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EASTERN – PHILOSOPHY-ETHICS

INTRODUCTION TO EASTERN PHILOSOPHY: An Exploration of Eastern Philosophical Ideas from Laozi to Han Feizi1 ARCHIMEDES CARAG ARTICULO, M.Phil. Chair, Department of Social Sciences & Philosophy College of Arts & Sciences Cagayan State University [email protected] Section 1. Introduction No one knows why philosophy started when it did. However, we have at least a good idea when and how it started: Philosophy was born when man began to wonder. The history of Philosophy is the story of man’s struggle to answer his questions, to satisfy his curiosity. Philosophy, then, is with us long before the time of our acknowledged first philosophers. Philosophy, as most teacher of Philosophy correctly claim, often involves a keen interest in major questions about ourselves, our experience, and our place in the scheme of things in the cosmos. It should be added, however, that Philosophy is also reflectively concerned with the methods its practitioners employ in the effort to resolve such questions. It is not all about wondering but a knowing and reflective activity, critical and systematic. When doing Philosophy is manifested in this way, the History of Philosophy formally began. 1

Based on Chapter 2 of Articulo, Archimedes C. The Experience of Philosophy. Manila: REX Publishing, Inc. 2008.

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And this is what this paper/ lecture is all about. It contains interesting information about famous Philosophers, of both biographical and philosophical nature, in roughly chronoligical order, covering the Eastern tradition. Section 2. Eastern Philosophy as a Divisions and Tradition of Philosophy The History of Philosophy is usually divided into Western and Eastern Philosophy. "Western philosophy" refers solely to the philosophic traditions of European/American civilizations while "Eastern philosophy" broadly subsumes the philosophic traditions of all Asia. Both terms group together diverse, even incompatible schools of thought. These two broad divisions are further sub-divided into Ancient, Medieval, Modern and Contemporary periods. Again, under these broad divisions are other sub-divisions representing the dominant themes, under a particular period, in the long history of philosophical thought in both worlds:

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ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY TIMELINE (650-200 BCE) WESTERN PHILOSOPHY

EASTERN PHILOSOPHY

650 B.C.E. Thales 624-546; Ionian Philosopher Anaximander 611-547 Ionian Philosopher Laozi 610-575 Chinese Philosopher, founder of Daoism 600 B.C.E.

Anaximenes 599-524; Ionian Philosopher Pythagoras 570-? Ionian Philosopher Gautama Buddha 560-480 Indian Philosopher, founder of Buddhism

550 B.C.E. Confucius 551-479 Chinese Philosopher, founder of Confucianism Heraclitus of Ephesus 540-460 Ionian Philosopher Parmenides 540-? Eleatic Philosopher 500 B.C.E. Anaxagoras 500-428; Pluralist Philosopher Empedocles 490-430 Pluralist Philosopher Protagoras 481-411; Sophist Philosopher SOCRATES 470-399

Mozi 470 – 390, Chinese Philosopher, founder of Mohism

Democritus 460-370; Atomist Philosopher 450 B.C.E.

Sunzi 450-380, Chinese philosopher, military strategist PLATO 428-347

400 – 200 B.C.E.

ARISTOTLE 384-322 Mencius 371-288; Chinese and Confucian Philosopher Zhuangzi 369-286 Chinese Philosopher, Daoist Pyrrho of Elis 365-275; Founder of Skepticism Antiochus 350-? Eclectic Philosopher Epicurus 342-270; Founder of Epicureanism Zeno of Citium 336-264; Stoic Philosopher Hanfeizi 280-233 Chinese Philosopher, founder, Legalism

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Looking closely at the timeline, we could make few interesting observations. And the most important of which is that the famous Greek philosopher Thales was a contemporary of the historically obscure, but equally interesting figure, Chinese philosopher Laozi (both are thought to have been menacing other people about their peculiar ideas around 600-500 B.C.E.). This means that when Philosophy began to flourish in ancient Greece (around 600-650 B.C.E.), philosophers in the Eastern world have also started philosophizing about the nature of things, the meaning of their existence, and their place in the cosmos.

With this in mind, we now begin our exploration of the Ancient Eastern Philosophical tradition.

