincts, the ethics of self sacrifice, and the compassionate behavior of human beings. 16

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that gradually brought a shift in normative-cultural meaning of life that focuses on the cooperative instincts of human beings, the value of living together, dialogue and respect for multiple identities, which in turn also affected people’s perceptions and norms of “politics” and “development” and in the process refashioned the public space and revitalized and consolidated the process of democratization. Çetin tries to envision—though more elaboration is needed—Gülen’s humanitarian ideas as an alternative theory for constructing a human society based on principles of cooperative instincts, the ethics of self sacrifice, and the compassionate behavior of human beings—a theory over against the modernist assumption that treats human beings as primarily selfish, egoistic, conflictual, hedonistic, and violent, naturally needing to be controlled and disciplined through coercion and indoctrination in order to create the kind of order found in the mechanized, contractual human society. This partly also explains why Gülen’s philosophy, like that of Mahatma Gandhi, does not evoke the perception of the “other.” Unlike many contemporary Islamic movements, Gülen does not see the West as the “threatening other” but a source of many positive values that Muslims need to reflect upon. Combining the framework of a “material-ideational matrix” with an outsider-insider perspective and drawing largely from an empirical investigation based on interviews and questionnaires, the author seeks to explain both the emergence of the GM primarily as a “cultural actor” and also its multifaceted dimensions: democratic, participatory, peaceful, non-violent, insistent on working within the legal framework of the political system, voluntary and autonomous participation, lacking any organizational power, non-political, non-ideological, absence of any central text, non-requirement of formal membership, no ritual, no insignia, etc. In summary, the movement aims at the moral and ethical transformation of the individual self in the light of Islamic values and norms in order to sensitize the individual self about the “goodness” of collective civil ac-

tion without politicizing the same or stimulating an expectation of material gain. The quotation by Çetin as highlighted in the beginning of this review best captures the mood, orientation, and thrust of the GM. A cursory reading of this book gives an impression that Nursi’s search for “unity of heart and mind” has found a place in the GM. However, since this book studies the GM from a social movement theory, it does not deal with the key concepts or doctrine of Fethullah Gülen or even his philosophy of education— the most important dimension of the GM upon which rests the creation of Gülen’s “golden generation” that will shape the future world. The notion of hizmet, or ethic of service, is an Islamic value as old as Islam itself, exemplified in the institution of waqf. What, therefore, explains the re-emergence of an ethic of service as a central category in Gülen’s Islamic thought and the wider dissemination and acceptance of this value as an “everyday Islamic working value?” In this regard, the book does not address the question of “how and why?”—the agency, processes and reasons for the emergence of the GM—but describes and narrates only the “what?” about the movement. No single book is sufficient to cover all aspects of a social phenomenon as global as the GM; thus, having read this book, the reader is still left with some difficult, unanswered questions: Why will the moral and ethical values which are deeply embedded in Gülen’s notion of hizmet, philanthropy, altruism, and voluntarism resonate with large masses in today’s context? Is the GM a postmodern phenomenon? Is it an Islamic movement, a social movement, or something in between? Is it a classbased or multiclass phenomenon? What is the dominant social base of this movement? Has the GM adopted the postmodern conceptions of life process that reject nation-centered discourse and focus on people-centered discourse, which, in turn, might partly explain its success and appeal? Despite such questions unaddressed, the book is a must-read for all students and scholars who have an interest in discourse about social change.

Genetics Cagri Sakalar Postdoctoral researcher at Lerner Research Institute Cleveland Clinic, Ohio

repair and division, is contained in DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA is a huge single molecule with intriguing features. How can a single molecule have such a dominant role in preserving information essential for the continuation of life? What are the mechanisms and levels of organization during its function? What does DNA mean for a single cell or for a human being? It’s impossible to answer these great questions in a single article; however, understanding the ways DNA exerts its role, DNA’s impact on multiple levels ranging from a single cell to an organism, and coordination between various levels, can potentially open up new frontiers in our mind and in our perception of life.

“Double helix” architecture of DNA

How can a single molecule have such a dominant role in preserving information essential for the continuation of life? What are the mechanisms and levels of organization during its function? olumes of books and hundreds of articles have been published about the structure and functions of DNA, since the day two renowned scientists from Cold Spring Harbor laboratories, who would later win the Nobel Prize, described the double helix structure of it. Perhaps one common element that shines through all the publications is their emphasis on the numerous specific functions of DNA, if not the fascinating harmony of these specific functions in a living organism. In this article, we will take a look at a few small droplets from the vast ocean of information about the multi-layered functions of DNA that are orchestrated in an aweinspiring manner. The cell is the structural, functional, and biological unit of all organisms. All information needed for numerous processes in a cell, including

DNA has an elegant structure that forms the basis for all of its functions. DNA is a repeating structure of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is formed of a phosphate group, 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose) and a nitrogen-containing base attached to the sugar from outside to inside (See Figure 1 for a schematic view of DNA). There are four types of nucleotides in DNA, differing only in bases. We can consider bases as the identity of nucleotides. These four nucleotides are shown with letters A (adenine), T (thymine), G (guanine) and C (cytosine). Thousands of nucleotides bound with sugar-phosphate covalent bonds come together to form long strings. The sugar-phosphate backbone can be imagined as the steelwork of a skyscraper. The nice thing about nucleotides is their specific match to each other in double helix. A forms a base pair with only T, and G forms a base pair with only C. These pairs are bound to each other with hydrogen bonds. This feature is the key that makes DNA a double ladder. Two strings of nucleotides form a double helix by selective interactions of As with Ts, and Gs with Cs (See Figure 2 for 3-D structure of DNA). In DNA structure, hydrophobic bases tend to stay inside of double helix and hydrophilic sugar-phosphates stay outside interacting with water in nucleus. This feature helps DNA to form a double ladder. The length of the sugar-phosphate backbone is more than the bases. To compensate July / August 2011

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for the length difference, the sugarphosphate backbone wraps around the bases inside, as a road wraps around a mountain to climb to the top. This simple difference is the main reason for DNA to form a helix. The double-stranded nature of DNA with specific base pairing is one of its key features as genetic material. DNA is replicated using one strand as a template. Replication machinery reads one strand of DNA and builds the second strand by putting As against Ts and Gs against Cs. If a mutation occurs in one strand, it can be repaired using the second strand. This system is like photocopying DNA from itself instead of building it from scratch every time. That is why specific base pairing of nucleotides in the double helix makes it possible to replicate DNA through generations, protecting its integrity and information content.

The code of DNA, an alphabet with four letters DNA contains the information to produce nano-sized cellular machineries called proteins. We mentioned that there are four types of nucleotides. Nucleotides are like letters in DNA, three of them are code for one amino acid of protein. We can make it more understandable by giving an example: “ATG-GCC-CTG-TGG-ATG” as a nucleotide sequence of DNA corresponds to the first five amino acids of a protein called insulin (a hormone regulating blood glucose level that is important in diabetes) and amino acid sequence is methionine-alanineleucine-tryptophan-methionine. The code is so sensitive that even a single mistake in the sequence of DNA can cause serious diseases in humans such as sickle-cell disease or cystic fibrosis. With all these nucleotides, DNA can be thought of as a book containing amino acid sequence information for thousands of proteins (about 30,000 in humans). The amount of information contained in DNA is incredible: a typical human cell contains 2 meters of DNA that is tightly packed by proteins in the nucleus. If we tried to write the information from DNA into books, the book would contain over one billion words and 1,500,000 pages. 18

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DNA-protein interdependency and the cell as a micro-factory DNA can be thought of as an instruction manual that stores information for proteins and RNAs. Proteins, as molecular machines, perform particular tasks such as energy production and synthesis of DNA and RNA. Certain proteins read the information on DNA and make a transient copy of certain regions of DNA. These copies are called messenger-RNAs (mRNAs) and mRNAs are transported from nucleus to cytoplasm (See Figure 3 for representation of mRNA production from DNA by proteins). In cytoplasm, the information on mRNAs is read by protein complexes called ribosome. Ribosomes produce new proteins processing the data from mRNAs. This information flow from DNA to proteins is called central dogma in molecular biology (Figure 4). The data that is encoded in DNA can be read, translated, and put into the form of product only by proteins. We can conclude that for a protein to be produced, DNA is essential; for DNA regions to be read into proteins, proteins are essential. So, there is interdependency between proteins and DNA. Proteins without DNA have no future and no ability to regenerate and DNA without proteins is just like an instruction and manufacture manual of a computer without the user and computer itself. We can imagine the cell as a sophisticated factory, and proteins as the machines of the factory. DNA includes the instructions for the factory to be rebuilt and for itself to be rewritten for every new factory. It has instructions on how to build every machine in the factory. It has also codes for when and how much of these machines should be produced (we will discuss more about these codes on DNA in the next section). On the other hand, the timing and control of all these productions also depend on machines in the factory. Some of these machineries read and decode the instruction manual, some of them produce new machines by reading the decoded copies of the instruction manual, some of them act as sensors for the signals, some of them transmit signals to other machines, some of them produce signals by measuring

the levels of materials in the factory, some of them function in communication with other factories, and so on. As we can see, DNA and proteins are meaningful for life only when they are together in the excellent cell context. This is a perfect example of the principle that the whole is bigger than the sum of its parts, because each element of the cell system has limited potential, until it comes together with the others to blossom into life.

The famous term “Gene” We can think of genes as functional units of DNA. A gene has the information content for at least one protein. Humans have about 20,500 genes that are read by protein machineries to produce proteins. Special proteins read the information on genes and make a transient copy of these certain regions of DNA. The process of making a copy of a gene as an mRNA is called transcription. Genes don’t only store information; they have an intrinsic architecture of design to coordinate transcription utilizing three main components: promoter, coding region, and terminator. The promoter is the gene region that signals for the start of transcription. Protein machineries bind to the promoter and activate transcription. The coding region has the information for the amino acid sequence of the protein. The terminator region gives the stop signal for transcription. There are different functional regions on DNA located between separate genes such as enhancer regions that are platforms for binding regulatory proteins to tune the transcription. The coding region of genes has multiple reading blocks for amino acid sequences and these reading blocks are called as exons. For some genes, different combinations of exons can be put together to give rise to different proteins. This mechanism allows one gene to be able to produce multiple proteins, increasing the efficiency of genetic material. A similar mechanism is used to produce antibodies (proteins recognizing foreign antigens) by the immune system. Different regional genes come together by a mechanism of DNA rearrangement (V(D)J recombination) and their differential combinations form many different antibodies. For example, a

part of the antibody that is called a heavy chain is produced by a DNA region containing 65 variable (V) genes plus 27 diversity (D) genes and 6 joining (J) genes (5, 6). This produces a combination of 65 V genes x 27 D genes x 6 J genes = 10,530 heavy chains. There is a similar mechanism of rearrangement for light chain and variable region of antibodies, which result in millions of different antibodies for host antigens. A single example in the immune system shows us that DNA not only has a decent design for the coding system, but it also has ingenious and creative mechanisms to maximize its potential.

Figure 1: Chemical structure of DNA

Figure 2: 3-D structure of DNA double helix

Figure 4: Central dogma of Molecular Biology: From DNA to Proteins

Gene expression is orchestrated during development and formation of organs The human body which consists of more than 1013 (ten trillion) cells is generated from a single cell called the zygote (see Figure 5). This tells us that, in a single cell, all the information and instructions to build and coordinate the systems of human body is encoded. Different tissues and organs including muscles, nerve cells, connective tissue, and eyes are fruits of one single cell. They all contain the same genetic information. Then what makes them different? Promoters, enhancers, and repressors located in and nearby genes are important in spatial and temporal control of gene expression in different cell types of the body. Each cell type in our organs expresses a different subset of genes; this is what gives a cell its identity. For example, in muscles, myosin is expressed and in the eye’s retina, rhodopsin is expressed. Myosin functions in contraction and rhodopsin functions in vision. What determines the expression of rhodopsin in the eye but not in a muscle? The determination process occurs during development by programmed interactions of specific proteins called transcription factors, and restricted regions of DNA including promoters and enhancers. During development, certain regulatory proteins in a specific cell type, bind to DNA regions of only some genes (for example, in future retinal cells of the eye, rhodopsin gene would be activated but not myosin) and this predetermination orchestrates differential expression of genes to give rise to hundreds of different types of cells.

Figure 3: Interaction of DNA and RNA polymerase and mRNA production from DNA (blue RNA polymerase, orange: DNA, green: mRNA) e 1b: 3-D structure of DNA double helix

Different layers of complexity and organization related to DNA There are different layers of function for DNA—each subtitle of this article tries to focus on a certain layer of function. DNA as a molecule has a double helix structure and is replicated through generations to preserve genetic information. It stores genetic information and has a fourletter alphabet for the expression of proteins. In the second layer, DNA has an informational unit called gene and thousands of genes are encoded in DNA to contain information for proteins. Each gene is controlled individually by making use of promoters and enhancers. In the third layer, all processes in the cell microfactory as an entity are performed through interactions of DNA and proteins with each other and among themselves. Proteins read DNA code and work as cellular nano-machineries. In another layer, temporal and spatial expression of genes on DNA are orchestrated and different subsets of genes give rise to different cell types and organs. Organs communicate with each other to func-

Figure 5: A single cell contains the genetic information and plan of whole organism.

tion properly and keep the balance and homeostasis of the body. The information stored in DNA not only coordinates highly sophisticated processes of a single cell, it simultaneously projects the whole body system of a human being, which is billions times bigger than a single cell. DNA functions in all these different layers and keeps a great harmony in coordination between various layers of function. After grasping this complexity, organization and communication from a single molecule, to proteins, to a single cell, to tissues and organs, and to a human being by utilization of DNA, should not we ask ourselves, “can these elements come into existence by random forces and collisions?

References Calladine, C. R. et al. 2004. Understanding DNA: The Molecule and How It Works, Academic Press http://www.genome.gov Li A, Rue M, Zhou J, et al. 2004. “Utilization of Ig heavy chain variable, diversity, and joining gene segments in children with B-lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia: implications for the mechanisms of VDJ recombination and for pathogenesis.” Blood 103 June (12): 4602–9. July / August 2011

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Fiction Sermed Ogretim  Postdoctoral fellow at West Virginia University

I

t was one of those chilly but lively mornings of spring. Everything was as expected: creeks were flowing, birds were flying, insects were waking up to a new life, and trees in the forest were silently but constantly growing. The noise in the ambiance was increasing as the sun was rising above the shoulders of the mountains. That morning, however, was unusual for one of the ants, Sayhon. He was intrigued by the noises coming from all directions. He had recorded and investigated the noise generated by bugs when carrying chips of wood, the sound a fly makes when landing on a dry leaf, the clamor of the creeks as they hit the rocks, and so on. But regardless of the cacophony of the sounds, Sayhon was always able to filter out a background noise that showed up consistently. It was as if something or someone was omnipresent in every occurrence, making itself heard. After realizing this, the poor ant found himself in seclusion to concentrate on

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this subtle message. After a while, not able to figure out the source of this constant noise, nor able to come up with an explanation about its meaning, Sayhon spiraled down into an endless depression. In hard times like these, he always took refuge in the warm friendship of Nurson.

