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Describing the Organization: Rational & Political Model
Low Conflict (Rational Model) Consistent across participants Centralized
Orderly, logical, rational
Organization Variables Goals
Power and Control
Decision Process
High Conflict (Political Model) Inconsistent, pluralistic within the organization Decentralized, shifting coalitions and interest groups Disorderly, result of bargaining and interplay among interests
Norm of efficiency
Rules and Norms
Free play of market forces, conflict is legitimate and expected
Extensive, systematic, accurate
Information
Ambiguous, information used and withheld strategically
Factors Influencing Inter-group Interactions
Organizational Setting → INTERACTION ← Group Characteristics ↑ Bases for interaction Organizational Setting: -
Rules and procedures History, traditions and culture Goal and reward systems Decision making process
Group Characteristics: -
Individual personalities, characteristics and value systems Group action tendencies and dispositions Group composition, cohesiveness, size, norms, and roles
Bases for interaction: -
Location Resources Time and goal interdependence Task uncertainty Task interdependence Overlapping or unclear job boundaries Interdepartment/intergroup competition Conflict in Groups and Organizations
Conflict: -
Conflict is a disagreement between parties. It has both positive and negative characteristics. It is a process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party. In organizations, conflict is often generated by political behavior or battles over limited resources. A total absence of conflict can lead to apathy while a moderate degree of conflict can stimulate new ideas.
Types of conflicts: -
Functional conflict: serves the organization’s interests
-
Dysfunctional conflict: threatens the organization’s interests
The Nature of Conflict: Competition-Conflict Relationship
Consequences of Inter-group competition Consequences of competition: -
Identification of ‘enemies’ ‘We’ and ‘the others’ Strong selective perception and single-loop learning Impaired sharing of information and transfer of knowledge across groups
Winner/Loser reactions: Winners:
- Increased group solidarity - More focus on social aspects (having a nice time) - Increased interest in the individual member: situation and problems - No focus on experiences/ single-loop learning
Losers:
- ’It is not our fault’; question the result - Who to blame? - The group seems to break up - Some groups try to work their way out of the problems - Douple-loop learning
Reactions to Conflict Avoidance: – Occurs when the interacting parties’ goals are incompatible and the interaction between groups is relatively unimportant to the attainment of the goals. – Use avoidance when the issue is trivial. Accommodation: – Occurs when the parties’ goals are compatible but the interaction between groups is relatively unimportant to the goals’ attainment. – Use accommodation when you find you are wrong. Competition: – Occurs when the goals are incompatible and the interactions between groups are important to meeting the goals. – Use competition when the quick, decisive action is vital. Collaboration: – Occurs when the interaction between groups is very important to goal attainment and the goals are compatible. – Use collaboration to find an integrative solution. Compromise: – Occurs when the interactions are moderately important to meeting goals and the goals are neither completely compatible nor completely incompatible. – Use compromise when goals are important. Reactions to Conflict [Graph]
Managing Conflict Conflict Resolution: – Occurs when a manager resolves a conflict that has become harmful or serious. Conflict Stimulation: – The creation and constructive use of conflict by a manager. Its purpose is to bring about situations where differences of opinion are exposed for examination by all. Superordinate Goal: – Is an organizational goal that is more important to the organization than the goals of conflicting parties.
Conflict Management Alternatives Use Resolution under these conditions: - Conflict has become disruptive - Too much time and effort are spent on conflict rather than on productive efforts - Conflict focuses on internal goals of the group rather than on organizational goals Use Stimulation under these conditions: - Work groups are stagnant and comfortable with the status quo - Consensus among groups is too easily reached - Groups are not creative or motivated to challenge traditional ideas - Change within the organization is needed for it to remain competitive
Reducing negative consequences of inter-group competition -
Finding common ’external enemies’, i.e. competitor on the market Re-establish the contact between the competing groups and encourage negotiations about common concerns Launch new joint goals that call for cooperation between the groups, e.g. develop a new product/service Initiate various kinds of organization-developing activities and training, e.g. confrontation meetings, rotation systems, inter-group sessions
Methods that can prevent/reduce inter-group conflict Inter-group competition and conflict will often be directly related to a company’s organizational structure: -
Establish an evaluating system that offers rewards in proportion to the results of the entire organization Use problem-solving and decision-making procedures that increase the contact and communication between the various groups Introduce rotation systems and similar organizational activities Reduce the basis for ’loser/winner’ situations, i.e. avoid competition for common scarce resources/career opportunities
As Argote (1999) states, Giving groups distinct names, providing opportunities for members to interact, publicizing the performance of different groups, providing rewards based on the performance of different groups, and other techniques designed to increase group identity are also likely to increase intergroup competition.
Managing Group and Inter-group Dynamics in Organizations Managing groups requires: -
Knowing what types of groups exist in the organization. Possibly “formalizing” some informal groups. Breaking up groups to realign the organization and goals. Nurturing groups through the developmental stages. Encouraging the development of group norms and roles. Developing a reward structure that fosters individual efforts to achieve group goals. Assuming a linking role to coordinate the activities of groups.