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SECTION 3. MAJOR EASTERN PHILOSOPHY AND PHILOSOPHERS FROM THE ANCIENT PERIOD Section 3.1. Laozi: The Harmony of Opposites When the Milesian philosophers (e.g. Thales, Anaximander, etc.) were busily arguing about the reality of the universe discoverable through understanding its ultimate stuff (the water versus the four elements), the Eastern sage Laozi (610-575 B.C.E.), who once worked as a keeper of the archives at the Chinese imperial court (and became dissatisfied because of corruption), made a debut in China (he started doing Philosophy at the age of 80!). Laozi’s interest lies in the study and teaching of the ultimate reality of the universe, but discoverable by appreciating the essential nature of the Dao (which literally means the “Way”), as exemplified in Nature (and so, the philosophical movement Daoism). Note that Laozi, like the Milesians, observe nature, but unlike these early Greeks, he observes nature not to find the ultimate stuff of things, but to discover the way humans should fit in their lives on how nature truly operates. What he discovered is the fact that nature is full of opposites (life and death, health and sickness, male and female, wealth and poverty, hot and cold, etc.) but at the same time, nature operates harmoniously with these oppositions. Laozi believed that the harmony of opposites, or Tai Chai, is achieved through a blend of the yin (feminine force) and the yang (masculine force) and this harmony can be cultivated through creative quietude, an effortless action whose power maintains equanimity and balance (he calls it Wu Wei). Consistent to this is the foundation of his teaching (which were recorded in his book, Daodejing), "the violent die a violent death". Violence opposes the way of living, and whatever opposes life will soon perish.

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The East, as represented by Laozi, thus, first began with an interest of the practical and of the ethical. Section 3.2. Gautama: Self-Centeredness Makes Humanity Sick While Daoist philosophy was making waves of following in China, and while Pythagoras was teaching his philosophy in Greece, a man named Siddhartha Gautama (560-480 B.C.E.) was preaching another interesting system of thoughts, and was also attracting huge followers, in India. Gautama taught for many years and many conservative Hindus regarded most of his teachings as heretical. For instance, he questioned the authority of the Brahmins or the priestly caste or class. According to Buddha, each person can and must strive for enlightenment through his own efforts. Buddha had also no interest in miracles and rituals. He taught that there was no quick road to salvation or nirvana. Neither god nor ritual can bestow salvation. Each person through self-discipline, practice, and meditation must work for his own salvation. Though he was extremely "philosophical" in his own way, Buddha had no patience with philosophical systems or metaphysics. What one does, not what one believes, is important. When asked about eternity of the world and life after death, Buddha replied that explaining such things would not solve the problem of human suffering here and now. Buddha's first sermon at Benares contained the essence of his message. He taught there the "Four Noble Truths": (1)

Life is suffering (dukkha).

(2)

The cause of suffering is self-centered craving (tanha).

(3)

In order to bring an end to suffering, one must bring an end to selfcentered craving.

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(4)

The way to cease craving is to follow the eightfold way or path.

The fourth in the list includes right views, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. There are no simple explanations of the Eightfold Way, but some brief comments might be of help:

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(1)

Right views: Though Buddha had little interest in complicated theologies or doctrines, some beliefs are necessary. Quite simply, right belief is acceptance of the Four Noble Truths.

(2)

Right

intention:

One

must

dedicate

himself

wholeheartedly

to

overcoming the dislocation of self-centered craving; one must want this emancipation more than anything else. One must not let his heart wander from this path. (3)

Right speech: One must stand guard over his speech, avoid lies and deceptions, cultivate honesty and truthfulness. One must refrain from unkind speech.

(4)

Right action: One must examine his behavior, determine whether each action is selfish or self-less. One must practice other-centered rather than self-centered actions. Moreover, one must obey such precepts as: Do not kill. Do not steal. Do not lie. Do not be unchaste. Do not drink intoxicants (ibid.)

(5)

Right livelihood: One must not engage in any occupation that opposes or distracts one from the path. For example, since all life is sacred, one may not become a butcher, etc.

(6)

Right effort: One must pursue the path with the right exertion. On the one hand, one must strive diligently in order to practice the cultivation of virtues and the curbing of vices. On the other hand, one must not be "over-zealous" and run the risk of burning oneself out and abandoning the way altogether.

(7)

Right mindfulness: One must elevate his thoughts, to see things as they really are beyond the haze of moods and emotions. One must clear up his mind, clean "the dust off of the mirror." One must rid his mind of selfcentered thoughts, thoughts that separate, and replace them with thoughts that bind together, that see all beings together. One must make his concentration objective rather than subjective. One must think in terms of others as well as oneself. And, 8 | Page

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(8)

Right concentration: By so concentrating, all other thoughts and objects are extinguished. Then, one must extinguish consciousness of even this one object. In this way, one extinguishes the last flame of grasping consciousness. This is readiness for nirvana..