Nurson also conducted his own research, modeling the dynamic geometry of the forest. By formulating the variations in the locations of the fruits on the ground or those on the branch, he benefited the worker ants in establishing the optimum routes for collection. Even more challeng-

“Comrades, something despicable has happened in our exemplary Kooperative. This wretched person,” he said pointing to a middle-aged man who stood apart, “this person with no conscience, no morals, this degenerate was caught red-handed stealing grapes.” ing was Nurson’s interest in predicting the time and place of the birth of a new fruit. It was so demanding, this prediction effort, that it shook his antennas wildly. During his research, Nurson had come to the conclusion that, existing or newborn, all the fruits were moving apart from each other. This effect was more evident in the observation of a fruit at large distances.

One day when it was raining, Sayhon was observing how the raindrops splashed on the water, how they created a blasting sound. At the same spot Nurson was studying the expansion of the waves in the puddles made by raindrops. After some gloomy moments, Sayhon wanted to open a conversation. “Hey dude! Do you hear any noise generated by those waves?” “YES!” replied Nurson hysterically. Sayhon was not expecting this kind of a “YES” to his question. Rather, it sounded like an answer to something else. This, in fact, was the case, because Nurson had had an epiphany with Sayhon’s question: “The noise you are detecting everywhere is due to the expansion of the forest.” Sayhon was startled by the answer he had received for his teasing. Nevertheless, he was eager to continue this conversation: “Hey! Easy now, easy.” “Look! The noise you are detecting everywhere points to an entity or occurrence that is omnipresent. To date, we don’t know an entity everywhere, but we do know an occurrence that is everywhere: the moving apart phenomenon. So, the only

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thing that can create this noise you are so curious about is the expansion of the forest. Every fruit, every branchtip in this forest is moving apart from each other, while leaving behind a signature in the form of sound. Now everything makes sense.” Enlightenment suddenly seized them both with a shiver throughout their bodies. When they came back to their senses, they couldn’t help but smile; it didn’t take long before Sayhon and Nurson started squealing in joy. Soon, the entire ant colony was in a tumult about the discovery of the expansion of the forest, but with some subsequent thoughts. For example, an ant suggested that the omnipresent noise must be propagating through some unseen but all-pervading substance; but the experiments to verify this suggestion failed. Another thought was about the size of the forest. Some claimed that it was not possible to know the size of the forest, while others said it was finite, since otherwise it would result in an infinitely intertwined forest. A third item in this list of hot discussions was the age of the forest. According to the expansion theory, if the forest is expanding now, and if you rewind this process long enough, you end up with a single tree, and eventually a single seed, out of which this endless forest has formed. They called this unimaginable start the “big germination.” Based on the big germination theory, some ants suggested billions of years of age for the forest; but some others claimed an age on the order of thousands based on interpretation of their ancient texts. In the fresh vibrations of these findings, the discussions of the ants about the start of the forest eventually became a discussion of their own existence. What was the origin of life in the forest? How had the living beings come to their current states, each with an optimum design for the survival of their own species and for the well-being of the entire habitat? Were they merely fallen off a tree as a result of a coincidence? As the founders of the big germination theory, Sayhon and Nurson were invited to speak in huge assemblies where thousands of curious 22

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The flood did not return the ants back home but carried them to another one. By the time they arrived at this new forest, the flood had faded to a nice stream, and the ants could safely disembark from their leaves. But with nothing in their possession, everything had to be reconstructed.

ants were gathered. They had given several interviews, and participated in many events on the subject of the origin of life. The two friends had differing points of views on this matter, but their discussion was as respectful as it was rational. Sayhon held the view that the living beings had come to existence through a chain of events that are not yet readily known to the ants, but can be discovered with advancements in science. As his initial hypothesis, he proposed a common ancestor to all kinds of animals in the forest, like the start of the forest from a single seed. He supported his theory of a common ancestor with the observations of common traits among different organisms. But eventually, he admitted that his hypothesis is only tentative, and needed further scrutiny. He was open to change his views with new findings and observations, and never suggested that his hypothesis be used as the criterion to judge the veracity of new perspectives. Nurson, on the other side, claimed that the origin of life in the forest was by the hand of the Creator, just like He was the one who had created the forest in the scenario of the big germination. In the same context, he thought that the scientific studies must be aimed at learning how the Creator was making different kinds of animals in the forest. Nurson said that his view did not essentially differ from Sayhon’s views in terms of scientific foundations or implications, but he positioned himself against unscientific interpretations of scientific findings. For example, he requested that, as he admitted his belief in the Creator is an unscientific presumption, Sayhon must admit his claims about a common ancestor is unscientific, since there was no absolute proof to it. Nurson also expressed his resentment about the ants who inferred the absence of the Creator in the scientific texts as a rejection of Him, since such inference was clearly irrational as well. Overall, Nurson neither tried to alienate Sayhon nor curse his views, he merely requested that both parties characterize their views properly, which was wholeheartedly approved by Sayhon.

In return to the request of Nurson, Sayhon invited him to admit that they don’t have a complete understanding of how creation occurs, and that interpretation of implicit information in the ancient texts cannot be binding. Nurson humbly agreed. Despite the friendly opposition between Sayhon and Nurson, the ant colony was severely divided into two groups: some siding with Sayhon and others agreeing with Nurson. Each group projected their own view as the ultimate truth, unlike the two friends’ admittance of the unscientific parts in their views. Although Sayhon and Nurson both admitted the tentative and immature level of science in the matter, the public preferred to embrace them as complete and unchangeable. Thus, these two groups socially expelled each other, and showed intellectual hostility. Rejecting the other’s views in their entirety, they mutually evolved into antagonists. Strange enough, as the tension between these groups increased, the climate in the forest started to change dramatically. Rain became more abundant, yet the weather also warmed up incredibly. They had yet to discover the significance of these drastic changes, but this threat to the entire colony acted as a uniting agent among the ants, and mitigated the divisions on the origin of life. In one of those hot days, the ants noticed large cracks forming in their nests, which eventually evolved into large channels, through which a violent stream came and flooded the forest. Many of the ants were saved by embarking on the leaves. Now everything was underwater, and would be until it soaked completely into the soil, which was unlikely to

occur in their lifetimes. Facing extinction, the big germination and the subsequent expansion of the forest felt like meaningless topics in their hopeless state. Yet, the origin of life was of the highest attention. Even the most bigoted ants who denied the Creator wanted to believe in a higher Hand that could penetrate the doom they were facing and deliver them to salvation. The flood did not return the ants back home but carried them to another one. By the time they arrived at this new forest, the flood had faded to a nice stream, and the ants could safely disembark from their leaves. But with nothing in their possession, everything had to be reconstructed: a home, a safe environment, and most importantly, the hope for restoration. Sayhon and Nurson were among these survivors. Seeing that their home forest actually had an end had shocked them. In light of this fact, they had to reconsider all their thoughts from scratch. This was not to be done publicly, because the colony was struggling for survival. Amidst this new land of uncertainties, everyone was in need of a certainty to cling to, and the suppositions of Sayhon and Nurson were the last thing they looked for. As the colony’s efforts for reconstruction and the internal quests of these two ants continued, they came across the most unexpected thing: another ant colony just like them. It was as shocking to the native ants as it was to themselves. And as their relationship deepened, it was a subtle, mind-altering experience for all of them to see that they both had religious texts telling the same brief story about the origin of life. May / June 2011

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PSYCHOLOGY YY. Alp Aslandogan President of Institute of Interfaith Dialog, Houston, Texas

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valuations and decisions play an important role in our social life. As we want our evaluations to be accurate and decisions to be fair, so we also want the evaluations of others about us to be accurate and their decisions about us to be fair. But what if there are hidden psycho-social processes quietly working in the human mind that affect these evaluations and cause them to be biased? What if these affect good-intentioned people and lead to serious consequences? What are those processes and what can we do about them? We better start by illustrating what we mean. In a study conducted by social psychologists Tversky and Kahneman, people were asked to guess the percentage of African nations that were mem-

When faced with a decision-making or estimation situation, people start with an anchor, or a reference point, and make adjustments to it to reach their final estimate.

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bers of the United Nations. Two groups were first asked to estimate whether this number was lower or higher than a threshold: the first group was asked whether it is more or less than 45 percent and the second group was asked whether it is more or less than 65 percent. Then both groups were asked to give their estimates of the actual percentage. The researchers demonstrated that the group that was given the lower threshold estimated a lower value for the actual percentage of African nations that are members of the United Nations. The group that was given the higher threshold estimated a higher percentage. The pattern has held in other experiments for a wide variety of different subjects of estimation.

A bias in the estimation of African members of the United Nations may not sound like a big deal, but how about decisions that affect people’s lives seriously? Consider sentencing in court trials. Social psychologist Mussweiler and colleagues asked trial judges with more than 15 years of experience to consider sentencing demands made by non-experts in a legal crime case before issuing a final sentence. The two sentencing demands were 34 months and 12 months. The judges, despite their experience and despite the fact that the crime was the same, were influenced by the demands. Judges who considered the high demand of 34 months prior to their decision gave final sentences that were almost 8 months longer than judges who considered a low demand of 12 months initially. If prior exposure to a piece of information can make a difference as much as 8 more months in prison, then we ought to know what is going on. The examples above illustrate a psychological heuristic known as “anchoring and adjustment.” The heuristic suggests that when faced with a decision-making or estimation situation, people start with an anchor, or a reference point, and make adjustments to it to reach their final estimate. The anchor serves as a first approximation and then the person makes adjustments to it to reach a final estimate or decision. Why does the human mind utilize this heuristic? The answer is simple—we do not always have a whole lot of information to reach an accurate estimate or best decision. Therefore, the mind sometimes needs shortcuts, especially under pressing circumstances. To understand this process, let’s have a look at the limitations of human cognition.

Models of human cognition Cognitive psychologists and sociologists have worked to develop models of human social cognition. These models emphasize four aspects of our social cognition, which is the way we perceive others. The first is the role of prior knowledge versus information immediately available. For example, when we see a policeman directing the traffic, we use our prior knowledge in our perception. We may assume that he is carrying a gun and he has communications equipment to talk with his station. We deduce these features from our prior knowledge about the traffic police, even if we may not be in a position to observe that particular policeman’s gun or communications device. Relying on prior information in our judgments is called “top-down” processing as opposed to “bottom-up” or data-driven processing. Typically, relying on top-down processing, such as relying on stereotypes, requires fewer processing resources. Figure 1: When we see traffic police or cars approaching us, we rely on our prior knowledge about police or cars in deciding how to react.

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The second aspect is the limitation of our cognitive processing capacity. The human cognitive system is modeled to consist of our sensory organs, a sensory register (memory) that temporarily stores our perceptions of external stimuli, a short-term memory, a long-term memory, attention resources and executive control processes. When we receive information in the form of audio-visual or other sensory stimuli, they are processed by our cognitive system and transferred to our short-term memory. Through a process of encoding and categorization, the information is organized and stored in the long-term memory. A part of the long-term memory is “active” or readily accessible. Our further use of information in our long-term memory activates the information, and the lack of use deactivates it, making it less readily accessible. Our behavioral response results from our processing of information. According to this information-processing model of human cognition, the amount of information that can be processed by our cognitive system is restricted in terms of storage, flow and inference (Huitt, 2003).

Rehearsal Attention Sensory Input

Encoding

Pattern Recognition

Decay

Retrieval

LOSS Displacement Decay

Interference Lost Cues

INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

The value of the initial offer has a significant effect on what people will be willing to pay for the final price of the car. If the initial offer is very high, the customer is likely to accept a higher negotiated price and vice versa.

The third aspect is the amount of cognitive processing that is determined by capacity (amount of free resources) and motivation. Factors such as interest, importance, and relevance determine the motivation to allocate more cognitive resources. We are more likely to devote more cognitive processing resources to subjects that are more interesting, important or relevant in our judgment. The fourth aspect is the interplay between automatic and controlled processing. Automatic processes require fewer resources. Given our limited processing capacity, time and other types of constraints have consequences for our cognitive processing. Under constraints, most individuals tend to simplify their processing by relying on less information, relying on automatic cognitive processes as opposed to conscious ones, or relying on prior information as opposed to information available in the circumstances. Anchoring is one such a simplification. The nature of the situation we are facing will determine which of these mechanisms will be selected. They will be reused or abandoned depending on whether they provide a sound basis for our responses to the social environment. If the simplifications lead to interpretations that harm us, we are likely to abandon them. If, on the other hand, there is no harm or there is a benefit, then we are likely to reuse those simplifications.

Anchoring effect Anchoring is defined as the effect of a prior judgment of an object, the anchor, on our future judgments regarding another object. These judgments 26

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may be about a numerical value, a probability, or even a moral or legal judgment. As an example, consider the situation where people are asked whether the population of a city is greater than or smaller than a value. Let’s say two groups of people are asked the same question with two anchors: Group A is asked whether the population of Houston is more than or less than 500,000. Group B is asked whether the population of Houston more than or less than 2,000,000. In this example, the values of 500,000 and 2,000,000 serve as anchors. Both groups are then asked: What is your estimate of the population of Houston? Experiments indicate that the people who were given the lower anchor on average give a lower estimate for the population and vice versa. How does anchoring happen? Cognitive psychologists tell us that human judgment is essentially relative or comparison based, even if we are not asked to make a comparison explicitly. So, in evaluating the present object or person, our minds search for an anchor. A particular anchor may be selected because it is readily accessible, because it is suggested to us, or “self-generated via an insufficient adjustment process” (Mussweiler et al). Our prior cognitive processing of the anchor increases the accessibility of anchorconsistent knowledge, which influences our subsequent judgments. For example, when we meet a person from a country, the first person we met from that country may become

our anchor. If we had a positive experience with the first person, we are likely to interpret the actions of this new person with a positive light. While cognitive heuristics such as anchoring help us make quick decisions under constraints, they may also lead to errors. The price we pay for the economy provided by the heuristics is “systematically

biased judgments under certain conditions.” (Bless et al., p. 24). For instance, a car dealer may offer you a very high price as an anchor and ask you to make a counter offer. Experiments have demonstrated that under such circumstances, the value of the initial offer has a significant effect on what people will be willing to pay for the final price of the car. If July / August 2011

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REFLECTIONS

the initial offer is very high, the customer is likely to accept a higher negotiated price and vice versa. The anchoring effect can also be observed when we take a few characteristics of a person and consciously or subconsciously fit them to a stereotype. In such cases, we may misperceive their motivations or misunderstand their circumstances. Sometimes the anchor can be manipulated by some person other than ourselves, as in the case of the car dealer. Sometimes, we may pick the anchor unintentionally based on information obtained from the mass media. As the mass media tend to focus on rare events that tend to be negative, the stereotypes formed based on information solely derived from the mass media may be misleading (Said, 1997). What are some of the lessons we can derive from our discussion of the anchoring effect? For one, we need to point the mirror at ourselves and ask: Are we forming stereotypes of others that may be inaccurate? Are we influenced by the anchoring effect in our judgment of other people? To see whether we may have anchors for evaluating people of different backgrounds consider your initial thoughts about Christians, Jews, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Americans, Russians, Asians, Africans, Mexicans, etc. Are these anchors based on scientific data or news media coverage of events or personal encounters with one or more individuals? It may be infeasible to try to collect encyclopedic information about every nationality, religion, or culture that we encounter. But in matters that impact our society we ought to do a better job of researching a diversity of resources. But perhaps a more important lesson is this— the anchoring effect is here to stay as part of the reality of human cognition. If we would like to provide accurate, reliable information to people about ourselves, our culture and values, we should reach them before they form a negative anchor or stereotype. If we would like our cultural background, religion, or values to be understood without distortion, we need to reach out to as many people as possible around us and interact with them. We need to hold conversations, and share meaningful experiences with them to anchor their future judgments in an accurate reference point. The anchoring effect is demonstrated to be pervasive and robust in psychology. It is not likely to disappear in the foreseeable future. However, we do have the opportunity to reach out and help form positive anchors for better human relationships.