Low Conflict (Rational Model) Consistent across participants Centralized
Orderly, logical, rational
Organization Variables Goals
Power and Control
Decision Process
High Conflict (Political Model) Inconsistent, pluralistic within the organization Decentralized, shifting coalitions and interest groups Disorderly, result of bargaining and interplay among interests
Norm of efficiency
Rules and Norms
Free play of market forces, conflict is legitimate and expected
Extensive, systematic, accurate
Information
Ambiguous, information used and withheld strategically
Factors Influencing Inter-group Interactions
Organizational Setting → INTERACTION ← Group Characteristics ↑ Bases for interaction Organizational Setting: -
Rules and procedures History, traditions and culture Goal and reward systems Decision making process
Group Characteristics: -
Individual personalities, characteristics and value systems Group action tendencies and dispositions Group composition, cohesiveness, size, norms, and roles
Bases for interaction: -
Location Resources Time and goal interdependence Task uncertainty Task interdependence Overlapping or unclear job boundaries Interdepartment/intergroup competition Conflict in Groups and Organizations
Conflict: -
Conflict is a disagreement between parties. It has both positive and negative characteristics. It is a process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party. In organizations, conflict is often generated by political behavior or battles over limited resources. A total absence of conflict can lead to apathy while a moderate degree of conflict can stimulate new ideas.
Types of conflicts: -
Functional conflict: serves the organization’s interests
-
Dysfunctional conflict: threatens the organization’s interests
The Nature of Conflict: Competition-Conflict Relationship
Consequences of Inter-group competition Consequences of competition: -
Identification of ‘enemies’ ‘We’ and ‘the others’ Strong selective perception and single-loop learning Impaired sharing of information and transfer of knowledge across groups
Winner/Loser reactions: Winners:
- Increased group solidarity - More focus on social aspects (having a nice time) - Increased interest in the individual member: situation and problems - No focus on experiences/ single-loop learning
Losers:
- ’It is not our fault’; question the result - Who to blame? - The group seems to break up - Some groups try to work their way out of the problems - Douple-loop learning
Reactions to Conflict Avoidance: – Occurs when the interacting parties’ goals are incompatible and the interaction between groups is relatively unimportant to the attainment of the goals. – Use avoidance when the issue is trivial. Accommodation: – Occurs when the parties’ goals are compatible but the interaction between groups is relatively unimportant to the goals’ attainment. – Use accommodation when you find you are wrong. Competition: – Occurs when the goals are incompatible and the interactions between groups are important to meeting the goals. – Use competition when the quick, decisive action is vital. Collaboration: – Occurs when the interaction between groups is very important to goal attainment and the goals are compatible. – Use collaboration to find an integrative solution. Compromise: – Occurs when the interactions are moderately important to meeting goals and the goals are neither completely compatible nor completely incompatible. – Use compromise when goals are important. Reactions to Conflict [Graph]
Managing Conflict Conflict Resolution: – Occurs when a manager resolves a conflict that has become harmful or serious. Conflict Stimulation: – The creation and constructive use of conflict by a manager. Its purpose is to bring about situations where differences of opinion are exposed for examination by all. Superordinate Goal: – Is an organizational goal that is more important to the organization than the goals of conflicting parties.
Conflict Management Alternatives Use Resolution under these conditions: - Conflict has become disruptive - Too much time and effort are spent on conflict rather than on productive efforts - Conflict focuses on internal goals of the group rather than on organizational goals Use Stimulation under these conditions: - Work groups are stagnant and comfortable with the status quo - Consensus among groups is too easily reached - Groups are not creative or motivated to challenge traditional ideas - Change within the organization is needed for it to remain competitive
Reducing negative consequences of inter-group competition -
Finding common ’external enemies’, i.e. competitor on the market Re-establish the contact between the competing groups and encourage negotiations about common concerns Launch new joint goals that call for cooperation between the groups, e.g. develop a new product/service Initiate various kinds of organization-developing activities and training, e.g. confrontation meetings, rotation systems, inter-group sessions
Methods that can prevent/reduce inter-group conflict Inter-group competition and conflict will often be directly related to a company’s organizational structure: -
Establish an evaluating system that offers rewards in proportion to the results of the entire organization Use problem-solving and decision-making procedures that increase the contact and communication between the various groups Introduce rotation systems and similar organizational activities Reduce the basis for ’loser/winner’ situations, i.e. avoid competition for common scarce resources/career opportunities
As Argote (1999) states, Giving groups distinct names, providing opportunities for members to interact, publicizing the performance of different groups, providing rewards based on the performance of different groups, and other techniques designed to increase group identity are also likely to increase intergroup competition.
Managing Group and Inter-group Dynamics in Organizations Managing groups requires: -
Knowing what types of groups exist in the organization. Possibly “formalizing” some informal groups. Breaking up groups to realign the organization and goals. Nurturing groups through the developmental stages. Encouraging the development of group norms and roles. Developing a reward structure that fosters individual efforts to achieve group goals. Assuming a linking role to coordinate the activities of groups.