Finally, for reasons we previously noted, Buddha did not want to be prayed to or worshipped, thus it’s a great wonder why the shaven monks pray to Gautama for salvation. Nevertheless, Sidharta Gautama was the recognized founder of the world’s third largest religion, Buddhism.

Section 3.3. Confucius: Living the Golden Rule Sometime after the Buddha has captured the interest of India, Confucius (551479 B.C.E.) made his appearance in Chinese Philosophy. Throughout his life, Confucius was best known as a teacher (he started doing Philosophy at age 30). In fact he was considered as one among the first professional teachers in the ancient world (not for any special reasons, but for having the record of the first in Asia to require a professional fee for teaching his students). Three doctrines of Confucius are particularly important.

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The first is benevolence (ren, or jen). Confucius considered benevolence as something people cultivate within themselves before it can affect their relations with others. The best way to approach benevolence is in terms of enlightened self-interest, that is, putting the self in the position of the other and then treating the other accordingly. Two sayings of Confucius best express this idea: "Do not do to others what you would not like yourself"; and "Do unto others what you wish to do unto yourself." (You noted it rightly; Confucius predated Christ’s teaching of the Golden rule for several couple of centuries). Benevolence means the practice of these two sayings.

The second doctrine concerns the superior man (junzi, or chun-tzu). The superior man is one who practices benevolence regardless of family background. Ritual propriety is the third doctrine. Confucius emphasized right behavior in one's relations; man should act in accordance with propriety. Thus one should behave ritualistically with the other. Such behavior is called li; it refers to social and aesthetic norms that guide people in their social relations. Why did Confucius stress the importance of traditions, customs, and social rituals? Because he believed that they best provide the social cement that holds the society in tact. Without these practices, Confucius believe, human societies would dissolve. Central to the aforesaid doctrines is the doctrine of Confucius concerning Human nature. He believed that Humans, by nature, are evil: they are egoistic, arrogant, pleasure-seeker, and glory-seeker. Only through proper education that these nature could be corrected (and hence, his concept of benevolence could be developed, and the “superior man” could be molded). The progress of man (in terms of his freedom from his nature) is the ideals of Confucian theory of “Higher Education”.

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Section 3.4. Mozi: Love in the way that would do for all Around the peiod when Socrates was attracting many sons of influential families in Athens, China gave the world another brilliant philosopher (this new comer shares the same birthyear with Socrates). His name was Mozi (470 – 390 B.C.E.). He introduced another way of doing philosophy, which scholars today called Mohism. It was a school of thought that became a bitter opponent of Confucianism and Daoism. Mo-zi preached his doctrine of “bo-ai”, which could be translated in English as “universal Love”, which calls for the impartial or equal care for all people. This implies that we should not give special amount of care or duty towards our parents and family, but should treat them the way we treat everybody else. When applied in governance, his doctrine requires rulers to honor all their subjects equally, without special treatment to their relatives, to the rich, and the good-looking. Mozi believed that when such a universal love is followed, the strong will not oppress the weak, the eminent will not lord it over the humble, and the cunning will not deceive the stupid. In exhorting people to be virtuous for the good that it would do for all, He said: "Let him who has strength be alert to heIp others; let him who has wealth endeavor to share it with others: let him who possesses the Way teach others persuasively. With this, the hungry will be fed, the cold will be clothed, the disturbed will have peace.... This is procuring abundant life." (De Barry, 1997) Unlike Confucius who preached the value of traditions and customs as a standard for the execution of moral instruction, Mozi advocated judging ideas and objects through the constant standards of nature and utility. He argued that moral standards should be measurement-like (e.g. “When X do Y” or “When someone needs your help, help.”), because it lends itself to reliable application. Traditions are unstable because they are variable, that is, they differ in different places and times. For instance, if we don't like its traditions, we can flee from a family, a society, even a kingdom.

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Another related problem is that tradition is not always morally acceptable, according to Mozi. For instance, we cannot accept the tradition of a tribe that kills and eats their first born sons (Ibid.). Compare these with the standards of nature, which we cannot similarly escape, or we cannot similarly refuse to accept. And how does standard of nature operates? Mozi points out that it is natural for us to "weigh" benefits against harms. Thus for Mozi, utility, or the preference for benefit, is a natural and reliable standard for choosing and interpreting traditional practices (this Mohist idea of utility predates the core idea of John Stuart Mill’s utilitarianism).