Further reading Bless, H., Fiedler, K., Strack, F. 2004. Social Cognition, New York: Taylor and Francis. Huitt, W. 2003. The Information Processing Approach to Cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Mussweiler, T., & Strack, F. 2001. The Semantics of Anchoring. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 86, 234–255. Said, E. 1997. 1997 Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World, New York: Random House.

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Generosity is like a tree. Its roots are in Heaven and its branches have hung down to this world. Whoever lives under that tree and behaves generously, sooner or later he will hold on to one of the branches and rise to Heaven where the tree’s roots are.

MEDICINE Fatih Kocabas PhD Candidate at UT Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas

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egeneration is the ability to restore and renew lost or damaged tissues or organs. The body is equipped with several strategies to regenerate, including the rearrangement of pre-existing tissue, the activation of resident stem cells, and the regression of a specialized cell or tissue to a simpler form by the process known as dedifferentiation. These strategies are directed toward the rebuilding of the appropriate tissue and organ structure. But this regeneration capacity varies in different organisms. For instance, planarians were shown to regenerate into a new worm successfully even when split into 279 pieces. Another striking example of regeneration has been observed in salamanders.

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Figure showing surgical removal of 15% the apex (tip) of a newborn mouse heart. Scientists have shown that mice younger than 7 days can heal heart damage by regrowing healthy heart muscle tissue. In older mice, such damage results in a scar and eventually heart failure.

When a limb of a salamander is removed, the limb can grow back and become functional in 1-3 months. Then there is the regeneration of the zebra fish heart. When 20 percent of the zebra fish heart is removed, it regenerates completely in 60 days by a process involving the dedifferentiation of heart muscle cells.

Heart regeneration in Mammals Such heart regeneration holds the promise for the treatment of heart failure following heart attacks. But so far, the adult human heart is known not to show adequate regeneration or replacement of dead tissue with functional tissue such as beating cardiomyocytes (cardiac muscles) and arteries. When a patient has successive heart attacks and myocardial infarctions (death of cardiac muscle resulting from interruption of the blood supply), the number of dead cells increases due to the decreased level of oxygen reaching the heart tissue. That’s one of the reasons heart disease is so deadly. The rates of cardiac regeneration, from fish to amphibians to mammals, demonstrates a decreasing trend — high in fish, moderate 30

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in amphibians, and limited in mammals. The regeneration mechanism is thought to occur via incorporating stem cells, using differentiation into cardiac muscle and other cell types, or via dedifferentiation of cardiomyocytes. It is known that the heart of an adult zebra fish can regenerate without scar formation, whereas adult rodents and humans respond with a fibrous scar, without obvious cardiomyocyte regeneration. This remarkable phenomenon had been demonstrated in other fish and amphibians, but never before in a mammal. Recently, researchers at UT Southwestern Medical Center showed that a newborn mouse’s heart can fully heal itself. Sadek’s group at UT Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas showed that the mammalian heart demonstrates a temporary regeneration capacity in newborn mice. After slowing down the body functions by cooling the body of a mouse, they performed a very delicate heart surgery, removing about 15 percent of the apex of a 1-day-old newborn mouse heart. Within a short period (three weeks), they showed that heart had healed and the function

of heart had returned to normal. But when mice are a week old, this remarkable ability of regeneration disappears, and damage to the heart results in the thinning of the heart wall at the site of injury, and the loss of the pumping capacity of heart, also known as heart failure. There seems to be a barrier to regeneration after 7 days. This 7-day window in mice could correspond to a few months after birth in humans. Several reports suggest that human heart may also have some ability to regenerate in infancy. If newborn animals and infants are able to regenerate their hearts, there could be ways to remind the heart how do this or restart this ability in adulthood to allow regeneration in a broader window. Could there be means to induce regeneration by gene therapy, using small molecules, drugs or hormones? This new discovery brings new approaches to study heart disease and hopes that one day, heart disease — the number one killer in the world — could be treated. More studies are needed and a number of labs have already started to invest in this new model of heart regeneration.

Human heart cell turnover and regeneration The heart is the least regenerative organ in our body. Once cardiomyocytes are damaged through heart attacks, the heart heals by scar formation instead of regeneration. This results in a loss of contractile function and often ends in heart failure. Lack of regeneration in an adult heart is associated with the complexity and inability of cardiomyocytes to divide, along with the absence of adequate muscle-producing cardiac stem cells in the heart. Cardiomyocytes proliferate extensively during embryonic development but slow dramatically around birth. The growth of heart continues after birth through the increase in cardiomyocyte size, known as hypertropy. This allows DNA synthesis and nuclear division and results in binucleated cardiomyocytes. Increasing evidence strongly suggests that the human heart shows a degree of cardiomyocyte repopulation (introduction of new cardiomyoctes). It is always challenging to study human heart cellular homeo-

stasis, as it is limited in the availability of human samples and the means to work on it. Who knew nuclear testing during the Cold War would help to uncover dynamics of human cardiomyocyte turnover? Using a technique based on radiocarbon dating of DNA with carbon-14, released from nuclear tests, Bergmann and his colleagues from the Karolinska Institute in Sweden showed that the cardiomyocyte turnover rate is about 1 percent per year at age 20, with a decline to 0.4 percent per year at age 75. This is based on the idea that people born during nuclear tests following World War II until the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963), any cardiomyocyte repopulation should result in lower carbon-14 concentrations. These findings imply that around age 50, about half of the cardiomyocytes in the human heart are generated after birth. However, another study puts emphasis on the importance of cell deaths (apoptosis) for heart cell turnover, asserting that these rates could be much higher (740 percent per year). Those findings bring new hopes to heart disease. If the repopulation potential of heart could be therapeutically targeted, the rate of turnover could be extended to overcome the inability to recover cardiomyocyte loss and cardiac contractility after heart attacks. The better regenerative capacity of fish and amphibians, compared

to that of mammals, seems to stem from the presence of species-specific differences. It has been suggested that the limited regeneration potential of mammalian hearts following injury increases survival by prioritizing homeostasis and fibrosis (scar formation by excess connective tissue). Bleeding from the heart in a high-pressure circulation probably favors the more rapid fibrous healing, instead of regeneration, whereas small animals have a lowpressure circulatory system and oxygenation isn’t needed all the time. This phenomenon probably applies to the regeneration of the newborn mouse heart, which also made the removal of the apex of the newborn mouse heart possible.

Cardiac stem cells for regeneration The heart is a mosaic of various cell types including valvular, arterial, smooth muscle, pacemaker, endothelial, autonomic ganglia, fibroblasts and cardiomyocytes. Those cells have essentially the same genetic makeup but they show a great diversity. Could there be a common cardiac stem cell that gives rise to all those cell types in the heart? There are a number of studies suggesting the presence of such stem cells, though why they fail to regenerate the heart following heart attacks remains unknown. There have been a number of attempts to discover cardiac stem cells.

Some stem cells have been studied in animals and even considered as possible therapies in human trials. Sources of those stem cells could be classifies as resident and nonresident (exogenous) cells of heart. Exogenous stem cell types include skeletal myoblasts, hematopoietic stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow and circulating endothelial cells. Many approaches to identify resident cardiac stem cells are based on knowledge from hematopoietic stem cells. Using surface proteins on the cells known to enrich bone marrow stem cells, several types of resident stem cells are shown to exist in the heart. There are limited improvements in cardiac function using those cells, but the benefits of those cells are thought to be through other mechanisms instead of replacement of dead tissue in the damaged heart. A study demonstrating the renewal of a newborn mice heart does not completely rule out resident cardiac stem cells as a source of new beating heart cells, but points out the likelihood of their originating from cardiomyocytes by dedifferentiation. Along with a number of attempts to treat heart failure by using stem cells, recent findings offer hope that researchers and doctors will one day able to cure heart disease. Knowing that “there is no disease that God has created, except that He also has created its treatment,” our duty is to study hard and to develop new technologies to find the prospective treatments for heart failure to serve humanity.

References A nuclear testing site at Nevada, November 1951. Who knew nuclear testing during the Cold War would help to uncover occurring human heart cell turnover?

http://chinese.eurekalert.org/en/multimedia/ pub/634.php?from=1985 Porrello et al. 2011. “Transient Regenerative Potential of the Neonatal Mouse Heart.” Science 25 February: 1078–1080. Bergmann et al. 2009. “Evidence for Cardiomyocyte Renewal in Humans.” Science, 3 April: 98–102. Charles E. Murry and Richard T. Lee. 2009. “Turnover after the fallout.” Science, V324. O.Bergmann et al. 2009. Science 324, 98. Simonetta Ausoni and Saverio Sartore. 2009. “From fish to amphibians to mammals: in search of novel strategies to optimize cardiac regeneration.” JBC. 184 (3). Martin-Puig et al. 2008. “Lives of a hear cell: Tracing the origins of cardiac progenitors.” Cell Stem Cell 2. April. Nevada Nuclear Testing Site: http://mason. gmu.edu/~kcherrix/atomichome.html Sahih al-Bukhari, Vol. 7, Book 71. July / August 2011

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A MOMENT FOR REFLECTION

Mary Lahaj Chaplain at Simmons College in Boston

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oing over it in her mind, she had to admit that George was probably right—she shouldn’t have this baby because she had no means to provide for its livelihood. Here she was, sitting on the floor in her childhood bedroom, staring at the phone beside her, willing it to ring. But she knew George wouldn’t be calling. She had given up on him and left him behind in New York when he made it clear that he didn’t love her. She was living with her mother in Boston now. She wanted to ask her mother for support, but she couldn’t face her, so she kept silent about her situation. Adjusting her position on the floor, Hannah told herself, “I have just one choice now. I have to pray to God.” She raised her eyes to the ceiling, where she thought there was a heaven, where she thought she might find God. But her mind was unclear about what to do or say next. She didn’t really know how to pray but she hoped, if there was a God, He would hear her wherever she was…wouldn’t He? She didn’t really know much about belief. Religion didn’t play a big part in her family’s life; perhaps this had led her to believe she didn’t need religion or God in her life. For the past 10 years, she had been living like so many young people of her time, never once contemplating God, religion, or even the difference between right and wrong. She had followed the crowd and her own egotistical desires. Ironically, it was this crooked path that led her to

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God’s door. She was standing now at a dangerous intersection, 30 years old with no home of her own, no job, pregnant out of wedlock, and trying to make a responsible decision for the life she carried inside. Growing up, it was clear that her parents had hopes and dreams for all their children to be successful, good people. Her generation had their marching orders: make the family proud. They strove to be the brightest in school, the most talented musicians, and the toughest players on the football field. Her family was well-known in town for owning the biggest house, buying the best clothes, and driving the newest cars. As a child, she had lived a sheltered, lonely and isolated life. Her playmates were her cousins and siblings. When she grew older, her friends became the most important people in her life. And although she tried, she didn’t fit in with her peers; perhaps the reason was because she didn’t belong to a community of faithful believers, or perhaps because her skin was a shade too dark. Being different had impacted her identity negatively. Despite all the love her family had shared, she was unhappy with herself. Hannah couldn’t wait to get away from that town, that family, and the unanswered questions about why she didn’t fit in. Hannah’s life changed drastically after she went to college. There, she was free. What she did with her newfound freedom was not inhibited by her skin color, her parents, or by any relationship with God. She cared nothing about what God thought of her, and only about what people thought of her. Her sole ambition was to appear liberated from any sense of guilt or shame, even after wronging herself or another. After college, her parents expected her to move back home, but Hannah refused. By then, her taste for freedom had become as precious as gold, and she couldn’t imagine losing even one piece of it. So, with her parents’ reluctant support, she moved to New York City to pursue her dream of becoming a rich and famous songwriter and singer. After seven years, and some success in the music business, she re-

turned home—secretly pregnant. Deeply disappointed by her mistakes and the dissatisfying path she had chosen, Hannah sought shelter in her mother’s home, until she could figure out what to do next. In her room, Hannah prepared to pray, closing her eyes and fearing God. Praying was something she hadn’t done since she was an innocent child. She wondered,“Will God listen to me? But then, why should He?” Hannah struggled to find the right words, to move beyond her fears and doubts. How could she ask for something from someone she hardly knew or trusted? Finally, she managed to speak: “God, I am unworthy; too unworthy to ask for your help.” With her head bowed, Hannah began to sob, “But I’m in trouble. You have to help me…I have nowhere to turn, no one else to ask. Oh, dear God. Please help me...”  In tears, and feeling her prayer was futile, Hannah was about to give up, when she was struck by a clear, cold reality: God was her only Helper. This truism awakened a longing deep inside of her. She kept pushing, praying, putting aside her pride, and then, she began to beg: “Oh, my God, I’m going to do the most impossible thing. But You…You have to help me, because without Your help, I couldn’t do it…” She heard her own voice, crying out, asking for a change in her life. Like the Israelites, who had cried out to God from the depths of their souls to be released from slavery. God answered their cry and gave them Moses. Praying was evidence of a change taking place within Hannah. But she had to wonder, was it really enough, if absolutely nothing about her situation had changed? She had no plan of action, no partner, no place to live, no money, and no job; and yet, she now believed that everything in the universe could change by God’s will: “…Truly, never will God change the condition of a people until they change what is in themselves…” Hannah began to think of other changes she could make to her life, asking herself for the first time: “Could I change my way of life? Would God guide me if I asked to be guided?”

When she finished crying and praying, and opened her eyes, Hannah felt better. She had an inexplicable sense of peace, and felt confident about her sudden decisiveness. She passed her hands over her face, still wet with her tears and whispered into the air: “I’m going to have this baby and God is going to help me.” From that day forward, Hannah’s awareness of and deep need for God would determine all her choices. For Hannah, it was the beginning of a renewed relationship with God, a way for her to learn how to trust in God. Some call it “a leap of faith.” But years later, Hannah would describe the experience in her room as the day she surrendered to God. She experienced the true meaning of faith that day; the moment of her surrender came when she realized with her whole heart that she had only One True Helper. Tears dried and spirits surprisingly high, Hannah left her room and headed downstairs to the pantry. Starving, she held a salty pickled turnip in one hand and a sweet piece of baklava in the other, when her mother came upon her and asked innocently,“What are you doing, Hannah? Why are you eating both of those at once? You’re going to get sick!” When she saw the love and concern on her mother’s face, and thought about the gift from God growing inside her body, Hannah was overcome by a profound sense of gratitude, and the vision of a new life, with God as her guide. “Say, ‘Come, I will rehearse what God has really prohibited you from: Join not anything as equal with Him; be good to your parents; kill not your children on a plea of want.’ We provide sustenance for you and for them…come not near to shameful deeds, whether open or in secret. Take not life, which God has made sacred, except by way of justice and law. Thus does He command you that you may learn wisdom.” (Qur’an 6:151) Afterword: Hannah and her child never experienced a single day of want. Today, her son is 28 years old and has far exceeded the hopes and dreams a mother could have for a child. She often refers to him as the “jewel in her crown.” And each fall she makes him his favorite dish, salty pickled turnips. July / August 2011

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S EMERALD HILLS OF THE HEART Be steadfast in fulfilling all your responsibilities for the sake of God and to please Him, and endure the difficulty of always being aware of His constant supervision of you and feeling His omnipresence.

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Sabr (PatIence)

abr literally means enduring, bearing, and resisting pain; suffering and difficulty; and dealing calmly with problems. In more general terms it means patience, which is one of the most important actions of the heart mentioned in the Qur’an. Because of its importance, patience is regarded as half of one’s religious life (the other half is thankfulness). The Qur’an orders patience in many verses, such as: Seek help in patience and prayer (2:45) and: Endure, vie with each other in endurance (3:199), and prohibits haste in verses like: Show not haste concerning them (the unbelievers) (46:35) and: When you meet in battle those who do not believe, turn not your backs to them (8:15). In many Qur’anic verses, God praises the patient, declares that He loves them, or mentions the ranks He has bestowed on them: The patient and steadfast, and the truthful and loyal (3:16); God loves the patient (3:145); and Surely God is with the patient (2:153). The Qur’an mentions many other aspects of patience. For example: If you endure patiently, this is indeed better for those who are patient (16:126) advises patience as a preferable way in dealing with unbelievers while communicating God’s Message to them. We will certainly bestow on those who are patient their reward according to the best of what they used to do (16:96) consoles the patient with the best of rewards to be given in the Hereafter. If you have patience and guard yourselves against evil and disobedience, God will send to your aid five

thousand angels having distinguishing marks, if they [your enemies] suddenly attack you (3:124) promises the believers Divine aid in return for patience. How meaningful is the following saying of the Prophet Muhammad, master of humanity, peace be upon him, concerning patience and thankfulness: How remarkable a believer’s affair is, for it is always to his advantage, and such a condition is only for a believer. If something good happens to him he thanks God, which is to his advantage; if something bad happens to him he endures it, which is also to his advantage.1 The characteristics of patience can be grouped into five categories: enduring difficulties associated with being a true servant of God or steadfastness in performing regular acts of worship; resisting temptations of the carnal self and Satan to commit sins; enduring heavenly or earthly calamities, which includes resignation to Divine decrees; being steadfast in following the right path and not allowing worldly attractions to cause deviation; and showing no haste in realizing hopes or plans that require a certain length of time to achieve. With respect to its degrees, patience can be divided into six categories: showing patience for the sake of God; showing patience and attributing it to God (being convinced that God enables one to show patience); enduring patiently whatever comes from God, knowing that He acts from His Wisdom; being resigned to whatever happens in the way of God; showing patience by not disclosing the mysteries of one’s achieved spiritual station and to preserve one’s nearness to God; and resolving to fulfill one’s mission of communicating God’s Message to people despite one’s deepest desire to die and meet with God. There are other definitions of patience as well. For example, pre-

serving one’s manners in the face of misfortune; being steadfast when confronted with events, and showing no sign of being deterred; never giving in to one’s carnal desires and the impulses of one’s temperament; accepting the commandments of the Qur’an and the Sunna as a sort of invitation to Paradise; and sacrificing all possessions, including one’s soul and beloved ones, for the sake of the True, Beloved One. Those Qur’anic interpreters who were interested in the text’s secret or esoteric meanings have made the following commentaries on the

verse: Endure, vie with each other in endurance, and continue your relation with God (3:199): Be steadfast in performing your religious duties, endure whatever displeasing thing happens to you, and maintain your love of God and desire to meet with Him. Or, be steadfast in fulfilling all your responsibilities for the sake of God and to please Him, and endure the difficulty of always being aware of His constant supervision of you and feeling His omnipresence. Or, be steadfast July / August 2011

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in following the Straight Path without any deviation, even when Divine bounties pour out onto you. Resolve to endure all difficulties and hardships, and maintain your connection or adherence to God whatever happens to you. Another approach to patience is to attribute to God Almighty whatever is in the universe and happens therein and, while giving thanks for what appears pleasing, being resigned to what appears displeasing. When a believer unburdens himself or herself to God while trying to overcome a misfortune or hardship, a responsibility that is very hard to fulfill, or sins that might be committed, this must not be considered a complaint against God. Rather, it is a believer’s way of asking Him for help and seeking refuge in Him. In no way can such an action be considered a complaint or a protest against God or Divine Destiny. In reality, and according to one’s intention, such an act may even be regarded as a supplication and an entreaty, as putting one’s trust in Him or as submitting to Him. The cry of Prophet Job, upon him be peace, to God: Truly distress (disease, tribulation) has seized me. But You are the Most Compassionate of the Compassionate (21:83) and the groaning of Prophet Jacob, upon him be peace: I only complain of my anguish and my sorrow unto God

Patience is an essential characteristic of those believers who are the most advanced in belief, spirituality, nearness to God, and who guide others to the truth. It is, moreover, the source of power for those advancing toward this final point. 36

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(12:86) are supplications or entreaties for God’s pity and compassion. God Almighty praised Job, upon him be peace, for being an excellent servant distinguished with patience and supplications: We found him patient; how excellent a servant! Truly he was ever turning (to God) with supplications (38:44). One of the most distinguishing characteristics of Prophets and saints is their embodiment of patience in all of its manifold forms and degrees, and that without deviating from their utmost devotion to God, they do their best to communicate God’s Message to people and bear all misfortune and difficulty arising there from. The Prophet Muhammad, glory of humanity, upon him be peace and blessings, who is a mercy for the whole of creation, declared: Among mankind, those who are stricken with the most terrible of misfortunes are the Prophets, and then follow others according to their degree of faith.2 Patience is an essential characteristic of those believers who are the most advanced in belief, spirituality, nearness to God, and who guide others to the truth. It is, moreover, the source of power for those advancing toward this final point. Since the most advanced people experience the most misfortune, they are perfect embodiments of patience, which is the price they pay for the rank bestowed on them. Others who have been destined to advance to that final point cross the distances traveled by others through different and frequent acts of worship, by enduring whatever happens to them. Of these, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, says: If God Almighty has destined a servant of His to a rank or position which he cannot reach through his religious actions, He causes him to suffer from his own self and family, and equips him with patience to endure all his sufferings. He elevates him through patience to the rank to which He has destined him.3 Thus the suffering to be endured, the difficulty in fulfilling one’s responsibilities, and the pressure of sin contain potential mercy, mercy that is attracted by one’s patience. One subjected to such affliction should not unburden himself or herself to anybody else. How beautifully Fuduli says: You say you are a lover, then do not complain of the affliction of love; By complaining, do not make others informed of your affliction. Travelers on the path to God should know how to burn and boil with love or be consumed with affliction, but never complain to others of such love and affliction. Even if crushed by difficulty or responsibility as heavy as mountains, they should not complain to others. Rumi summarizes such a degree of patience as follows: In order to be sustenance for man, a source of strength for his knees, a “light” for his eyes, and a substance for the maintenance of his life, a grain of wheat must be buried in the bosom of the earth, germinate under it, and grow to emerge into the air. It must come into the air after a fierce struggle with the earth, and then be sown and threshed, and ground in a mill. After that, it must be kneaded, baked in an oven, and, finally, chewed by teeth, sent into the stomach, and digested. To attain true humanity, each individual must be “sieved” or “distilled” many times to discover his or her true essence. Otherwise, the ability to develop one’s potential to its fullest, to be truly human, is not possible: It is expected of God’s servant to suffer, And of an aloe wood to burn. Patience is an essential and most important dimension of servanthood to God, and is crowned with resignation, the highest spiritual rank in the sight of God, to whatever God has destined.

Notes 1. 2. 3.

Muslim, Zuhd, 64. Tirmidhi, Zuhd, 56; Ibn Maja, Fitan, 23. Abu Hatim Ibn Hibban, Sunan, 4:248; Al-Muttaqi al-Hindi, Kanz al ‘Ummal, vol. 3, hadith no. 6822.

Dialogue Kara Potter Freelance writer in Melbourne, Australia

he Qur’an expresses a range of positive and negative attitudes toward Jews and Christians. The doctrine found in these verses dictates how the Qur’anic law requires Muslims to treat Jews and Christians. This essay examines a common theme in some of the varying doctrines: Pious Christians and Jews are praised, while those of them who are bad are condemned. The essay also discusses how treatment of Christians and Jews has actually been put in practice by the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, Islamic thinkers such as Said Nursi, and in daily life by the ruling authorities in Islamic civilizations from the Middle Ages until the end of the Ottoman Empire.

Christian and Jewish scripture Islamic theology is strictly monotheistic. Consequently, the Qur’an denies such Christian doctrines as the Trinity and the resurrection of Jesus, which can seem to suggest

Jerusalem

that God works in a partnership (Jacques 2004, 16). Yet Jesus is always honored in the Qur’an. He is referred to as a “sign” of mercy and an “example.” Nowhere is he or any other Prophet criticized (Jacques 2004, 16). Moses is also revered in the Qur’an, where he is referred to more than one hundred times (Khan 2001, 35). The Qur’an does not claim to supersede the scriptures that came before it, but is understood to complete the revelations of the Prophets

(Jacques 2004, 298). It is a culmination of the history of divine revelation, which includes stories from the Old and New Testaments such as the stories of Abraham, Moses, Noah, and Jesus. Sura 61:6 is an example of how the Qur’an affirms the validity of Jewish and Christian scriptures: “And when Jesus son of Mary said, ‘Children of Israel, I am indeed God’s messenger to you, confirming the Torah that has gone before me…’” (Murata and Chittick 1994, 165). July / August 2011

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Qur’anic doctrine about the “People of the Book” In the Qur’an, Jews, and Christians are referred to as Ahl al-kitab, meaning “the People of the Book.” The Qur’an makes distinctions between the People of the Book. Many verses acknowledge that there are both wrongdoers and righteous ones among them (Sarıtoprak 2000, 323). Where the Qur’an criticizes the People of the Book, it generally makes clear that it is referring only to those who do not adhere to the message of the Prophets (tawhid) (Murata and Chittick, 1994, 170): Those who persistently disbelieve from among the People of the Book and the polytheists would not abandon until there had come to them the Clear Evidence … Surely those who disbelieve from among the People of the Book and from among the polytheists will be in the fire of Hell a seed of which unbelief bears, abiding therein. (98:1, 6) Some verses that criticize the People of the Book without making a distinction are open to various interpretations. For example, Sura 5:55 states: “Oh believers, take not Jews and Christians as friends; they’re friends of each other. Whoso of you makes them as friends is one of them.” Said Nursi suggests that the verse may refer to particular groups of Jews and Christians who committed treachery during the days of the Medina Charter. Nursi points out that at the time of the Prophet, peo-

ple hated and loved each other solely on the basis of religion, so close relationships with non-Muslims were considered hypocritical (Sarıtoprak 327). As the basis for friendships has changed, hypocrisy in this respect is no longer an issue. Another reason why such verses should be interpreted broadly rather than literally is because some of the words used in their original Arabic forms are ambiguous. In this verse, the word for friend (wali) can mean guardian. The sentence might mean that Muslims cannot make Jews or Christians their guardians. In some verses, the People of the Book are referred to as kafir, meaning either “one who denies the existence of God” or “one who denies the prophethood of Muhammad.” Non-Muslims are not necessarily kafirs in the first sense of the word (Sarıtoprak, 328). The Qur’an commonly advocates tolerance, respect, and goodwill towards the People of the Book. For example, Sura 60:8 declares: God does not forbid you, as regards those who do not make war against you on account of your Religion, nor drive you away from your homes, to be kindly to them, and act towards them with equity. God surely loves the scrupulously equitable. In addition to advocating tolerance, the Qur’an praises the People of the Book. In Sura 21:7, they are referred to as “People of Knowledge” (ahl al-dhikr) (Sarıtoprak, 328) and verses 3:113-15 declare: Yet, they are not all alike: among the People of the Book, there is an upright community, reciting God’s Revelations in the watch-

es of the night and prostrating (themselves in worship). They believe in God and the Last Day, and enjoin and promote what is right and good, and forbid and try to prevent evil, and hasten to do good deeds, as if competing with one another. Those are of the righteous ones. Whatever good they do, they will never be denied the reward of it; and God has full knowledge of the Godrevering, pious. This sura provides an example of how the Qur’an recognizes that the People of the Book worship the same God as Muslims. This recognition of a common ground is repeated in other verses, such as 3:64, which commands: Say (to them, O Messenger): “O People of the Book, come to a word common between us and you, that we worship none but God, and associate none as partner with Him, and that none of us take others for Lords, apart from God.” Another implication in Sura 3:115 is that the People of the Book will be rewarded. A general theme in the Qur’an is that those People of the Book who accept tawhid will have salvation (Murata and Chittick, 168). For example, Sura 2:62 states: Those who believe (Muslims), the Jews, the Christians, and the Sabaeans, whosoever believe in God and the Last Day and do good deeds, they shall have their reward from their Lord, shall have nothing to fear, nor shall they come to grief.