Mo-zi has also argued strongly against aggression and war. He claimed that by not provoking war against other states, a country would be left in peace. Once, a country is in peace, prosperity follows. Mo-zi believed that war and warfare are mass murder, they are more of a crime than a single murder. During war the affairs of government are neglected, the farms lie fallow, and many of the best men are lost. Mo-zi concludes, "Such is the injury which warfare inflicts upon men, the harm it brings to the world. And yet the rulers and officials delight in carrying out such expeditions. In effect they are taking delight in the injury and extermination of the people of the world. Are they not perverse?"

Section 3.5. Sunzi: Peace in War

During this period, an immensely influential book on military philosophy, The Art of War, was published in China. The author was Sunzi, or Sun Tzu (450-380 B.C.E), the thinker, who is widely considered by Political scholars as the earliest realist in international relations theory. According to this military-philosopher, knowledge of how to wage war is of vital importance to the State, “it is a matter of life and death, a road either 12 | P a g e

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to safety or to ruin.” Hence it is a subject of inquiry which should not be neglected. So, how should war be conducted according to Sunzi? First, by understanding the nature of war. And for Sunzi, all warfare is based on deception:

“…when able to attack, we must seem unable; when using our forces, we must seem inactive; when we are near, we must make the enemy believe we are far away; when far away, we must make him believe we are near. Hold out baits to entice the enemy. Feign disorder, and crush him…” (Art of War, trans. Thomas Cleary, 1991)

This makes the leader of armies, “the arbiter of the people's fate, the man on whom it depends whether the nation shall be in peace or in peril.” Sunzi rejects appeals to the supernatural that were becoming popular among rival groups of philosophers during his time (such as the Daoists and Confucians). For instance, Sunzi claimed that war is governed by five constant factors, one of which is “Heaven”. For other thinkers, “Heaven” may imply the supernatural or the divine will – but for Sunzi, it simply signifies night and day, cold and heat, times and seasons (Ibid.). His mode of argumentation also moves in the direction of what we recognize today as "scientific thinking." He avoids unnecessary assumptions, he emphasizes the importance of observation and proceeds with systematic explanation of his ideas.

3.6. Mencius: The Goodness of Human Nature

Aristotle’s Lyceum had already attracted brilliant minds in and out of Athens when a disciple of Confucian philosophy became widely known in China. He was Mencius (371-288 B.C.E.), a philosopher who has been recognized as one of China's greatest philosophers, second only to Confucius himself. However, unlike Confucius, Mencius 13 | P a g e

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strongly believed that Human Nature is good, not evil. In his book, Mencius (Yes, the book was named after his name), Mencius said: “When left to follow its natural feelings human nature will do good. This is why I say it is good…The sense of mercy is found in all men; the sense of shame is found in all men; the sense of respect is found in all men; the sense of right and wrong is found in all men. The sense of mercy constitutes humanity; the sense of shame constitutes righteousness; the sense of respect constitutes decorum (li); the sense of right and wrong constitutes wisdom. Humanity, righteousness, decorum, and wisdom are not something instilled into us from without; they are inherent in our nature. Only we give them no thought. Therefore it is said: 'Seek and you will find them, neglect and you will lose them.” (De Barry, 1997)

One might wonder, how come man, in the real world, demonstrates more evil in his dealings then good? Mencius answers: “If it, referring to human nature, becomes evil, it is not the fault of man's original capability” (Ibid.). The problem is not in man, but in his society. A corrupt society corrupts man; an evil society always produces evil citizens (remember Plato?). But what makes a society corrupt? The answer, for Mencius, is a corrupt and evil government. The government must therefore strive to be good and help its citizens to realize their potential as good persons. But how if the government, by reducing its subjects in misery, turns them into evil? For Mencius, the people, who are by nature good, need not tolerate a corrupt government. He believed that the people are the most important in the state, and thus, if rulers reduce them to poverty and selfishness, the people always have the right to depose them. He offers an ideal government which he calls “humane government” – a government that places men of virtue and ability in positions of responsibility and works to benefit the people. Mencius believed that a country with such a government would be at peace and free of troubles.

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Another original contribution of Mencius was his unique idea of education. Unlike Confucius, he did not perceive education as something that should aim at “correcting” the evil nature of man, but to the “strengthening” of the goodness one could find in the nature of man. “Some have these virtues (Humanity, righteousness, decorum, and wisdom) to a much greater degree than others—twice, five times, and incalculably more—and that is because those others have not developed to the fullest extent their original capability.” (ibid.)