Tolerance in Practice The Prophet Muhammad protected and defended the People of the Book. In the hadith by Al-Munawi, he is quoted as saying: “Who wrongs a Jew or Christian will have myself as his prosecutor on the day of Judgement.” In Al-Bayhaqi’s hadith he is quoted: “Whosoever persecuted a dhimmi [non-Muslim who paid a protection tax] or usurped his rights, or took work from him beyond his capacity, or took something from him without his permission, I shall be a complainant against him on the Day of Resurrection.” Al-Bukhari tells of how Muhammad would not exclude Jewish people when he visited the sick. On one occasion, when a Jewish funeral procession passed by him, he stood up out of respect, and when asked why, replied: “Is it not a human soul?” The Prophet’s respect for the People of the Book was an example to others during his time. One of his companions, Hizam b. Hakim, reproached the Governor of Syria when he saw a group of group of Christians standing out in the hot sun as punishment for not paying their taxes. Said Nursi also advocated tolerance, affirming that Muslims and nonMuslims are equal before Qur’anic law, and that people should be praised and loved based on their individual attributes (Sarıtoprak 326–327).

Painting depicting Jews praying in synagogue. 17th century

Dhimmi law and jizya Soon after the Hijra (the migration of the Prophet to Medina), the Prophet signed a pact with the local tribes of Medina. Famously known as the Medina Charter, the Prophet aimed at generating a peaceful, pluralist society in this town, which was torn apart with decades-long civil strife and bloodshed. However, when this pact was violated by some Jewish tribes who supported the Meccans against Muslims, Jews were eventually driven out. Yet cooperation was renewed when the Prophet concluded a treaty with the Jews of Khaibar (Jacques 14–16).

View of Kazan Kremlin, Tatarstan

Under an Islamic government, dhimmi law was developed in relations with the People of the Book which required them to pay a poll tax, or jizya, which is sanctioned in the Qur’an (9:29). In exchange, Muslims were responsible for the protection of the People of the Book in their society. During the reign of the second Caliph, the Governor of Homs (in modern-day Syria) returned the poll tax to his Christian subjects because he realized he could not protect them against the Byzantine army (Jacques 14–16).

The policies surrounding jizya were relatively fair. Under a Muslim government, non-Muslims were not required to pay zakat (prescribed charity), which was a legal and religious requirement for Muslims. Furthermore, the poor, the blind, the elderly, the rescue workers at the houses of worship, women and children were all exempt from jizya. If it was not paid, the maximum punishment was imprisonment, and if a person died without having paid it, it could not become a debt transferred to his estate or heirs (Jacques 14–16).

Interaction between Muslims and the People of the Book

Muslims, Jews, and Christians socialized among one another regularly and rather freely in the Islamic Middle Ages, creating bonds.

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Muslims, Jews, and Christians socialized among one another regularly and rather freely in the Islamic Middle Ages, creating bonds (Cohen 2000, 39, 42). For example, they met in public baths, and business partnerships between Muslims and non-Muslims occurred despite disapproval of some authorities. Some Muslims even took part in Christian and Jewish religious celebrations. Jews and Christians had many ample opportunities in daily life “to cross barriers in the hierarchy of Islamic society” (Cohen 2000, 39). Dhimmis enjoyed acceptance in intellectual circles (majalis) and studied with Muslims at universities, particularly during the “renaissance of Islam” in cosmopolitan tenth-century Baghdad. Cohen states that “Jewish physicians were found in Arab society in numbers disproportionate to the Jewish presence in the population at large … They also formed part of the interdenominational circle of physicians working in state hospitals and adorning Muslim courts” (Cohen 2000, 42). In the early Abbasid period, Muslims and Christian theologians frequently corresponded by sending letters to each other, or in debates. Although the dialogue was concerned with both parties trying to prove the superiority of their religion over the other, it was nevertheless constructive and meaningful (Sirry 2005, 365–73). Life in Spain (al Andalus) between 711 and 1492 is a prime example of harmonious coexistence between Muslims, Jews, and Chris-

tians. Jews and Christians enjoyed participation in Arab cultural activities, such as poetry competitions and intellectual circles (Menocal 2002, 173–80). In 1856, full egalitarian rights were given to all citizens of the Ottoman Empire. Citizens of any religion could be accepted into government service and enroll in military and state schools (Sarıtoprak, 322).

Restrictions in Muslim-Dhimmi Relations In the fourteenth century, jurist Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya wrote an influential book compiling general Islamic laws for dhimmis: Ahkam ahl al-dhimma (The Laws pertaining to the Protected People) (Cohen 53). Among these, he states that Muslims may convey condolences to non-Muslims or congratulate them on marriage, birth or good health with the exception of occasions, which contradict Islamic tenets (Jacques 39). In some domains, such as marriage and dining, Muslim interaction with the People of the book is given Qur’anic sanction. This day (all) pure, wholesome things have been made lawful for you. And the food of those who were given the Book before is lawful for you, just as your food is lawful for them. And (lawful for you in marriage) are chaste women from among the believers, and from among those who were given the Book before, provided that you give them their bridal-due, taking them in honest wedlock, and not in debauchery, nor as secret lovecompanions. Whoever rejects faith, all his works are in vain, and in the Hereafter he will be among the losers. (5:5) Sunni law permitted the eating of animals slaughtered by the People of the Book. Muslims could eat food pro-

vided by Jews as the Prophet Muhammad himself had done (Cohen 41). It was more problematic to eat in Christian homes, as pork might be served. However, Shia Islam rejected food prepared by dhimmis as unclean. Sura 5:5 allows Muslim men to marry dhimmi women, not the other way around. This is to protect the woman’s rights, because the man might forcefully impose his religion on his Muslim wife (Cohen 41). If the wife of a Jewish or Christian couple converts to Islam, the marriage becomes invalid and from then on she may only marry Muslim men (Spectorsky 2000, 274). A Muslim husband is required to permit his non-Muslim wife to observe her religious rituals in the household and to read her own scriptures, and not encourage her to break rituals such as fasting and (for Jews) keeping the Sabbath (Cohen 41).

Conclusion In studying the Qur’an, it is evident that Islam is inherently tolerant of Judaism and Christianity. It requires Muslims to respect the validity of the Scriptures of the People of the Book, and their right to be treated with kindness. The practice of the Prophet is consistent with this view as is the example of many influential Muslims throughout history, such as Said Nursi and Rumi. In today’s world of pluralism and multiculturalism, understanding is essential for adherents of different religions to coexist in peace and harmony. Muslims, Jews, and Christians must understand the tolerant message of Islam and the great Muslim role models. Exclusive focus on seemingly negative Qur’anic verses such as 5:55, without understanding the context, can lead to fear and hatred. They must embrace their similarities to see that they are brethren, and embrace their differences as a chance for learning. Amidst the

twentieth and twenty-first century conflicts between the Islamic World and the West, one might see peaceful coexistence between religious groups as idealistic. But one needs only to look at the experience of Jews and Christians under Islamic rule in the Middle Ages to see that religious pluralism is possible.

References Cohen, A. 1984. Jewish Life under Islam: Jerusalem in the Sixteenth Century. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Cohen, M.R. 1994. Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ——. 2000. “Sociability and the Concept of Galut in Jewish-Muslim Relations in the Middle Ages” in Judaism and Islam: Boundaries, Communication and Interaction: Essays in Honor of William M. Brinner. Edited by B.H. Hary, J.L. Hayes, and F. Astern. Brill’s Series in Jewish Studies 27. Leiden: Brill. Huda, Q. 2003. “Knowledge of Allah and the Islamic View of Other Religions,” Theological Studies 64: 278–305. Jacques, W. 2004. “Christians, Muslims, Jews and Their Religions.” Islam and ChristianMuslim Relations 15: 13–33. Khan, I.A. 2001. “The Qur’anic View of Moses as a Messenger of God from the Children of Israel to Pharaoh.” In Jewish-Muslim Encounters: History, Philosophy and Culture, Edited by C. Selengut. St. Paul, Minn.: Paragon House. Lewis, B. 1984. The Jews and Islam. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Menocal, M.R. 2002. “Culture in the Time of Tolerance: Al-Andalus as a Model for Our Own Time.” Palestine-Israel Journal of Politics, Economics & Culture 8/9: 173–180. Murata, S., and W.C. Chittick. 1994. The Vision of Islam. New York: Paragon House. Sarıtoprak, Z. 2000. “Said Nursi’s Teachings on the People of the Book: A Case Study of Islamic Social Policy in the Early Twentieth Century.” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 11: 321–32. Sirry, M.A. 2005. “Early Muslim-Christian Dialogue: A Closer Look at Major Themes of the Theological Encounter.” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations Vol. 16: 361–76. Spectorsky, S. 2000. “Problems of Intermarriage in Early fiqh Texts.” In Judaism and Islam: Boundaries, Communication and Interaction: Essays in Honor of William M. Brinner. Edited by B.H. Hary, J.L. Hayes, and F. Astern. Brill’s Series in Jewish Studies 27. Leiden: Brill. July / August 2011

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Biology Frank Merchant Pharmacologist with a PhD from Yale University

The fact that we cannot see wisdom behind certain events does not mean they are random or meaningless. Perhaps it is just a matter of time when, in some context, the seemingly futile thing will have a vital role.

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ave you ever taken apart an electronic device in order to fix it? If so, you’ll recall that sometimes, when you reassemble the device completely, one screw or piece remains in your hand and you don’t know where it should go. The device seems to work fine without the leftover part. Then you joke, “This piece was useless, I improved the design!” Nevertheless, you know that the engineers who designed the device probably didn’t include meaningless parts that have no function. Some time passes, and sooner or later, the function of that leftover piece becomes apparent when your device fails again, this time perhaps for good. The “meaningless” piece had a crucial role in the function of the device, but you couldn’t see it at first. Deeming what we don’t understand “useless” is a human response; our best and brightest are not immune. Even scientists take the same attitude when they don’t understand what something does. We see an example of this behavior in futile cycles. Futile cycles are described as two opposing biological reactions that take place in a cell at the same time [1, 2]. As a result, futile cycles have seemingly zero net gain for the cell. Actually, because no process is 100 percent efficient, some energy is lost as

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heat. Thus, these cycles may even cost cells some energy. They were named “futile” cycles because scientists thought that it was wasteful for a cell to operate two exactly opposite processes simultaneously. One such process occurs in the powerhouses of cells, the mitochondria. Mitochondria are the places where a process called “oxidative phosphorylation” takes place. Oxidative phosphorylation is an efficient way of producing ATP, the cellular energy currency [1]. In this process, high-energy electrons in nutrients are used to generate potential energy, which is in turn used to produce ATP. Scientists who worked on mitochondrial function were flabbergasted to discover a family of proteins in the mitochondria that had a strange function. These proteins were dissipating the potential energy in the mitochondria before it could be used to produce ATP. They were named “uncoupling proteins” because they were uncoupling the potential energy buildup from ATP production [3]. Scientists couldn’t imagine what these wasteful proteins were doing in our mitochondria. Uncoupling proteins were decreasing the ATP production efficiency of mitochondria. Therefore, they named this process a futile cycle, where electrons from food were used for building up a potential, and an opposing action of uncoupling proteins were dissipating this potential before it could be stored as ATP [4]. This was similar to short-circuiting a battery by connecting two poles with a wire, and just discharging the energy—energy is lost but no work is done. The scientists took this process as a remnant of a random evolutionary process that was left unfinished—“futile,” with no function at all. It took several years and the work of a different team of biologists to figure out the benefit of these uncoupling proteins [5]. The scientists were working on the differences between wasps and honey bees. One striking difference between these species was in their ability to adapt to colder temperatures: honey bees couldn’t fly and collect pollen when the outside temperature dropped below 10ºC (50ºF). They had to stay in their beehives to keep warm. On the other hand, wasps could fly around in colder temperatures. The researchers discovered that the main difference that accounted for this phenomenon was that honey bees didn’t have uncoupling proteins in their mitochondria, while wasps did. Therefore, it became apparent that the main function of uncoupling proteins was to generate heat for the body to stay warm during the times when outside temperatures fell. The uncoupling proteins, it seemed, were generating heat while dissipating the potential energy (just like the wire that heats up when you connect two poles of a battery in short circuit). Later on, it was discovered that these proteins had crucial functions in all warm-blooded animals, especially in ones that hibernate during winter. In this case, an event that initially appeared to be meaningless or even stupid turned out to be indispensible for supporting life under certain circumstances. The fact that we cannot see wisdom behind certain events does not mean they are random or meaningless. Perhaps it is just a matter of time when, in some context, the seemingly futile thing will have a vital role. So the question remains: is there really any such thing as “random” or “futile”? References 1.

Alberts, B., J.H. Wilson, and T. Hunt. 2008. “Molecular Biology of the Cell.” 5th ed. New York: Garland Science. xxxiii, 1601, [90] 2. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futile_cycle#cite_note-0. 3. Nedergaard, J., D. Ricquier, and L.P. Kozak. 2005. “Uncoupling Proteins: Current Status and Therapeutic Prospects.” EMBO Rep. 6(10), p. 917–21. 4. Jezek, P. and J. Borecky. 1998. “Mitochondrial Uncoupling protein may participate in futile cycling of pyruvate and other monocarboxylates.” Am J Physiol, 1998. 275(2 Pt 1): p. C496–504. 5. Staples, J.F., E.L. Koen, and T.M. Laverty. 2004. “Futile Cycle Enzymes in the Flight Muscles of North American Bumblebees.” J Exp Biol. 207(Pt 5): p. 749–54.

RESURRECTION PLANTS Botany

Safiye Arslan

Research fellow in the area of biological chemistry in Nevada

Resurrection plants are able to stay in a dehydrated state under conditions in which other plants would perish. They come back to life and resume their physiological activities when water becomes available again.

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ulips, sunflowers, roses, lilies, carnations, daisies, peas, eggplants, apple trees, and even bouquets of cut flowers for a loved one need water to survive. Water is vital to plant for its growth, development, and productivity. Plants use water as a solvent and a transporter of essential macro- and micro-nutrients throughout their tissues. Plants also need water to do photosynthesis, the process in which the energy in sunlight is stored in

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bonds of glucose for later use. Therefore, water deficiency (drought) can decrease the growth of a plant and constant drought can even kill it. Because plants heavily depend on water supply to survive, we panic when we forget to water the plants in our garden or house. We worry about our plants if we have busy schedules and keep forgetting to water them, or go on long business trips and cannot water them. The hard-to-kill resurrection plants might be the best solution for these watering issues. Resurrection plants are desiccation (extreme dryness) tolerant plant species. All are relatively small and mostly found in Southern Africa, North America, Brazil, and Australia. They are able to stay in a dehydrated state under conditions in which other plants would perish. They come back to life and resume their physiological activities when water becomes available again. During the dehydration process, leaves of resurrection plants shrink and curl up due to water loss. Some of them fold up their stems into a tight ball as they desiccate to limit surface area and conserve internal moisture. It is not yet clear how the leaves and stems reduce their size.

However, electron microscopy revealed desiccation-induced cell wall folding in the majority of mesophyll and epidermal cells of a resurrection plant. Thick-walled vascular tissue did not fold and supported the surrounding tissue, thereby limiting the extent of leaf shrinkage and allowing leaf morphology to be rapidly regained upon rehydration (Moore et al 2006, 651–62). When the resurrection plant is dehydrated, its stomatal conductance and intercellular CO2 concentration is decreased and hence its photosynthetic rate, but

sugar, starch and non-structural carbohydrate reserves increased during this stage. Mature tissues of resurrection plants such as leaves and roots are able to remain in the airdried state for months by reaching an inactive state, comparable to dormancy in seeds in several aspects. All metabolic functions are reduced to a bare minimum and they appear to be dead. Resurrection plants take immediate advantage of rainfall after dry periods: they absorb water, grow rapidly, and reproduce (Bartels 2005, 696–701; Xu 2010, 183–190).

Figure 1. The resurrection plant on the left, which looks dead, has been kept dry. The site shows how it becomes green from a dried-up brown ball shortly after it is placed in water.

http://truthinaging.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/resurrection_plant.jpg

One of the most common examples of resurrection plants is Myrothamnus flabellifolia, grown in southern Africa, the only known woody resurrection plant. Craterostigma wilmsii and Xerophyta viscosa are other resurrection plants from southern Africa. All these plants are used extensively in African medicine and traditional culture. Ramonda serbica and her sister Haberlea rhodopensis are members of Gesneriaceae family from the Balkan peninsula; they are rare and forbidden for collecting. Anastatica hierochuntica is native to western Asia, while Selaginella lepidophylla is collected from the wilderness of the southwestern United States and Mexico, sold to tourists, and exported worldwide—it can even be bought online, in their dry and lifeless form. After buying this plant, we soak it in water and voilà! If one does not have a “green thumb” and still want to have greenery in one’s home, this resurrection plant might work best for you. However, its downside is that sometimes people complain that the gray-brown ball and its branches do not become fully green or open up in water totally, which does not look very attractive. But even though you may not like how it looks, your kids might enjoy it as a science project. July / August 2011

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Why is it important to know how these plants survive drought and come back to life?

Plant scientists have been interested in using resurrection plants as model organisms to find out noble cellular mechanisms for improving the drought tolerance of important crop plants.

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The world’s need for water is likely to become one of the most critical resource issues of this century. The International Water Management Institute predicts that by the year 2025, one-third of the world’s population will reside in regions that experience severe water scarcity (www.iwmi.org) (Bartels and Salamini 2001, 1346–1353). Drought is a factor that dramatically threatens the world’s food supply. Therefore, plant scientists have been interested in using resurrection plants as model organisms to find out noble cellular mechanisms for improving the drought tolerance of important crop plants. Research on the molecular genetic mechanisms, metabolic and antioxidant systems as well as macromolecular and structural stabilizing processes in resurrection plants have been carried out (Moore et al 2009, 110–7). One study of Craterostigma wilmsii demonstrates that it relies almost entirely on protection during natural drying; however, it also induces a repair mechanism during rehydration that enables recovery from rapid drying. Thus, it apparently has the ability to repair if protection is inadequate and damage is incurred (Cooper 2002, 1805–13). In addition to repair mechanisms of resurrection plants, the processes that involve regulation of gene and protein activity that allow these plants to use energy storage efficiently have been investigated. The resurrection capability appears to be associated with the accumulation of a carbohydrate in the tissues as they dry. In a majority of cases, sucrose is the major carbohydrate that accumulates (Norwood et al. 2000, 159–65). In addition, an unusual disaccharide named trehalose, which is the main blood sugar in insects and serves as a major energy storage molecule enabling flight, is

These plants do not merely represent a unique model for scientists to understand a plant’s ability to cope with drought; they also serve us to deepen our faith for the Day of Judgment and rationalize it in our minds. found in high levels in resurrection plants. This is unusual, because normally there is not much trehalose in plants. It has been proposed that trehalose serves as an osmoprotectant (Avonce et al 2005, 276–279). Osmoprotectants are small molecules that help organisms to survive when a rapid change in the movement of water across their cell membrane occurs. Peter Scott of the Annuals of Botany wrote a summary of the ability of resurrection plant Craterostigma plantagineum to survive dehydration and revive (Scott 2000, 159–166). According to his botanical briefing the roots, being in the soil, are most likely to sense the decrease in water availability first. Abscisic Acid (ABA), a plant hormone, is synthesized and released by roots as a response to drought stress. Once released, ABA could activate batteries of genes required for metabolic processes such as the accumulation of sucrose from either stored carbohydrates or through an alteration in photosynthetic carbon partitioning. In addition, the synthesis of other proteins such as dehydrins and Late Embryogenesis Abundant proteins (LEAs) could help to stabilize the plant cells as they lose water. Thus as the tissues dehydrate, leaves shrink, chlorophyll is degraded, sucrose accumulates and ultimately the xylem, which is one of the transport tissues in plants, fills with air and the plants become desiccated. On addition of water, the xylem refills with water and cells begin to take up water and expand, enzymes present in the tissues are activated, sucrose is metabolized, and chlorophyll is resynthesized. Within 24 hours the plant is restored, and is reproductively active within two weeks. Based on these findings, it is of particular significance to understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms of resurrection plants and focus on biological engineering strategies for improving plant drought tolerance in important crop species such as cotton, soybeans, peanuts, corn, and potatoes. But these plants do not merely represent a unique model for scientists to understand a plant’s ability to cope with drought; they also serve us to deepen our faith for the Day of Judgment and rationalize it in our

minds. The astonishing changes in the tissue of resurrection plants, and how they are brought back to life when they appear to be completely dead, remind us of Qur’anic verses such as the one below regarding the resurrection of decayed flesh and bones (36:78–79). “And he puts forth for Us a parable, and forgets his own creation. He says: ‘Who will give life to these bones when they have rotted away and became dust?’ Say: ‘He will give life to them Who created them for the first time! And He is the All-Knower of every creation!’” Time-lapse videos of resurrection plants in action like xerophyta and jericho rose are easy to reach on the web. Enjoy!

References Moore JP, Nguema-Ona E, Chevalier L, Lindsey GG, Brandt WF, Lerouge P, Farrant JM, Driouich A. 2006. Response of the leaf cell wall to desiccation in the resurrection plant Myrothamnus flabellifolius. Plant Physiol. 141:651–62. Bartels D. 2005. Desiccation Tolerance Studied in the Resurrection Plant Craterostigma plantagineum. Integr. Comp. Biol. 45: 696–701 Xu D, Su P, Zhang R, Li H, Zhao L, Wang G. 2010. Photosynthetic parameters and carbon reserves of a resurrection plant Reaumuria soongorica during dehydration and rehydration. Plant Growth Reg. 60: 183–190. http://faculty.ucc.edu/biology-ombrello/pow/resurrection_plant.htm Bartels D, Salamini F. 2001. Desiccation tolerance in the resurrection plant Craterostigma plantagineum. A contribution to the study of drought tolerance at the molecular level. Plant Physiol. 127:1346–1353. Moore JP, Le NT, Brandt WF, Driouich A, Farrant JM. 2009 Towards a systems-based understanding of plant desiccation tolerance. Trends Plant Sci. 14:110–7. Cooper K, Farrant JM. 2002. Recovery of the resurrection plant Craterostigma wilmsii from desiccation: protection versus repair. J Exp Bot. 53:1805–13. Norwood M, Truesdale MR, Richter A, Scott P. 2000. Photosynthetic carbohydrate metabolism in the resurrection plant Craterostigma plantagineum. J Exp Bot. 51:159–65. Avonce N, Leyman B, Thevelein J, Iturriaga G. 2005. Trehalose metabolism and glucose sensing in plants. Biochem Soc Trans. 33:276–279. Scott P. 2000. Resurrection Plants and the Secrets of Eternal Leaf Annals of Botany. 85: 159–166. July / August 2011

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Perspectives   Jon Pahl Professor of the history of Christianity in North America at The Lutheran Theological Seminary at Philadelphia, USA

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read The Fountain as a Christian. Consequently, the magazine’s title is a rich metaphor. For Christians, a Fountain points to God as our Source, as “Living Waters.” That Source also can dissolve our petty attachments, our sins, in a flow of infinite justice. And finally the Fountain can lead us all to more compassionate living, to a life of flow lived in love of God and neighbor.

Whenever we wash, we can be reminded of our Source. Whenever it rains, we can remember the Fountain. 48

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The Fountain of Living Waters frames Christian Scriptures from beginning to end. In Genesis, the first book of the Torah, in the very first verse, we read: “In the beginning, when God began to create, the Earth was without form and void, and the Spirit of God moved over the face of the deep.” The deep in Hebrew is tehom. Such depth is not only the literal vastness of the primordial ocean; tehom also points us to the truth that creation comes from chaos. Life begins in the waters of the womb; cosmos originates in chaos. Then, in the very last verses of Christian Scriptures, the Book of Revelation, another water image appears. The author borrows from the Prophet Ezekiel to envision the new Jerusalem, the city of peace. This city comes down from heaven, and in its center is a river of life. This river con-

July / August 2011

tains crystal clear water, washing away all violence, so that “nothing any more shall be accursed.” Living Waters flow through Christian Scriptures from alpha to omega. The Holy Bible practically drips; 692 verses refer to waters. Prophet Moses leads the people of Israel to freedom through the waters of the Red (or Reed) Sea. Prophet Jonah doesn’t think it’s such a good idea to preach repentance to the people of Nineveh, Israel’s enemy, and embarks on a boat going the opposite direction. But God swallows him up in the belly of a whale, and he returns to the waters of creation, the chaos of tehom. And what does he do there? He prays. His prayer brings him safely to Nineveh, where out of the waters he brings the enemy to repentance. Living Water, the Fountain, turns enemies to allies. This truth is beautifully conveyed in perhaps the most famous Psalm, Psalm 23: The Lord is my Shepherd. I shall not want. He makes me lie down in green pastures. He leads me beside still waters. He restores my soul. Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I shall fear no evil, for Thou art with me. Thou preparest a table before me in the company of my enemies. My cup overflows. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life. The Fountain overflows with abundance, to invite even enemies to the table of justice and mercy. But the Fountain of our Source also dissolves our petty, ego-driven associations. Prophet Amos puts this best. The people of Israel in his day were unjust. They treated the poor with callous disregard, they didn’t educate their youth, they were violent. But they were also pious, praying five times a day (or the ancient equivalent, anyway!) And hear what God says, through Amos: “I hate, I despise your festivals. The noise of your solemn assemblies hurts my ears ... But let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an ever-flowing stream.” The Fountain of love is not just a gentle flowing stream. It’s also a tsunami of the power of love that sweeps away all our pretenses. The Fountain throws us unto the mercy of an infinite flood of justice. Of course, for Christians like me, this merciful and just Fountain also points to, indeed is incarnate within Jesus. Jesus is Living Waters. The story that most clearly conveys this metaphor is in the Gospel of John, where Jesus meets a Samaritan woman by a well and asks her for a drink. She asks him what he’s doing there, for being at a well was woman’s work, and Jesus’ disciples are scandalized, because rabbis didn’t talk to women, much

less Samaritans (who were racially “other”). And to make matters worse, this woman has been married five times, and she is now living with a man who is not her husband. But Jesus tells her: “The water that you give me will only temporarily quench my thirst. But the water I give to you is living waters, and it will well up in you to eternal life.” And this woman cries out: “Give me this water!” And Jesus says: “I am he.” Jesus is innocent and perfect compassion. He is a drink of water on a hot day. He is mercy for outcasts, for the poor, for sinners like this Samaritan woman. And what he brings is the possibility that we, too, might live compassionate lives. So the woman goes and tells her neighbors: “I’ve met the Messiah!” She has been washed in the Fountain. Once we lose our attachment to petty associations, we can live for others, out of true grace. “Whoever seeks to save one’s life,” Jesus teaches, “will lose it. But whoever gives up one’s life for my sake and for the sake of the good news (the gospel), will find true life.” True life is a life lived for others. This doesn’t entail masochism, but instead offers fulfillment. Psychologists teach that when we are fully engaged in a task we lose the usual blinders of self-consciousness and enter into what they call “flow.” We’re “in the zone,” whether at work, at play, or in love. The point is this: when we love, we truly live. This is why Lutheran Christians like myself celebrate the baptism of infants. Sometimes, baptism is misunderstood as a onetime event: you get dunked and you’re done. In fact, baptism is more like a first contact with the Fountain. Metaphorically, it can be experienced daily, even many times a day. Whenever we wash, we can be reminded of our Source. Whenever it rains, we can remember the Fountain. Whenever we take a drink, we can give thanks to God for the mercy of compassion. All in all, then, baptism is not unlike wudu— the washing of regeneration—that prepares us to pray. As the Apostle Paul urged us, “Pray constantly.” This doesn’t mean doing salat perpetually, it means being aware of our Source. Praying constantly means giving up petty attachments or associations, such as greed, anger, and violence. And praying constantly means giving ourselves away in acts of compassion. When we find the flow of love, we live. Reading The Fountain as a Christian connects me not only to a magazine, but also to a profound metaphor. The Fountain reminds us of our Source, dissolves petty egoist attachments as we learn about our world, and invites us to join the flow of compassionate living. And isn’t that worth at least the price of a subscription? July / August 2011

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The Great Questions of Existence

MATTER & BEYOND Nuri Delen

PhD in Electrical Engineering. Currently Lead Operations Engineer for Ciena Corp. in Linticum, Maryland

Paul Davies

Throughout the ages, human beings have yearned to know how the universe came to exist and what role we play in this vast world with its limitations of space and time. It has been said that the discipline of science deals with how things work and religion and philosophy deal with the question of why. But at this time in human history, some scientists and theologians assert that the two disciplines may not be so separate and distinct as we previously thought. Paul Davies, a British-born cosmologist, theoretical physicist, and bestselling author, conducts interdisciplinary research in the areas of physics, cosmology, and biology. Dr. Davies is the director of a new research center at Arizona State University called Beyond. The mission of the center is to explore the great questions of our existence, the origin of our universe and life, the nature of consciousness, and the mathematical laws that underpin the universe. He is particularly interested in the Big Bang Theory, one of the most influential theories of our time concerning the origins of our universe.