The development of these virtues to their original capability in man is the true goal of education. And this leads us to his concept of equality. Mencius believed that since virtue is inherent in everyone's nature, therefore everyone is equal to everyone else, “The sense of mercy is found in all men; the sense of shame is found in all men; the sense of respect is found in all men; the sense of right and wrong is found in all men.” The natural goodness found in all men makes them all equal. Recall that leading philosophers in Greece, during this period, believed that everyone is not equal to everyone else (Plato, and even Aristotle, adhered to the idea of slavery). Thus, if you are the type of person who values equality, always remember that the first voice, which proclaimed that all men are born equal, came from the East.

3.7. Zhuangzi: Seeking the Great Unity of the World During the period when many Chinese leaders were mesmerized by Mencius’ brilliance, an equally brilliant, but a rival thinker was emerging in the philosophic scene. Mencius offered equality among all men, his rival offered freedom.

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His name was Zhuangzi (369-286 B.C.E.) or Chuang-tzu. He was considered, together with Laozi, the founder of Daoism. Little is known of his life, except that he was born at Meng in present-day Henan, China. As previously stated, freedom is the keynote of Zhuangzi's teaching, which stemmed from his unique concept of nature. He believed that since Dao is the way of nature, which is in constant flux and transformation (remember Heraclitus?), to be one with nature is to free oneself from all human bondage and to transcend the phenomenal world. He believed that it is foolishness to oppose change. One becomes free when we accept change as part of how things are and drift harmoniously with its tides. This fellow does what he preaches: when the ruler of Qu offered him premiership, he declined preferring his personal freedom. He has also espoused a peculiar idea of how to do philosophy, that is, by not indulging in too much philosophizing. He thought that knowledge – the object of Philosophy – is dangerous. He writes,

“There is a limit to our life, but there is no limit to knowledge. To pursue what is unlimited with what is limited is a perilous thing. When, knowing this, we still seek to increase our knowledge, we are simply placing ourselves in peril” (de Bary, 1997).

He also held the view that we cannot decide the truth of our statements with absolute certainty. This is how he puts his assertion concerning the relativity of truth to individuals who holds it: “Suppose that you argue with me. If you beat me, instead of my beating you, are you necessarily right, and am I necessarily wrong? Or, if I beat you and not you me, am I necessarily right, and are you necessarily wrong? Must one of us necessarily be right and the other wrong? Or may we not both be right or both be wrong? You and I cannot come to a mutual and common understanding, and others, of course, are all in the dark. Whom shall I ask to decide this dispute? I may ask someone who 16 | P a g e

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agrees with you; but since he agrees with you, how can he decide it? I may ask someone who agrees with me; but since he agrees with me, how can he decide it? I may ask someone who differs with both you and me; but since he differs with both you and me, how can he decide it? I may ask someone who agrees with both you and me; but since he agrees with both you and me, how can he decide it? Thus, you and I and the others all would be unable to come to a mutual and common understanding; shall we wait for still another? (Ibid.)

Like Laozi of Daodejing he also disavowed honor and wealth. Like Parmenides and the other Eleatics, Zhuangzi also spoke in paradoxical terms and espoused the concept of a great unity of things through the Tao: “The possible is possible; the impossible is impossible. The Tao operates and things follow. Things are what they are called…everything is what it is, and can be what it can be. There is nothing that is not something, and there is nothing that cannot be something. Therefore, for instance, a stalk and a pillar, the ugly and the beautiful, the common and the peculiar, the deceitful and the strange—by the Tao this great variety are all brought into a single unity. Division to one is construction to another; construction to one is destruction to another. Whether in construction or in destruction, all things are in the end brought into unity…” (Ibid.)

And like The Buddha, and Western thinkers, like Plato, he believed that we all live in the realm of mere appearances, illusions, or what he calls a dream: “Those who dream of a merry drinking party may the next morning wail and weep. Those who dream of wailing and weeping may in the morning go off gaily to hunt. While they dream they do not know that they are dreaming. In their dream, they may even try to interpret their dream. Only when they have awakened do they begin to know that they have dreamed. By and by comes the great awakening, and then we shall know that it has all been a great dream. Yet all the while the fools think that they are awake; this they are sure of. With minute nicety, they discriminate between princes and grooms” (Ibid.). And playfully, he puts this dream – reality in another version: 17 | P a g e

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“Once upon a time, Chuang Chou dreamed that he was a butterfly, a butterfly fluttering about, enjoying itself. It did not know that it was Chuang Chou. Suddenly he awoke with a start and he was Chuang Chou again. But he did not know whether he was Chuang Chou who had dreamed that he was a butterfly, or whether he was a butterfly dreaming that he was Chuang Chou” (Ibid.).