Introduction The probability of forming even the simplest enzyme, the simplest protein in known life, if you did it just by shuffling the building blocks, the amino acids that make that up, is infinitesimal. If you took the entire volume of the universe and filled it with an amino acid soup and just kept shuffling and shuffling and shuffling, you would simply not make it. If it’s happened once, we’re it. I take life seriously and I take the mind seriously so I don’t think that these are just incidental phenomena in the great cosmic scheme of things. I think they’re fundamental to the workings of the universe as a whole. It’s generally agreed that the particular [natural] laws that we observe are very special in their relation to the ability to bring forth life. Since the dawn of human history people have asked the great questions of existence: How did the universe come to exist? What is the role of humans beings in the great cosmic scheme of things, how will the universe end, what is it made of? Now for the greater part of human history, these questions were addressed by priests and philosophers. But in recent years, science has made progress as well. So scientists find themselves now asking those same ageold questions of existence.

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atter&Beyond: You are a cosmologist and the topic obviously is fascinating. But what is the root of our connection with space? What is the root of our human fascination with the sky and stars?

It’s very interesting to speculate if human beings had developed on a planet that was totally covered in cloud and had no awareness of the sky and astronomical bodies, whether society would’ve developed very differently. It’s quite clear when you look back at human history that the “heavens,” as they used to be called, had a very major role to play in all early civilizations. We can see evidence of astronomical observatories, thousands of years ago, long before the invention of telescopes. There are monuments, for example, pyramids that were built or Stonehenge in England, which are clearly astronomical monuments of some sort. And then we think of the world’s great religions and they all have an astronomical component. Think of the role of the new moon in Islam, for example, or the Star of Bethlehem in Christianity. … I think we can trace this preoccupation with the sky and the heavens to the early days of the development of agriculture because it became really important for people to know when to plant their crops and when to harvest them and the different seasons and so on. We can imagine that, say 10,000 years ago, people studied the sky very, very carefully and they became familiar with the movement of the objects and

they invented complicated mathematical formulas to chart them. M&B: How did our fascination with space change after industrialization?

What I would say has happened in the last three or four hundred years is that actually most people have become less aware of space. We live in cities that are polluted so we don’t see outer space. We’re too busy looking at televisions or driving home from work so we never look up and see this wonderland above our heads. How many people, for example, could name even the major constellations of stars if they were ever taken outside of their cities to somewhere where they could see the dark night sky? And so astronomy has become in a way less and less significant in people’s lives. M&B: But today astronomy and cosmology is making a comeback. There are a lot of bestseller popular science books written on space and time.

I think during the 1970s and ‘80s people became very antiscientific, perhaps as a result of a reaction to the Vietnam War. Astronomy somehow remained aloof from that. It was perceived as a subject that wasn’t dangerous, that we could study the stars, they were a long way away using benign equipment like telescopes and astronomers weren’t going to threaten anybody. And so I think exploring the universe has been seen in many ways as a sort of untainted glorious enterprise that doesn’t have this sort of threatening aspect to it. It’s still, of course, immensely popular. People still want to go to planetariums and they read books on astronomy and they like television productions on astronomical things. But I think it’s shifted now from those early days where people’s lives really revolved around the stars in a very literal sense, and those days are now gone.

“Human beings usually are not happy just to have a technical description of how the universe works, and in particular people always want to ask the question what happened before the Big Bang?”

M&B: You are a cosmologist, but based on the wide range of research areas at the center Beyond, I would say that you look more like a modern seeker of old times.

Since the dawn of human history people have asked the great ques-

tions of existence, how did the universe come to exist? What is the role of human beings in the great cosmic scheme of things? How will the universe end? What is it made of? Now for the greater part of human history, these questions were addressed by priests and philosophers. But in recent years, science has made progress as well. So scientists find themselves now asking those same age-old questions of existence. In my career, I have covered topics like the origin of the universe and the origin of life, the nature of time, the nature of consciousness, and the underlying laws of the universe. Inevitably these topics trespass on territory which was previously almost exclusively philosophy or religion’s. Now science has a story to tell about these great issues. M&B: If you have to pick the most interesting question modern science is trying to answer, what would be your choice?

I suppose the most interesting thing modern science is telling us about is how the universe came into existence. When I was a student, the Big Bang Theory was just one of many ideas about the origin of the universe. But over the past 30 years it’s become much more secure so that not only do we know that there was a Big Bang about 13.7 billion years ago, but we know a great deal about the details including the conditions that prevailed in the universe back to as little as one-trillionth of a second after the Big Bang. So we’re now able to reconstruct precisely how the universe went bang and how it developed over the subsequent billions of years into what we see today. So I think that the scientific story of the genesis of a universe is fascinating—its origin, its explosive outbursts, and the long period of enrichment and complexification of matter leading eventually to the emergence of life and beings like ourselves who could look back and reflect on it all. M&B: The Big Bang Theory is well established. Yet it’s still open to commentaries and interpretations.

It’s often said that science deals with “how?” questions and religion

deals with “why?” questions and so you don’t normally go to a scientist to find meaning or purpose in the universe. Nevertheless it is clear that because science is now able to fill in so many details about the big picture, that scientists are inevitably asked to make pronouncements about meaning and purpose. As they do so, they divide about equally into two groups. One group who says, “Well, the universe is beautiful, it’s so ingenious that it looks as if it has been designed by an intelligent creator but in fact it hasn’t.” There is no meaning, no purpose in the universe. The famous quote by Steven Weinberg, the American cosmologist, goes: “The more the universe seems comprehensible, the more it also seems pointless.” Then the other half of cosmologists look at this same set of facts and they agree about the facts but they interpret them differently. They will say, “Well, it does suggest that there is a grand scheme of things, it does suggest that the universe is about something. This grand and wonderful scheme, which is so ingeniously constructed, does suggest that there is something deeper to it all.” M&B: We find more and more scientists thinking and writing about these topics on both sides.

Human beings usually are not happy just to have a technical description of how the universe works, and in particular people always want to ask the question what happened before the Big Bang? What made the Big Bang go bang? Why is there a universe in the first place, and why is the universe as it is and not something different? And these are questions right on the edge of science because science really can only deal with things that can be measured and observed. They can deal with the facts of the world, the things before us. When we come to questions about why does the world exist at all or why are there laws and where do those laws come from, it’s very difficult for science to make a contribution. Nevertheless, in the last ten or twenty years more and more scientists have been addressing those questions. The nature

of physical laws is a very good example… When I was a student, you were simply told the laws of physics are what they are, we don’t know why, maybe there isn’t any reason why—that’s just the way it is. It was not the job of the scientists to ask why those laws of physics exist. The job of the scientist was to discover what the laws are and then apply them. But that has changed. There is now a feeling that maybe the nature of physical laws is something that is a proper, legitimate subject for scientific inquiry. And so there’s a whole bunch of physicists who are looking at alternative laws. M&B: How do they theorize alternative laws?

Supposing we stipulate a different law of gravitation and see what the consequences would be. We can work out using mathematics what it would be like if gravity differed a little bit from the observed law. And then we can do the same with the other forces of nature and other features of the world. What would it be like if we lived in the universe with 23 space dimensions instead of three? We can work that out. Partly that’s a recreational exercise—it would be fun to know what it would be like in a universe with different dimensions or different forces—but also we would like to know is there anything special about the particular laws of this particular universe. M&B: What is the result of such experiments?

There is something special and that special thing is that the particular laws that we observe in this universe are very strangely conducive to the emergence of life. They’re highly suited to life, even suspiciously so. It’s almost as if these laws have been fine-tuned for life, and so at that point disagreement sets in and some scientists say, “Well, it’s just a lucky coincidence that that is the case,” and others say, “No, there must be some other explanation for it.” But it is certainly the case that the universe we observe and the laws that underpin it, which used to just be regarded as given, as not a proper subject for inquiry, are now being studied as one set among a vast variety of pos-

ible if this was the only planet with life. It’s just simply not true. The probability of forming even the simplest enzyme, the simplest protein in known life, if you did it just by shuffling the building blocks, the amino acids that make up for that, is infinitesimal. If you took the entire volume of the universe and filled it with an amino acid soup and just kept shuffling and shuffling and shuffling, you would simply not make it. If it’s happened once, we’re it. It would not happen anywhere else. So the probability of life forming in that way by chance is twice as infinitesimal. So if that’s the way life happened, the fact we live in a vast universe makes no different whatsoever.

sible sets, and it’s generally agreed that the particular laws that we observe are very special in their relation to the ability to bring forth life. M&B: And you call this a “cosmic jackpot.”

My book, Cosmic Jackpot: Why Our Universe Is Just Right for Life, examines a very specific problem, the problem of why the universe seems to be just right for life. When we look at the fundamental laws of physics and the way that the universe originated in the Big Bang, there are many features that appear to be coincidences or the happy arrangement of different aspects of physical laws without which there would be no life and no observers like ourselves. And the question is, What are we to make of that? Some people say, “Well, it looks like the whole thing is a fix, it looks like the universe is being created by an Intelligent Designer.” Well, obviously all the scientists aren’t going to believe that. So instead they come up with other explanations. M&B: there is the theory of multiverses.

According to that theory, there are many universes each of which has its own set of laws and these laws are just randomly distributed across these universes. So here and there, just by chance, the laws are going to come out just right for life. It’s no surprise that we find ourselves living in a universe where conditions are just right for life because we could hardly live in a universe which had laws of physics that did not permit life. It’s like a gigantic cosmic lottery with all of these different universes and we’ve just hit the cosmic jackpot because we’re winners of this vast lottery. So that is the popular view as to how we explain that the universe is just right for life. I think that view is progressive but I think it falls far short of providing a complete explanation of existence. I take life seriously and I take the mind seriously so I don’t think that these are just incidental phenomena in the great cosmic scheme of things. I think they’re fundamental to the workings of the universe as a whole and so what I’m trying to do here is to go beyond the rather startled debate between science and religion that’s existed for the last 30 years about the ultimate source of reality. M&B: It just seems to me, just based on intuition, that we’re not alone here. the universe is so vast, there’s just got to be life somewhere. Does mathematics and statistics support this intuition?

A lot of people make that mistake by saying, statistically, there has to be life elsewhere, the universe is so vast, so many stars out there. It would be incred-

M&B: People who are not scientists may think that scientists are the smartest of all of us so they must be figuring out everything, they’re the smartest ones who bring the technology. they look at scientists as natural guides. Do you see a danger here?

Scientists are human beings like everybody else, and I think it’s a mistake to see scientists as generally cold, hard, soulless people who don’t care about the consequences of their work. Scientists are very passionate people and they feel passionately not only about their work but about other aspects of human life. It is also a mistake to think that scientists have any special moral authority over questions of general relevance to human beings. The vast majority of problems that we confront in the world really are only related obliquely, if at all, to science. We struggle with things like the ruin of our environment or international disputes or family concerns or education concerns. These sort of day-to-day things loom very large in people’s lives, but I’m not sure that scientists make a contribution. Science is obviously relevant to some of these things, for example, if we could find a better source of energy that doesn’t heat the planet, that would be good. So science can play a role, but individual scientists, I don’t think are any better than anybody else as moral judges.

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To attain true humanity, each individual must be “sieved” or “distilled” many times to discover his or her true essence. Otherwise, the ability to develop one’s potential to its fullest, to be truly human, is not possible. ***

It’s me Peter, your lIver! see-thınk-belıeve Irfan Yilmaz Professor of biology in Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir.

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ear Peter, as one of your organs of vital importance, I have a couple of words to say to you. I do not make any noise like the heart or stomach. Neither do I produce electric waves like the brain. Therefore you don’t even realize my presence most times. However, I am a central laboratory controlling the chemical mechanisms of your body. All of your blood passes through me and I constantly supervise it. Do not misunderstand me; I am not speaking on my own behalf, since I have neither the knowledge nor the will to build this splendidly working mechanism. All the organs functioning in your body have a direct or indirect relationship with me. I can be compared to a kind of “chemical brain.” All metabolic activities are among my duties, including the control of excretions, digestion, and the composition of blood. You would be stupefied if I listed every single function I carry out, but let me tell you this much: biochemists have discovered that I am directly included in more

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If you eat desserts or pastries I convert excess sugar into glycogen (animal starch) and store it. If your blood sugar decreases from hunger, I break down glycogen into sugar (glucose) and come to your help so that you do not come to a halt, like a car out of fuel. than 80 different activities and related to more than 5,000 chemical reactions taking place in your body. Surprised? But this is only what they’ve learned so far; you do not know me in detail yet. My plain appearance is in contrast with my numerous functions. My size is about one-tenth of the body of a six-month-old fetus; now that you have become a young man, I weigh about one fiftieth of your body weight. Since I am the largest excretory organ in your body, I am firmly strapped with mesentery so you can run, jump, and make other movements without trouble. Most people see me merely as a bile-producing organ, which happens to be among the simplest of my duties. Let me explain it another way: the heat I produce while working is equal to one-third of the heat your body produces while resting. I have a special circulatory system. Since I am located at a “junction,” the blood coming from the intestines which bear nutrient molecules come to my vein first together with the blood from the spleen, before joining the rest of the bloodstream.

It can be compared to an obligatory customs check. The amount of blood I supervise within 24 hours is about 2,000 liters. With every heartbeat, almost 28 percent of the blood being pumped passes through me. I adjust the level of blood sugar in a very sensitive balance. If you eat desserts or pastries I convert excess sugar into glycogen (animal starch) and store it. If your blood sugar decreases from hunger, I break down glycogen into sugar (glucose) and come to your help so that you do not come to a halt, like a car out of fuel. I use various protein molecules to synthesize numerous enzymes. I also play a role in blood coagulation, red blood cell production, and storing the iron you need. You know, nothing is wasted in the divine system of nature. So how can I waste anything? When the aged red blood cells die, I help the spleen to break them down and store the iron they contain. My job in fat metabolism is no less important. Thanks to the bile I produce, the fatty food you eat is broken down to smaller molecules to be absorbed in a way similar to de-

tergents remove oily remnants from dishes. Naturally, the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are also absorbed along the process. I store the excess of both these vitamins and fats. Fats are an important fuel particularly for your heart muscles. I excrete an average of 600–700 grams of bile a day. Two minutes after oily foods pass to duodenum the walls of my July / August 2011

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If I am faced with more toxic substances than I can handle, then I give signals of danger. You wonder how. Well, I shout “help” through red spots in your hands and itchy spots on your skin.