It is important to note that Zhuangzi’s brand of philosophy is directed primarily against the philosophical tradition started by Confucius (which during his time was the dominant philosophical thought in China).

Section 3.8. HAN FEIZI: RULE WITH AN IRON FIST

The period was third-century B.C.E. China was experiencing domestic problems as local feudal nobles grew stronger than the king and as powerful warlords constantly fought among themselves for wealth and territory. It was during this period when another school of thought in Chinese Philosophy was born. It was called Legalism. Its founder was Han Feizi (280-233 B.C.E.). Like Confucius, Han Feizi believed that the nature of man is evil, and goodness must be acquired. But unlike Confucius, Han Feizi insisted on the need for a government to demonstrate concrete results rather than to merely follow customs and tradition. What should be promoted are fear and obedience rather than benevolence and ritual piety. The goal of governance, according to Han Feizi, is order, peace and harmony. And the only way to achieve order, he argued, was through strict laws and harsh punishments, the suppression of civil rights and democratic institutions, rewarding the obedient and severely punishing the disobedient, equality of all (including the ministers) before the law, and for the sovereign to subjugate his public officials under the rule of able men who follows the law. He preached that only a powerful government 18 | P a g e

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could maintain social order, a weak government is doomed to be destroyed. He thus urged government leaders to use harsh rule as a means of ending social disorder and restoring peace and harmony. Han Feizi also argued for extreme censorship to control dangerous ideas or ideas that are critical of the government. Anyone who espouses dangerous ideas should be swiftly terminated, and anything that records these dangerous ideas must be publicly destroyed (when Han Feizi’s philosophy was officially adopted by the Quin dynasty, this particular principle of extreme censorship led to the burning of books associated with Daoism and Confucianism). Equality before the law is central to the philosophy of Han Feizi, as he himself proclaimed: “The law does not fawn on the noble; the string does not yield to the crooked. Whatever the law applies to, the wise cannot reject nor can the brave defy. Punishment for fault never skips ministers, reward for good never misses commoners. Therefore, to correct the faults of the high, to rebuke the vices of the low, to suppress disorders, to decide against mistakes, to subdue the arrogant, to straighten the crooked, and to unify the folkways of the masses, nothing could match the law. … Hence to govern the state by law is to praise the right and blame the wrong.” (Liao, 1998)

When Han Feizi’s philosophy was officially adopted by the rulers of the Quin dynaty, they did what the past dynasties failed to do: to tame the unruly local feudal nobles and powerful warlords, unite their greatly dismembered nation, and built the Great Wall of China. However, with the “crushing” success of Legalism came the demise of doing philosophy in China.

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Legalism has effectively contributed to the retardation of the vigor of philosophical speculation, which has once characterized the Chinese philosophic thought.

Section 4. THE PASSING OF THE ANCIENT

Both Eastern and Western Philosophy, of course, have continued to march on with time, as men persisted to wonder and search for answers.

But as time has

changed, so was the condition for doing philosophy. The emerging social and political conditions of the time did little to encourage philosophical speculations. Men became precoccupied with the necessities of his material existence, and found comforts in the once forgotten (and now rediscovered) dogmatism. Thinkers have begun to measure their philosophical speculations against the requirements of Religious doctrines. Although many nameless individuals worked to preserve the philosophic traditions of what had gone before, there were very few genuine philosophical activities that could be considered as “high” points for a few centuries to come until the Rennaisance (1304 C.E.). The primary pre-occupations of the educated were theological controversies and narrow-minded defenses of traditional doctrine and practice. This period in the long and windling history of Philosophy is what we call Medieval Philosophy. Which, due to the limitation imposed by both space and time for this present work, is reserved for future discussions. However, it is hoped that the foregoing is more than sufficient to demonstrate that both Western and Eastern worlds, not only the former, should be considered as the 20 | P a g e

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birthplace of Philosophy. Abstract thought about the ultimate nature of the world and of human life began to appear in cultures in both worlds, as an urge to move beyond superstition toward explanation. This is the reason why the common conception that Philosophy is an “exclusive product of the Western mind”, and the history of Philosophy is solely the “history of Western Philosophy”, are both wrong.

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