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gallbladder are operated. Through contractions of 2–6 times a minute and a pressure of 25–30 mmHg, the bile is passed to duodenum in a time span of 15 to 90 minutes. What gives bile its yellowish-green color is the substance named bilirubin, which appears with the breaking down of the old red blood cells and disposed of through the bowels. The Kuppffer cells—as you name them—have the duty of checking out newly produced blood cells one by one in addition to producing antibodies against germs. If any illformed blood cells come up, I must detect and destroy them. Otherwise they corrupt your blood. Thanks to the Kuppffer cells, the ill-formed blood cells are destroyed as soon as they are detected. The average longevity of my cells varies between 150-180 days (220 days maximum). New cells are produced immediately to replace the dying ones and the system works smoothly. In each of these cells there are 1,000-3,000 mitochondria and millions of ribosome. An average of 180 new ribosome are produced every second. Although none of my cells have consciousness or intelligence, thousands of them come together to form little lobes resembling hexagons. The number of these lobes varies between 50,000 to 100,000. Dear Peter, you intake various toxic substances together with the foods you eat. You don’t even realize that food has been corrupted by bacteria and fungi until its taste changes. Frankly, you should not have lived very long with so much toxic intake; Providence has given me an important duty to protect you from such harm. I capture these toxic compounds released into your bloodstream and neutralize them. The same goes for different medicines you take; I try to neutralize their toxic effects as well. But I have my own limits of tolerance; if I am faced with more toxic substances than I can handle, then I give signals of danger. You wonder how. Well, I

shout “help” through red spots in your hands and itchy spots on your skin. You should be more careful about what goes down your throat. Given that I fulfill various important functions, the littlest failure in me reveals itself as a health problem immediately. Hepatitis is among the common diseases heralding my failure. Excessive increase of bilirubin in your blood causes the white of your eye and your skin to turn yellow. I fear viruses most. Particularly hepatitis B and C viruses destroy my tissue. And alcohol, as you know, is my sworn enemy. I have to exert myself to neutralize even a tiny amount of alcohol. And if the hepatitis virus is added, I become knocked down and contract cirrhosis. It does not happen suddenly, though. Along the process which you know as liver failure I give various signals: skin eruption, digestion problems, sleepiness, and headache after meals, and so on. Since these symptoms are not serious problems, most people ignore these signals I give. Due to my various functions, the lab tests about me are more than a hundred. Talking about my enemies may have upset you a bit, but it’s not all doom and gloom. After all, I am the organ with the highest capacity to renew itself. Sounds good, right? Otherwise I would have been finished off long ago, so this ability is a real blessing. Let me give you an example: although 90 percent of my cells are destroyed during hepatitis, I can help you survive with the remaining 10 percent if you rest well and control what you eat. If you ignore the disease, it might lead you and me to the grave. Do not ever believe those who take this lightly and say: “This doctor says that a small amount of alcohol is good for health.” Tell it to the marines. Those who say that should visit hospitals first. I’m sorry, Peter, but it really gets on my nerves. If they could only appreciate a work of art like me. Anyway, that’s all for now, please take good care of me.

POEM

Freelance writer and poet in Philadelphia

Justin Pahl

Summer Evening Breeze We endure the heat, and we wait. The sun steady in its track. Vicissitudes of light, shadows thinning, growing long. We endure and wait. Salvation in the hour before the hour before dusk. The seedlings come twirling down, skittering along the street. The shadows quiver like benevolent ghosts. The trees cackle their sussurant laugh. And we, impatient, sentient beings, wish time to be inert.

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Question: How can we make use of the abilities God has given us to the service of faith? Do we fulfill our responsibility by making financial assistance only?

USING ABILITIES ON THE PATH OF GOD

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very blessing of God is an opportunity given to human beings that calls for a responsibility in the same kind. Health, for instance, is a great blessing which should be used to fast, to pray, and to strive on God’s path so that one can express gratitude for this blessing. If a person gives such gratitude, God will return that body in the next world both without flaw and for eternity and with all its potential revealed. A person’s intelligence is also one of God’s important blessings and favors. If the horizon of one’s mind has been enlightened by the lights of revelation and due to that he is distanced from inappropriate decisions and if he can make every decision along the lines of the true path, this means that this intelligence is in one sense a source of inspiration. In other words, if he uses the blessing of his mind appropriately and introduces the Truth to those who have strayed, then that means he is giving the mind its due. On the contrary, if he only uses intelligence for worldly tasks and does not give its due, that means he is ungrateful for that blessing.

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Another one of the greatest blessings that God has given man is the power of expression. So much so that the Qur’anic chapter where this is explained is called al-Rahman (The Merciful). There are strong re-

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ports that al-Rahman is from the Exalted Names of God. One of the manifestations of God’s Mercy or His giving means of subsistence in a very broad circle and nourishing creation with His blessings is the blessing of man’s power of expression. Human beings can only express things manifested in them by means of the power of expression and due to it they can be addressed by God. They may understand God’s words and at the same time express their purpose to Him. God says, “Come, pray to Me and bow in My presence.” Then they can say “praise be to God” and with faithful and obedient devotion they can stand in God’s presence. In one sense this is understanding God and speaking with Him. One of the Successors (the generation after the Companions of the Prophet) said, “If a person who reads the Qur’an says that he spoke with God, it would not be a lie.” In this respect, one who says “praise be to God” can be considered to have spoken with God, and such speech can only be realized with the blessing of the power of speech. Prayers believers recite every day is actually a conversation with God: You are the Most Beneficent and the Most Compassionate: You gave me first consciousness and then the ability and capability to express this consciousness. This is a manifestation of Your Mercy. You are the Master of the Day of Judgment: I am preparing for that day within the framework of Your commands. I serve only You and I seek help only from You: I do so in order not to be smashed under the weight of servanthood. Most people probably never even think of these prayers as such, but if they can they can be considered to have risen to a very honorable degree and station.

If a person went and spoke with a head of state, he would talk about it everywhere; he would find an opportunity in every environment to mention that talk. If a person sees talking with a head of state this important and mentions it everywhere, then he should think deeply about what it means to have the privilege of addressing God in His presence. In a sacred hadith related with the agreement of Bukhari and Muslim it is stated as follows: “I share the recitation with my servant in prayer; half belongs to Me and half to him and what My servant wants will be given to him. When the servant says, ‘Praise be to God, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the worlds,’ Ex Exalted and Glorious God says, ‘My servant praised Me!’ When he says, ‘Most Glorious, Most Merciful,’ God says, ‘My servant glorified Me.’ “When he says, ‘Master of the Day of Judgment,’ God says, ‘My servant exalted Me.’ When he says, ‘You do we worship and Your aid we seek,’ God commends him: ‘This is a pledge between Me and My servant. I gave him what he wanted.’ When the servant says, ‘Show us the straight way, the way of those on whom You have bestowed Your grace, Those whose portion is not wrath, and who go not astray,’ God says, ‘This belongs to My servant and he has been given what he wants.’”

Regardless of where he is, a believer should always be at the forefront of those living in his own time. He will do this and always be avantgarde; while doing this, he should put his life in order and not neglect God’s rights.

By saying these, the chapter Fatiha is divided between the servant and God. It is explained that while some is said by the servant, God answers His servant. In a sense this is nothing other than talking with God. Consequently, the power of expression is a great blessing from God and July / August 2011

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it must be given its due. Its greatest right is to explain God who honored human beings with the power of expression. Yes, we must explain our Lord who gave us the capability of expression everywhere we go just like a town-crier. If you give a crier a little money, he will promote his wares from morning till evening in the market place. Salesmen do the same thing; they go to houses, fawn on people and try and sell their goods. In the end what they will sell is one or two pots and pans. In the same way, Heaven will be given to us for doing very easy tasks. We are in a position to be made worthy of seeing God’s Beauty by giving its due to the power of expression bestowed upon us by God. If one day no one remains on earth to hear us, then we have the responsibility to climb the stairs to the skies and live the excitement of explaining Him to the jinn and demons. As a friend of truth said, if one is imprisoned and there is no one around, then he should try and teach the demons about God and fulfill his responsibility. The topic is the matter of a person returning the favor given by God by making use of the ability bestowed. Yes, only by means of this kind of reciprocation can gratitude for that blessing be fully shown. God will continue bestowing that blessing here and in the next world. Otherwise, if a person only gives the right of property given by God and does not give the right or due of his mind, the power of expression and health, then he will have been ungrateful. If a person cannot speak, he has a pen. If that person does not give the due of the pen, and if a person who has strong mental abilities does not give their due, then he will have made injustice and will have shown ingratitude before God. Whatever God has given a person should be used on the path of God to teach about Him. I can say this as a sign: If a person does not give gratitude for his other blessings, but only gives finan62

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cial aid when his financial situation is favorable, then at least he has performed a large part of his responsibility. If he gives help beyond the alms tax, financial aid is a serious sacrifice, voluntary act and altruism and within this framework the virtue of giving for God’s sake is great. In fact, our Prophet said, “Generosity is like a tree. Its roots are in Heaven and its branches have hung down to this world. Whoever lives under that tree and behaves generously, sooner or later he will hold on to one of the branches and rise to Heaven where the tree’s roots are.” It can be understood from this that a generous person, even if he is a sinner—God willing—will eventually enter Heaven. In other words, he does not deny God, but he sins. If he is generous, it is said that he will enter Heaven. Saying, “A stingy person is closer to Hell,” our Master used an expression of warning for a stingy man. In this respect, we can say that since generosity is one of God’s attributes, He will not put a person with that attribute into Hell. Attributes are very important. People must give what is due to the attributes God blessed them with. In this way, work to be done should be arranged according to God’s blessings. Worldly tasks should not be forgotten and neglected. Regardless of where he is, a believer should always be at the forefront of those living in his own time. He will do this and always be avant-garde; while doing this, he should put his life in order and not neglect God’s rights. In short, a believer should use all the abilities God has bestowed upon him; he should use them so that he has given these abilities and blessings their due.

REFLECTIONS

REFLECTIONS

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REFLECTIONS REFLECTIONS

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REFLECTIONS

The Truth may sometimes relate to the imagination and at other times to what is apparent; but what we behold and comprehend beyond this noble name is the reconciliation between the mind and the eyes, the subjective and the objective, and between knowledge and the known. The Truth is a title of the agreement between these phenomena, and it ultimately alludes to the “self-existent One.” ***

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We have to deal with tests and exams in both academic and professional life since early ages. Despite the fact that we are often motivated to perform our best, the pressure-filled situations do generally cause us to perform below our abilities. The University of Chicago researchers were interested in finding an intervention that would improve the performance under such conditions, especially for the students who do not do well in exams because they are blocked by anxiety. Their study shows that simply writing about our thoughts and concerns immediately before a high-stress event can serve to increase our performance when it matters most between 5-12%. A simple brain focusing exercise of writing about our feelings, for ten minutes before an exam, could reduce anxiety and increase the exam scores significantly. The researchers concluded that writing allows individuals to reexamine the situation and revaluate the concerns, which reduces the anxiety and increasing ability to focus. This type of writing may help people perform their best not only in tests but also in variety of high-stress situations--whether it is a big presentation to a client, a speech to an audience, or even a job interview.

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Lıfe Wıthout Starlıght

Original Article: Hooper, D. & Steffen, J.H. (arXiv:1103.5086v1).

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Wrıtıng of Our Worrıes

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Liquid water is considered as the common solvent to catalyze carbon based life on planets. This assumption defines a rather tight region around stars which is called the “habitable zone”. The energy absorbed from the host star through its light allows planets in the habitable zones to melt water into liquid. Water would either evaporate or remain as ice if the planet is too close or distant to the star. A recent study suggests that starlight may not be the only energy source that can convert ice into liquid water and maintain it in that state. Dark matter annihilation may produce enough heat in special circumstances for planets that may not be sufficiently heated by their host star. Ordinary matter constitutes only about 20% of the matter in the universe while dark matter makes up about 80% of all matter. It is believed that dark matter weakly interacts with atomic nuclei. Therefore, one of the leading models for dark matter is called “weakly interacting massive particles” (WIMPS). In cases where dark matter interacts with nuclei, WIMPs can transfer momentum to the nucleus. Then they can get gravitationally captured and subsequently decay as energetic particles. This process can produce heat as a consequence. For Earth, the concentration of dark matter in its center is not sufficient to produce observable contributions to Earth’s total heat budget. However for planets around stars that are closer to the centers of their galaxy, where the concentration of dark matter is significantly higher, just enough heat may be produced by gravitationally captured and annihilated dark matter. As revealed by the abundance of planets detected by NASA’s satellite mission-Kepler perhaps life in the universe might be much more abundant than we thought.

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How Much Dıgıtal Informatıon can Mankınd Store?

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Alzheimer’s disease affect many people especially in later stages of life, and with longer lifespans of humans, it becomes much more prevalent everyday. The primary cause of Alzheimer’s disease is unknown but the scientists generally associate the disease with the appearance of plaques and tangles in brain cells, often caused by a protein called amyloid-β. Hence, a natural strategy would be to attack these proteins to form these plaques. Yet, the biggest obstacle is our brain with the blood-brain barrier, which was set up to prevent viruses and other unwanted visitors to enter our most delicate organ. Scientists have tried to overcome this barrier with many different drugs or strategies,

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Trıckıng the Braın to Attack Alzheımer’s Dısease

Original Articles: Atwal, J. K. et al., Science Translational Medicine 3, 84ra43 (2011) & Yu, Y. J. et al., Science Translational Medicine 3, 84ra44 (2011).

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but there is no clear winner yet. Two recent studies reported in Science Translational Medicine journal give us a new hope in our fight against Alzheimer’s disease. Scientists devised a clever strategy to trick the gatekeepers of bloodbrain barrier into escorting antibodies against the Alzheimer’s associated proteins. This method reduced the levels of amyloid-β by up to 50% inside mouse brain cells. Designed antiboides had two arms: one arm to target the enzyme, BACE1, that produces the amyloid-β, and the other arm to bind to the transferrin receptor, which in turn deceived the endothelial cells that from blood-brain barrier to internalize the antibody. There are many other brain disorders that we have limited arsenal against because of the blood-brain barrier. Hence this new method can be used for these diseases and opens up a new venue of targeting strategies. July / August 2011

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Specialized in Sufism, interfaith dialogue, and comparative mysticism, Dr. Syafaatun Almirzanah is a professor of Islam and Middle Eastern Politics and Diplomacy at The University of Indonesia, Jakarta. She is the Founding Director of the La Convivencia Center for Human Rights and Religious Values. Almirzanah is also the Research Coordinator for the Institute for Interfaith Dialogue in Indonesia (INTERFIDEI). She is currently a visiting professor and al-Waleed bin Talal Malaysian Center for Christian-Muslim Understanding chair at Georgetown University.

If the eye of the heart thoroughly opens, in every object they see and embed into their hearts, they start seeing the traces, signs, messages, and lights of different frequencies of divine manifestations